RAINWATER

HARVESTING
GUIDEBOOK
PtAI{I{II{G AI{D DESIGI{

PREFACE
Rainwater technology presents a new business field for manufacturers, suppliers, designers,
planners and other users. The Government of Malaysia has instilled this program as one of
focal activity and policy for the nation to achieve better quality of life and at the same time
brings the nation forward towards sustainable development. In supporting this national
vision, and to provide reference for the various practitioners in this field, the Department of
Irrigation and Drainage (DID) has taken this vital step to publish this guidebook. It is hope
that this guidebook will help our noble intention of achieving three percent of national water
supply by stormwater utilization and reuse technique for all major towns by 2020.
This guidebook highlights the principles and technologies that can be used to harness the
huge untapped potential of rainwater for professionals. The content herewith is of an
inestimable value to the architects, civil engineers, developers and other users to explore this
new field in Malaysia.
DID hopes the various case studies, design examples and posters provided with this
guidebook shall be of invaluable guideline for practitioners and serves as a standard reference
for rainwater harvesting system in Malaysia.
DID would like to express our appreciation for the support provided by Perunding Azman,
Ooi and Rao Sdn Bhd, Hashim Design, others Government Agencies and NGOs in
materializing this guidebook.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Introduction.................................................
General Principles.
Environmental Advantages....
Qualitative Advantages..

1
1
1
2

CHAPTER 2 Rainwater Harvesting System..

Water and Environmental Management
Quantity Control Consideration
Quality Control Consideration...

3
3
3
5

CHAPTER 3 Rainwater Harvesting System for Landscape.

General Principles.
Rainwater Harvesting System Components...
Simple Rainwater Harvesting System.
Complex Rainwater Harvesting System.
Roof Garden.
Typical Rooftop Garden
Roof Garden Soil Profile
System Maintenance..

6
6
6
8
9
13
15
16
16

CHAPTER 4 Rainwater Harvesting System for Building

General Principles.
Rooftop Catchment Collection System..
Conveyance System...
Storage Tanks

17
17
19
20
20

CHAPTER 5 Plumbing for Rainwater Harvesting System..

Plumbing Guideline...
Plumbing Water Closet Cisterns

26
26
27

CHAPTER 6 Pump and Filter for Rainwater Harvesting System

General Principles.
Reciprocating Pumps.
Centrifugal Pumps.
Vertical Submersible Pumps..
Fully Submersible Pumps...
Jet Pumps..
Rainwater Pump
Rainwater Filters...

28
28
28
29
29
29
30
30
33

CHAPTER 7 Design Example for Rainwater Harvesting System ..

Case Study.
Rainwater Tank.
Pipe Sizing for Rainwater Installation
Effective Length of Pipe....
Pipe Sizing Example..

35
35
35
37
39
41

REFERENCE
APPENDIX
Design Criteria Minimum Standard
Ibu Pejabat JPS Kuala Lumpur

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Background
The system should be designed and developed
with innovative approaches for effective and
affordability. The complexity of the rainwater
harvesting system is closely related to the
function and needs of the owner.

Urban Stormwater Management Manual of

Malaysia, 2000 (MSMA - Chapter 23) has
mentioned the provision for rainwater
harvesting system integration with on site
detention tank.

Rainwater harvesting system provides a

source of soft, high quality water and the
system can range in size from a simple water
tank to a complicated designed and built
system.

This Guidebook covers the design of

rainwater harvesting system for non
potable water supply for Malaysian
applications.
General Principles

The rainwater harvesting system is inherently

simple in design and easy to maintain. This
system should be planned and design to be
assembled with readily available materials by
the owner or builder with a basic
understanding of plumbing and construction
skills.

Rainwater Harvesting is the technique of

capturing the rainfall with particular emphasis
on residential and commercial applications.
The planning and development of rainwater
harvesting system should be executed by
following the principles and guidelines
recommended by the authority and
professionals. This is to ensure that the
system complies with the safety, water quality
and construction standard.

Environmental Advantages
The interest on rainwater harvesting system
has gained considerable attention in many
countries throughout the world. This is
attributed to the escalating environmental and
economic costs of providing centralized water
systems.

The rainwater harvesting system is a

supplementary source of water supply for
household, commercial, landscape, livestock,
and agriculture.
The product of the rainwater harvesting
system may be used either as a drinking water
or for non-drinking purposes. However, the
used of rainwater harvesting system for source
of drinking water and other direct human
purposes require a long-term commitment in
term of operation and maintenance. This is to
ensure that the system is continuously
operating in safe condition.

In developed countries, the majority of the

populations receive water via main network
and disposal of wastewater via pipe sewerage
system. These systems require tremendous
amount of investment by both public and
private sectors. They have been linked to
increase water demand, resources not located
in areas of high demand and increase surface
water runoff volumes and discharge rates due
to urbanization.

The non-drinking purpose of rainwater

harvesting system may include landscape
irrigation and for toilet flushing.

The sustainable strategy which is based on the

decentralised technologies such as the use of

green roofs and stormwater facilities such as

on site detentions may result in partial
retention and reduction in peak flow
discharge of the drainage system; yet at a
macro scale conserves energy.

industry or localized industrial emissions may

affect rainwater purity.
Rainwater falling in rural and nonindustrialised area can be superior to that in
area dominated by heavy industrial and
agricultural activities.

The system which collects rainwater from

roofs can be used for non-portable
applications
potentially
reducing
the
utilization of portable water. The application
of rainwater utilization for flushing and
garden watering will include the benefits of
conservation of water resources, relief of
demand on public water supplies and
potential attenuation of peak runoff into the
stormwater drainage system.

It is essential that the rainwater harvesting

system is planned, designed and constructed
conforming to this guideline to ensure the
discharged of the polluted first flush is taken
care of.
Rainwater is soft water compared to typical
municipal tap water and not utilizing it as a
supplementary water supply is a total waste of
natural resources.

Rainwater harvesting may reduce the land

erosion and flooding caused by runoff from
impervious cover such as pavement and roofs.
This can be attributed to the some proportion
of rainfall being captured and stored.
The normal behavior of stormwater runoff
which picks up contaminants and degrades
the waterways and receiving waterbody is
bypassed by capturing the rainfall at source
for productive uses. This is an effective
measure to reduce the degradation of water
quality in waterway and receiving waterbody.
Qualitative Advantages
The rainwater captured at source is
considered as one of the purest water sources
available. Rainwater quality always exceeds the
surface water and comparable to that of
ground water.
The harvested rainwater does not come in
contact with soil and rocks where it can
dissolve salts and mineral which is harmful for
portable and non-portable uses and at the
same time not exposed to various pollutants
that often transported with surface water into
the river.
The rainwater quality can be influenced by
geographic location and economic activity in
the area. The city dominated by heavy
2

CHAPTER 2
Rainwater Harvesting System
Water and Environmental Management
The country is subjected to continuous
growth of population, expansion in
urbanization, industrialization and irrigated
agriculture. This phenomenon is imposing
growing demand and pressure on water
resources while contributing to water
pollution.

supply. Water demand management that

seeks to maximize the usage of water also
conserves water and thus limits the needs for
new water supply schemes.
An approach of rainwater harvesting
collected from the roof of a building
provides the practical and effective utilization
of rainwater. This is appropriate as more than
30% of domestic water use does not require
treated water quality.

A new development of water resources such

as new water supply scheme results in rising
costs and significant impact to the
environment. The potential problems include
deforestation, rise in sea level, decreasing
crop yields, water conflicts, increase
severity/frequency of tropical storms and
declining fish population.

Quantity Control Consideration

The rainwater harvesting system should be
integrated with on-site detention facilities to
serve a minor storm event. On-site detention
storage-cum-rainwater harvesting system may
be provided as above-ground storages,
below-ground storages, or a combination of
both.

An integrated approach is essential to pursue

a more effective water management. A
multifunctional approach that can be adapted
widening the scope of water quantity and
quality controls in urban drainage system and
integrating it with the rainwater harvesting
system for non-consumptive uses.

The main advantages of above-ground

storages are, they can generally easily
incorporated into the site by slight
modification to the design and are relatively
inexpensive compared to below ground
storages.

The increase demand for clean water supply

is on the rise in parallel with the economic
growth of the country. The practicable limit
of surface water resources development has
already been reached in region of high
demand.

Landscape areas such as lawns and garden

beds, impervious area such as car parks,
driveways, paved storage yards, and other
paved surfaces offer a wide range of
possibilities for providing surface storage for
on-site detention-cum-rainwater harvesting
storage and can enhance the aesthetic of a
site.

Current
approaches
towards
water
management in cities are supply driven,
where a new resource will be developed to
manage a water shortage. As there will be an
ever increasing demand, there is a possibility
that the major cities will face a water crisis
situation. Hence, water demand management
that focuses on conservation measures
utilizing demand driven approaches will make
better use of our limited potential water

The below-ground storages can be concealed

and occupy less physical space as illustrated
in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 Typical On-Site Detention

Storages

Figure 2.3 Typical Multi-Purpose

Surface Tank

Stormwater can be detained on flat roof

provided that adequate protection against
leakage is provided in the structural design of
the building. This type of storage has limited
application in residential areas and is more
suited to commercial and industrial buildings
where flat roof are more common as shown
in Figure 2.2.

Surface tanks are normally provided on

residential, commercial or industrial lots for
rainwater harvesting system. These tanks
collect rainwater from the rooftop of the
building and store it for intended domestic
use. Surface tanks may be integrated as onsite detention and rainwater harvesting as
illustrated in Figure 2.3.
Typical below-ground storage tanks are either
circular or rectangular in plan and/or cross
section (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.2 Typical Rainwater Harvesting for

Multi-Storey Building.

Typical Below-Ground
Storage Tank

A pipe package is a below-ground rainwater

storage consisting of one or more parallel
rows of buried pipes connected by a
common inlet and outlet chamber (Figure
2.5). The size of a pipe-package is determined
by the storage volume requirements and the
physical availability of space on the site. The
pipe package shall be installed using
minimum 900mm diameter pipe size to
facilitate inspection and maintenance. Pipes
should be laid at a minimum longitudinal
grade of 2% to avoid standing pockets of
water which can occur due to lack of
precision during construction.

Quality Control Consideration

The planning and design of rainwater
harvesting system not only provide the water
for various intended uses but it can also
provide the stormwater quality control aspect
in urban stormwater management i.e. first
flush system, thus capable of providing a
clean, safe and reliable water source.
First flush system remove and wash
accumulated contaminants such as bacteria,
molds, protozoa and heavy metals e.g. lead
and arsenic.
For portable usage, filtration and disinfection
systems are required. For non portable usage,
the first flush system is sufficient.

Figure 2.5 Typical layout of Pipe

Package Storage.
Designers have the option to combine either
above or underground system as illustrated in
Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Typical of Above

and Below-Ground Storage

CHAPTER 3
Rainwater Harvesting System for Landscape and Green Areas

General Principle

Rainwater Harvesting System Components

The rainwater harvesting is an effective water

conservation tool which reduces the usage of
treated water for landscape irrigation. The benefit
of in-situ rainwater harvesting includes
minimizing the amount of money spent on water;
reducing off-site flooding and erosion by holding
rainwater on the site.

A rainwater harvesting system essentially has three

components: the supply (rainfall), the demand
(landscape water requirement) and the system that
moves the water to the plants. Storage is
additional element which is optional that offers
the facility to use the collected rainwater at other
times.

Rainwater is a clean and salt-free source of water

for plants and can reduce salt accumulation in the
soil which can be harmful to root growth. Some
of the collected rainwater percolates into the soil,
forcing away salt from the root zone. This allows
for greater root growth and water uptake, which
increases the drought tolerance of plants.

Rainwater runoff which flow over a catchment

area such as roof can be harvested and used
immediately to water plants or can be stored for
later use. The amount of runoff depends primarily
on the characteristic of rainfall namely the
intensity and the duration. The intensity of rainfall
varies spatially and generally higher altitude
normally records more rainfall depth compared to
lower ground. Thunderstorm with convective
cells generates high intensity rainfall which occur
in shorter duration compared to longer duration
event and relatively low intensity associated with
frontal rainfall activity.

Typical rainwater harvesting systems have three

components: a collection area, a conveyance
system, and a storage area. Rainwater harvesting is
the collection, diversion and storage of rainwater
for plant irrigation and other uses. It is
appropriate for large scale landscapes such as
parks, school, commercial sites, parking lots, and
apartment complexes and also small scale
residential landscape. System design ranges from
simple to complex.
A simple system may comprise in-situ rainwater
harvesting constructed from topographically low
depression area to collect rainfall which can be
utilized particularly for agricultural and domestic
purposes.
Topographic depression is suitable for collection
and storage areas of rainwater. The ideal storage
area consists of impermeable, underlain by clay
soils that posses low infiltration capacity. A
complex rainwater harvesting system for
landscape that utilize storage may include roof of
a building, conveyance systems, storage, and
distribution system, to control the flow of water.

The impervious catchment area such as the roof

generates runoff immediately for harvesting. The
occurrence of surface runoff on pervious
catchment area will be delayed and this is affected
by several factors such as land cover, type of soil
and antecedent moisture condition. In principle
the runoff forms when the soil is saturated or the
rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
of the soil.
Antecedent moisture represents the wetness of
the soil; surface runoff occurs much faster on wet
soil where the antecedence moisture condition is
higher.
The planning for a healthy landscape should be
based on various factors such as plant water
requirement, plant selection and native plant
species. The type of plant selected, their age and

size, and plants spacing affect the water

requirement to maintain a healthy landscape. A
region where water is scarce or it is desirable to
minimize the water used for landscape
requirement, it is best to select plants with low
water requirements and control planting to reduce
overall water need. Native plants should be
included in the landscape planning as much as
possible, as they are well adapted to seasonal and
local condition and making them good choices for
landscape planting.

Figure 3.2 Parking Lot Curb Cut out Directing

Water into Planted Area.

It is preferable to combine the landscape system

to integrate with bio-retention, rain garden or any
suitable types of stormwater facilities.

The distribution system connects the catchment

area to the landscape holding area. Distribution
directs water flow which ranges from simple to
sophisticated system. The rainwater from the roof
flows into the gutters and downspouts direct roof
water to a holding area, and gently sloped
sidewalk distributes water to a planted area. The
gravity flow from a hillside provides a perfect
condition for moving water from a catchment
area to a holding area.

The requirement for water collection and

distribution system depends on the rainwater
harvesting system which ranges from simple to
complex. A simple system may utilize a
depression concave ground as landscape holding
areas (Figure 3.1) which collects the rainwater
from surrounding catchment area. A catchment
area is any area from which water can be
harvested. The best catchments have hard,
smooth surfaces, such as concrete or metal
roofing material. The amount of water harvested
depends on the size, surface texture, and slope of
the catchment area.

Conveyance such as channels, ditches, pipes and

swales all can be part of a distribution system.
Elaborate open channel distribution systems may
require gates and diverters to control and direct
water from one area to another. Standard pipe or
perforated pipes, and drip irrigation systems can
be designed to distribute water.
Curb cutouts can channel street or parking lot
water to planted areas (Figure 3.2). In certain
condition where gravity flow is not possible, a
small pump may be required to move the water.
Landscape holding areas are designed to store
water in the soil for direct use by plants. Concave
depression planted with grass or plants serve as
landscape holding areas, containing the water,
increasing water penetration, and reducing
flooding. Depressed area can be excavated, and
extra soil can be used as berms.

Figure 3.1 Series of Water Harvesting Basins on a

Slope

The provision of berm or soil terracing on flat soil

can also hold water. One holding area or a series
of holding areas can be designed to fill and
overflow into adjacent holding areas via spillway
and overflow channel.

simple system usually consists of a catchment area

and conveyance as a mean of distribution, which
operates by gravity. The rainwater is deposited in
a landscape holding area, a concave area or
planted area with edges to retain water where it
can be used immediately by the plants.

Soil erosion can be a problem with fast flowing

water over the soil surface. Excessive erosion can
be mitigated using spillway and basins, for
instance the crescent-shaped berms constructed
around the base of the plant on the
down-hill side (Figure 3.3) are useful on slopes for
slowing and holding water. Gabions are widely
used to contain water and reduce erosion (Figure
3.4).

The simple system is designed by utilizing the

natural characteristic of the landscape area. It is
essential to locate the existing drainage pattern
and to identify the low points and high points by
observing the landscape during the rainfall event.
Existing drainage pattern and gravity flow can be
utilized to move water from catchment area to
planted areas.
A simple system may capture rainwater collected
on the roofs, paved areas or the soil surface. An
example of a simple roof collection system is
water dripping from the edge of the roof to a
planted area or diversion channel directly below
(Figure 3.5). Gravity moves the water to where it
can be used. In some cases, small containers are
used to hold water for later usage.
The rainwater harvested from the roof may
include the extended downpipes (Figure 3.6 &
3.7) to reach planted area or the provision of a
path, drainage, or hose to the water where it is
needed. It is essential to utilize the existing slope
paving to catch water and redistribute it to
planted areas. For a new construction, the
placement and slope of a new paving can be
designed to increase runoff. The slope of the
sidewalks, terraces, or driveways shall be two
percent (2%) towards planting areas and utilize
the runoff for irrigation.

Figure 3.3 Crescent-Shaped (Berm) Landscaped

holding Areas on a Slope

Figure 3.4 Typical Gabion Across Stream Bed

Simple Rainwater Harvesting System
The simple water harvesting system is designed to
meet the existing site and the intended use of the
collected rainwater. In a simple system the
collected rainwater is used immediately in-situ. A

Figure 3.5 Simple Systems Roof Catchment,

Channel and Planted Landscape Holding Area
8

Figure 3.6 Simple Systems Roof Catchment,

Gutters, Downpipes and Landscape Holding Area

Figure 3.8 Tree Drip Line and Basin Edge

Complex Rainwater Harvesting System
The rainwater harvesting system is unable to
provide a completely dependable source of
irrigation water as it is dependent on the weather.
Therefore, to get the maximum benefit from
rainwater harvesting, some storage can be built
into the water harvesting system to provide water
between rainfall events.
Heavy rainfall events can produce more water
than is needed by a landscape during that rainfall.
Once the root zone of the plant has been
thoroughly wetted, the rainwater begins to move
below the root zone. In this condition the plant is
well irrigated. The surface runoff forms as the soil
is saturated. The saturation point and the onset of
surface runoff is dependent on the texture and
condition of the soil, for instance, sandy soil has
more infiltration capacity than clayey soil and thus
the formation of surface runoff on clayey soil is
much faster.

Figure 3.7 Simple Systems Roof Catchment,

Gutters, Downpipes and Soakaway Pit
It is recommended to locate and identify the
existing landscape depressions that can hold water
while additional new depression can be created at
the location of new plants. The creation of new
holding depression area around the existing plants
shall be carried out by constructing berm avoiding
digging that will possibly damage the roots of the
plants.

The amount of rainwater harvested and the water

needed for landscape irrigation should be in
balance. Storage capacity plays a big role in the
harvesting system by making rainwater available in
the dry season when the plants need it. Rainfall
harvesting systems that utilize storage result in
large water savings, but require higher
construction costs. These are more complex
systems which are more appropriate for larger
facilities and are required to be professionally
constructed and maintained.

Holding areas around existing plants should

extend beyond the drip line (Figure 3.8) to
accommodate and encourage extensive root
systems. A well developed root system produces a
drought resistant plant as the roots have a larger
area to search for water. Several holding areas for
either newly developed or existing landscape can
be connected via spillways and channels to
distribute water throughout the site.

Components of complex systems that utilize

storage include catchment areas, conveyance
systems, storage, and distribution systems, to
control the flow and distribution of water (Figure
3.9, 3.10 & 3.11). The amount of water or yield
that the catchment area will generate depends on
the size of the catchment area and its surface
texture. Concrete, asphalt, or brick paving and
smooth surface roofing materials provide high
yields. Bare soil surfaces provide harvest of
medium yield, with compacted clayey soils
yielding the most. Planted areas, such as grass or
groundcover areas, offer the lowest yields as the
plants hold the water longer allowing it to
infiltrate into the soil.

Conveyance systems direct the water from the

catchment area to the storage tank. Rainwater
harvested from the roof catchment system, the
gutter and downpipes are the means of
conveyance. Gutters and downpipes are either
concealed inside the walls of buildings or attached
to the exterior of buildings. Proper sizing of
gutters is important to collect as much rainfall as
possible.
The rainwater collected from the catchment area
is filtered before directed to the storage tank. The
rainwater should be filtered to remove particles
and debris before it can be stored. The degree of
filtration is dependent on the size of the
distribution pipes, for example drip systems may
require more and finer filter than water
distributed from a hose. Filter can be in-line or a
leaf screen can be placed over the gutter at the
top of the downpipes. The common practice is to
divert the first flush of the collected rainwater in
order to eliminate debris and particles from the
harvested water.
Storage allows full utilization of harvested
rainwater by making water available later when it
is needed. Storage can be underground or
aboveground and material can be made of high
density polyethylene, fiberglass reinforced plastic,
reinforced concrete or metal. Underground tanks
are more expensive as it involves excavation.

Figure 3.9: Complex Rainfall Harvesting System

for Landscape Irrigation

The use of underground tank involves pumping

out the water for distribution and this adds
another extra cost to the system. Figure 3.12
shows an example of underground modular
storage tank made from polypropylenes modular
cell and wrapped in impermeable geotextile. The
water flows into the tank via directly connected
inlet pipe and the water is pumped out for
distribution.

Figure 3.10 Complex Rainwater Harvesting

System for Landscape

10

Figure 3.11 Complex Rainwater Harvesting System

11

Figure 3.12: Typical Underground Modular

Storage Tank with Distribution System
An example of underground modular storage tank
which operates in-situ is shown in Figure 3.13 and
Figure 3.14. The tank is constructed using
modular cell wrapped in permeable geotextile to
allow the water to enter and leave the tank. This
type of tank is relatively cheaper because it is not
necessary to use filter and pump. The rainwater
enters into the tank and it infiltrates through the
sand layer installed between the soffit of the tank
and the top soil.

Figure 3.14 Typical Installation of Modular Tanks

Near Roots System

However, the tank has limited capacity in storing

the water for usage at a later time when the need
arises.
This tank is normally designed to function as an
on-site detention where the storage should be
emptied in a specified duration normally in the
order of 24 hours.
Figure 3.15: Typical Underground Rock Fill
Storage Tank
The underground rock fill tank (Figure 3.15) can
also be used for rainwater harvesting system as an
alternative to modular tank. The tank is
constructed by excavating the desired size and
filled it with the rock enclosed/wrapped with
impermeable geotextile. The actual storage of the
tank is determined by the void of the rock fill
tank.
Figure 3.13 Typical Underground Modular
Storage Tank for In-Situ
12

The above ground tanks which can be used for

rainwater harvesting system include plastic drum,
steel drum, barrels, tanks, cisterns, fiberglass
tanks, or reinforced concrete storage tanks. The
aboveground storage can be designed into the
landscape by placing it in an unobtrusive place or
hiding it with a structure, screen or plants. In all
cases, storage should be located close to the area
of use and placed at an elevated level to take
advantage of the gravity flow.
The use of several smaller cisterns (Figure 3.18) is
more useful and flexible because they are easier to
handle and camouflage. In the case that, the
landscape area is extensive, several tanks can be
connected to increase storage capacity. An
alternative holding area consists of concave
depression area can be used to retain excess
rainwater during all storage tank is full.

Figure 3.16 : Typical Rainwater Harvesting System

using Modular Tank

Figure 3.17: Typical Integrated Stormwater

Management System

Figure 3.18: Typical Roof Catchment with

Multiple Storage Tanks Connected with
Landscape Holding area

The integrated stormwater management system is

designed as a multi use component of a
sustainable water cyclic management system
(Figure 3.16 & 3.17). Rainwater is collected,
purified, stored and reused. Water can be directed
into the tank by infiltration through the soil or
filtered from a various sources, from roofs,
landscape areas or streets. Clean water is collected
and made available for reuse within the storage
area in the tank modules. This type of system is
applicable for irrigation of commercial and
domestic landscaping, domestic reuse for toilet
flushing and washing machine use.

The distribution system directs the water from the

storage containers to landscape areas. The
distribution device can be a hose, constructed
channels, pipes, perforated pipes, or manual drip
system. Gates and diverters can be used to control
flow rate and flow direction. A manual valve or
motorized ball valve located near the bottom of
the storage tank can assist irrigation. An on-line
electrical pump can be used to provide sufficient
pressure such as to distribute the water through
an automatic drip irrigation system.
13

Roof Garden
Roof Gardens are essential elements in water
management and it is one of the best hydrological
solutions to city floods, and reduces global
warming. Roof gardens solve all the above
problems by their capacity to absorb and retain
water, thus acting as a natural filter and water
storage area. Consequently, they act as thermal
regulators and air purifiers.

The roof garden plants relevant to the function

and local environment must be selected. The
green spaces when integrated in combination with
certain building elements: flower tubs, ponds,
ornamental vases, tile patterns, benches will have
a high decorative value. Such gardens require
more intensive maintenance, particularly when
lawns are included. Many varieties of plants can
be used for roof gardens.

In major cities, roofs may cover up to 80% of the

surface of the city and are an important factor in
stormwater and air management. As soon as
rainwater (which is the purest form of water on
the planet), touches an impermeable roof it
becomes contaminated by organic matters,
bacteria and heavy metals.

The most important issue is placing the right

plant in the right place, taking into account the
specific circumstances of the climate and the fact
that these plants only have a limited ground
layers. Trees must be "anchored" in a specific way
and pruning must be regularly carried out to
ensure the tree growth shall not exceed 6m.

The roof catchment in a city is so immense that it

creates contaminated water accumulation right
through the city, creating floods and might
become a health issue.
A roof garden is a form of vegetation growing on
substrata with an impermeable underneath
platform layer (Figure 3.19, 3.20, 3.21 & 3.22).
The roof garden can be designed at all levels
either as an intensive or extensive green area. It
can be the roof of any buildings, car park or any
other structures. These roof gardens can fulfill a
major recreational function for residents.

Figure 3.20 Typical Section of the

Roof Garden
Some roof gardens will only be intended as
decoration, not for walking. Planting of these
gardens can be more extensive. They must
harmonize with the surroundings and be easy to
maintain. For example, colorful flowerbeds would
be out of place and demand intensive
maintenance.
Figure 3.19 : Typical Section through a Garden
above Car Park
14

Specialists making plant selections should take

into consideration wind tunnels created by narrow
passages between buildings, air contamination,
building reflections of sunlight, heat trap at the
base of buildings and excessive shade in high
density building areas. A very low moisture level
will cause certain problems.
During continuous dry periods, the plants can be
damaged from lack of water and high
temperatures, however, automatic irrigation
systems combined with suitable soil can maintain
moisture content in the garden.
Figure 3.22: Typical Roof Garden for
Pitch Roof

The draining system must be designed for a

maximum rainfall depth of 40mm. The roof
garden must be able to infiltrate water quickly;
hence the horizontal water draining capacity is
extremely important.

Typical Rooftop Garden Installation Detail

Furthermore, in certain dry periods the draining

cell layer can be used as a water reservoir for the
plants, provided we use water stored in the soil
above the cell, while the cell has only air, aerating
underneath the soil layer. The use of drainage cell
allows aeration of the root zone, avoiding
stagnation and soil acidity (Figure 3.23, 3.24 &
3.25).

Figure 3.21: Typical Lightweight Roof Garden

System

Figure 3.23: Typical Rooftop Garden

Installation Detail

15

System Maintenance
The development of landscape rainwater
harvesting system is an on-going process that can
be improved and expanded over time. The
effectiveness of landscape rainwater harvesting
system should be observed during rainfall events.
This is to ensure that movement of runoff; the
holding areas are operating according to the plan
Additional holding depression areas where water
can be harvested and channeled can be added to
improve the system.
Landscape rainwater harvesting should be
inspected before and after rainy season to keep
the system operating at optimum performance.
The landscape rainwater harvesting system should
be maintained for optimum operation.
The holding areas should be inspected before and
after rain events to ensure it is free from debris.
The gutters and downpipes should be inspected
free from debris and blockages. The deposition of
debris from the bottom of storage tank should be
flushed and removed. Filter and drip filter should
be maintained and cleaned regularly to avoid
blockage.

Figure 3.24 Roof Garden Designs

Roof Garden Soil Profile

The landscape areas including holding depression

areas and distribution channel should be
controlled and prevented from erosion. Eroded
surface such as holding area, distribution channel
or landscape area should be repaired and
replanted with suitable replacement plants.

Figure3.25 Roof Garden Soil

16

CHAPTER 4
Rainwater Harvesting System for Building
General Principle
The application of rainwater harvesting system
for building can provide a possible way on the
utilization of rainwater as valuable water
resources. Rainwater harvesting via rooftop
catchment is necessary in areas having significant
rainfall and can be a viable alternative to the
centralized water supply system.

The system consists of residential housing can

start with a single small tank and add more when
the opportunity and need arise.

A rainwater harvesting system consists of three

basic elements: a rooftop collection area; a
conveyance system, and storage facilities (Figure
4.1, 4.2 & 4.3). The collection area of a rainwater
harvesting system for a building in most cases is
a roof of a house or building. The effective roof
area and the material used in constructing the
roof influence the efficiency of collection and the
water quality.
A conveyance system usually consists of gutters
or pipes that deliver rainwater falling on the
rooftop to cisterns or other storage vessels. Both
drainpipes and roof surfaces should be
constructed of chemically inert materials such as
wood, plastic, aluminum, or fiberglass, in order
to avoid adverse effects on water quality.

Figure 4.1: Typical Rainwater Harvesting

System for a Building

The harvested water is stored in a storage tank or

cistern, which should be constructed of an inert
material. Reinforced concrete, fiberglass, or
stainless steel is suitable materials. Storage tanks
may be constructed as part of the building, or
may be built as a separate unit located some
distance away from the building.
The construction of a rooftop collection system
is relatively simple with a minimum cost. The
technology is flexible and the systems can be
built to meet almost any requirements.
Figure 4.2: Typical Rainwater Harvesting System

17

Figure 4.3: Typical Section of a Rainwater Harvesting System

18

Rooftop Catchment Collection System

The catchment collection system consists of a
building roof on which rain will be collected.
The rainwater yield varies with the size and
texture of the roof catchment surface. A
smoother, cleaner and more impervious roofing
material contributes to better quality and higher
quantity of harvested rainfall.

The size of a roof catchment area is the

buildings footprint under the roof. The
catchment surface is limited to the area of roof
which is guttered. The width and length can be
used to calculate the size of the guttered area.

The amount of water loss is negligible for pitch

metal roofs and the loss for concrete or asphalt
roofs is of an average value of 10%. Other type
of roof (flat), such as built up tar and gravel
roofs may experience the water loss of about
15%. Generally, the designer assumes up to 25%
loss for all type of roof material (Texas Water
Development Board, 1997). These losses are due
to several factors such as: the roofing material
texture which slows down the flow; evaporation;
and inefficiencies in the collection process.
Figure 4.4: Typical Conveyance Layouts for
Rainwater Harvesting System

The catchment surfaces must be made of

nontoxic material. Painted surfaces should be
avoided if possible, or if the use of paint is
necessary, only non-toxic paint shall be used (e.g.
no lead-based, chromium-based, or zinc-based
paints).
The metal roofing is the preferred material
because of its smooth surface and durability.
Other alternative materials, such as asphalt,
asbestos, clay tile, slate, wood base and any other
local roofing materials are also appropriate for
rainwater intended to be used as non-potable
water. These surfaces can be treated with a
special painted coating to reduce bacterial
growth on an otherwise porous surface.
The rainwater harvesting system for potable
water sources if proposed shall not use lead as
roof flashing or as gutter solder as the slightly
acid quality of rain can dissolve the lead and
thereby contaminate the harvested rainwater.
Existing houses and buildings should be fully
examined for any lead content in the planning
stages of any rainwater harvesting project.

Figure 4.5: Typical Section of a Conveyance

Layout for Rainwater harvesting System

19

Conveyance System
Gutters and downpipes are the components
which catch the rain from the roof catchment
surface and transport it to the cistern (Figure 4.4
& 4.5). Standard shapes and sizes are easily
obtained and maintained, although custom
fabricated profiles are also available to maximize
the total amount of harvested rainfall. Gutters
and downpipes must be properly sized, sloped,
and installed in order to maximize the quantity
of harvested rain.

picks up most of the dirt, debris, and

contaminants, such as bird droppings that have
collected on the roof and in the gutters during
dry periods.
These systems shall be designed so that at least
30 litres of water are diverted for every 100
square metres of collection area. Rather than
wasting the water, the first flush can be used for
non-potable uses such as lawn or garden
irrigation. Several types of commercial first flush
system are also available.

The most common material for off-the-shelf

gutters is galvanized steel or PVC. The design
and size should comply with MSMA, Chapter 10.

Storage Tanks

Downpipes are designed to handle minimum

40mm rainfall depth.

The storage tank represents the major cost of a

rainfall harvesting system for a building. Thus, it
is important to maximize the efficiency of the
system during planning stage and should
consider among others, optimal placement of the
storage tank, the capacity of the storage and the
material selection for the cistern. A slimline tank
is suitable to be used for small area that can be
attached to a wall side of a house and the tank
can be elevated to provide additional pressure
(Figure 4.7).
The most common tank materials include plastic,
polyethylene (HDPE) and concrete. The usage
of galvanized steel is also recommended but
availability for small size requires special order
inclusive of rust coatings.
Polyethylene tanks (Figure 4.8 & 4.9) do not
corrode, are relocatable, are made from very
strong material and are generally, the longest
lasting tanks. Generally, high quality polyethylene
materials are used, which dont give out any taste
or smell, UV stabilized and food grade
polyethylene is generally an industrial standard.
Provided that the tanks are made of the correct
thickness, algae growth does not occur.

Figure 4.6: Typical Standpipe Type Roof

Washers
The gutter and downpipe should be provided
with leaf screen and first flush system (Figure
4.6).
Roof washing, or the collection and disposal of
the first flush of water from a roof, is of
particular concern for any rainwater harvesting
system. This is due to the fact that first flush

20

Rain barrel (Figure 4.10) is a smaller rainwater

tank made up from food grade polyethylene and
is suitable for domestic application for rainwater
harvesting. Normally, the rain barrel includes
with complete accessories, flow valve that
connects to any standard garden hose and
overflow valve.
The common type of galvanized tank is
Zincalume or Aquaplate variety (Figure 4.11).
Concrete (Figure 4.12) and ferro-cement tanks
are strong and long lasting and can be installed
underground. Larger tanks often have to be cast
in-situ.

Figure 4.7: Typical Slimline Water Tanks

Fibreglass tanks (Figure 4.13), although more

expensive, are longer lasting because they resist
corrosion and are not generally affected by
chemical or moisture. These tanks are
manufactured with a food-grade coating on their
interior surface. The tanks should also be
manufactured to prevent the entry of light,
which could encourage algal growth. The tanks
can be sealed with a black covering inside or
painted on the outside.
The size of tank depends on the volume of water
needed, and may vary from one area to another.
Table 4.1 shows the amount of water uses for
appliances and outdoor application. Water
demand will depend on:
the number of people using the water
average consumption per person
the range of uses (drinking, bathroom,
laundry, toilet, watering etc.)
the use of water conservation devices.

21

Table 4.1 Water Use for Domestic Application

USE (Appliance)
Toilet

Washing Machine

TYPE

AVERAGE RATE
OF FLOW

AVERAGE TOTAL
WATER USED

Single Flush

9 litres

120 litres per day

Dual Flush

6/3 litres

40 litres per day

Twin Tub

40 litres per wash

Front Loading

80 litres per wash

Top Loading

170 litres per wash

Dishwasher

20-50 litres per load

General Cleaning

10-20 litres per minute

150 litres per 24 hour day

OUTDOORS
Sprinkler or
Handheld Hose

10-20 litres per minute

Drip System

1000 litres per hour

4 litres per hour

Hosing Paths/Driveways
Washing the car with
a running hose

22

20 litres per minute

200 litres for 10 min

10-20 litres per minute

100-300 litres

Figure 4.11: Typical Galvanized Rainwater Tank

Figure 4.8: Typical Rounded Polyethylene

Rainwater Tanks

Figure 4.12: Typical Concrete Rainwater Tank

Figure 4.9: Typical Polyethylene Rainwater Tanks

Figure 4.13: Typical Fibreglass Rainwater

Tanks

Figure 4.10: Typical Polyethylene Rain Barrels

23

There are a number of issues that govern what

tank or tanks would be suitable in varying
situations. The variables are:

A smaller header tank which does not collect

rainwater is used to supply greater pressure in
gravity fed water systems (Figure 4.17). The
collection tank is at ground level, buried half way
in the ground or whatever is necessary. The
outlet of this tank feeds to a small low volume
trickle pump, either electric or solar, that keeps
the small header tank filled. A floating mercury
switch in the header tank turns the trickle pump
on or off depending on water level. To give
substantial pressure, the header tank needs to be
very high and small so that support costs are
kept to a minimum.

Height of roof
Roof catchment area identification
Gutter and downpipe arrangements
Space around the building
Alignment of building in relation to
boundaries
Local Council regulations in regard to
water tanks

Low roof buildings may require a squat shaped

tank (minimum height of 900mm). They are not
as high, but they are wider, for the same storage
capacity. Note that downpipes must have at least
4% fall to achieve correct flow.

For aesthetic or other reasons, it may be an

advantage to position the rainwater tank away
from the building (Figure 4.18). This can be
done and the area between the building and the
tank can then be used. The top strainer in the
tank must still be below the gutter level allowing
a 4% downpipe slope into the tank. Note that
water will stay in the u-shaped downpipe section
after rain to the level of the strainer. To prevent
algae growing in the water, it is necessary to put a
bend in the top downpipe to exclude most of the
light. A mosquito mesh across the downpipe top
may also be necessary.

Positioning the tank at ground level is the most

common form of installation (Figure 4.14). A
small household pressure pump is placed in the
outlet line to give tap pressure to several outlets.
Note that the tank inlet strainer must be lower
than the gutter, allowing at least a slope of 4% or
more for the downpipe. Two or more
downpipes can feed into one tank but the
overflow volume must match the downpipe
volume. In this case the tank would need to have
two overflows installed, the same size as the
downpipes.

The small slimline tank (Figure 4.19) is ideal if all

that is necessary for example as a supplementary
water sources. Rainwater can be delivered from a
ball valve/tap on the side of the tank or gravity
fed from the rear. The pressure can be raised by
elevating the tank to fit under the eaves. These
tanks are also useful for filling fish tanks or for
watering special plants etc.

A tank is often partly buried in the ground

(Figure 4.15) to bring the tank roof below the
gutter line, so that water will drain into the tank.
This may also be done for aesthetic reasons so
that the tank does not block the view. Note that
polyethylene tanks can only be buried in the
ground up to half their height. It is often only
necessary to bury a tank a nominal amount for
the tank to be below gutter height.

For taking advantage of the maximum catchment

available from a shed or house roof, it is ideal to
place the tank(s) at the end of the building
(Figure 4.20). Downpipes can be fed from both
gutters into the one tank. The downpipe capacity
must match the overflow capacity. For example,
two 100mm downpipes would require two
100mm overflows. Note that tank overflows can
go below the ground and come up again, to meet
stormwater run off.

A tank on a stand (Figure 4.16) can gravity feed

water to a tap without the use of a pump. If a
pump is normally used, some water will still flow
when power is not available. In most cases,
unless the tank is very high, the pressure will be
low. If a higher pressure is required, a smaller but
higher header tank should be used. The smaller
tank is easier to support.
24

Figure 4.14: Typical Tank at Ground Level

Figure 4.18: Typical Tank Away from
the Building

Figure 4.15: Typical Tank Buried Half Way into

the Ground

Figure 4.19: Typical Small Kitchen Tank

Figure 4.16: Typical Tank on Stand

Figure 4.20: Typical Tank Position for

Maximum Catchment
Figure 4.17: Typical Header Tank for Increased
Water Pressure
25

CHAPTER 5
Plumbing for Rainwater Harvesting System

Plumbing Guideline
Rainwater tank installations may be designed,
installed and maintained so as to allow a cross
connection with the potable water supply. Where
a property has both a rainwater tank system and
a potable water supply from a reticulated system,
the plumbing for rainwater tank should have a
cross-connection
control
and
backflow
prevention.
The need for a secure water supply means that
many people want the ability to switch back to
the mains water supply if their pump fails;
electricity fails or the tank needs to be cleaned.

visitors, may be displayed advising that rainwater

is in use.
Identification tape marked AIR HUJAN shall
be at least 75mm wide. The identification tape
shall be installed on top of the rainwater pipeline
installed
within
the
trench,
running
longitudinally, and fastened to the pipe at not
more than three meter intervals.

Suggested plumbing configuration for rainwater

tanks in urban areas with a reticulated supply
direct connection with the potable supply is
shown in Figure 5.1.
Proximity to other services - Separation between
above ground rainwater services and any parallel
potable water supply must be a minimum of
100mm, below ground rainwater services must
be separated by a minimum of 300mm from any
parallel potable water supply pipe.

Figure 5.1: Typical Direct Connection

Plumbing Configuration

Marking and labeling It is a common practice

in marking and labeling of the rainwater services
for identification and future maintenance
purposes.
Above and below ground rainwater pipes shall
be continuously marked AIR HUJAN.
Every rainwater tank outlet and all taps, valves
and rainwater tank apertures shall be identified as
AIR HUJAN with a sign complying with (refer
Figure 5.2) or a green colored indicator with the
letters SPAH. Alternatively, a permanent sign,
at the front of the premises and visible to all

26

Figure 5.2: Typical Signage for rainwater

tanks and outlets

Plumbing Water Closet Cisterns

The interconnection of rainwater and reticulated
potable water for flushing purposes requires
separation of the potable supply by the
installation of a dual check valve (Figure 5.3).
Typical installation options are shown below
(Figure 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 & 5.7). A Dual Check Valve
should be fitted at the cross-connection point
between the two water sources.
A pump is shown at the rainwater tank outlet to
pressurize supply for satisfactory operation of
the ball float valve in the cistern.

Figure 5.5: Installation of Check Valve

for Water Cistern

Figure 5.3: Typical Installation of Dual Check

Valve for Rainwater Tank.

Figure 5.6: Typical Schematic Layout for

Rainwater Tank at Ground Level.

Figure 5.4: Typical Connections

at or Near Cistern

Figure 5.7: Typical Schematic Layout

for Rainwater Tank on Stand.

27

CHAPTER 6
Pump and Filter for Rainwater Harvesting System
General Principles
Pumps are mechanical devices that lift water
from lower to higher level by application of
some form of energy. There are several types of
pumps with different operating principles
suitable for various conditions of use.
It is important to understand these principles so
that the most efficient pumps are selected for
particular type of building or application. There
are positive displacement reciprocating pumps,
centrifugal pumps, centripetal pumps, and
centrifugal jet pumps.
The suction operation of the pump creates
vacuum in its inlet chamber and the atmospheric
pressure pushes the water up the pump inlet
chamber. It gains energy due to the reciprocating
or centrifugal action of the pump develops
pressure within and enables the water to flow to
higher elevations.
Suction lift is constrained by the available
atmospheric pressure, as the atmospheric
pressure reduces with altitude, so does the pump
suction capacity. The vapour pressure of the
liquid at its operating temperature also affects the
suction capacity of a pump. If the available
suction head is less than the vapour pressure,
water will evaporate, causing a condition known
as cavitation that may damage the pump due to
erosion or vibration associated with it. Vapour
pressure conditions arise largely in systems
handling hot water.
The net available suction pressure is known as
net positive suction head. It depends on various
factors such as atmospheric pressure; head loss
due to friction in pipe, pipe fittings and foot
valve, velocity head at suction face, and vapour
pressure at the operating temperature.

28

Pumping head is the pressure required for a

pump to transfer liquid from one level to
another. Total head required is computed based
on static head between the centre line of the
pump and the high water level, frictional losses
in pipes, fittings and valves, and velocity at entry
point.
Efficiency of a pump is the ratio of the network
done by the pump in lifting water, to the energy
applied to do the work. A pump has loss of
energy due to the motive power of its driving
mechanism, e.g an electric motor, engine, etc.
The net efficiency of the total set is given by the
efficiencies of the individual equipments.
Each pump impeller has its own operating
characteristics, which define its capability and
efficiency. These can either be calculated for
each individual pump and its impeller or the
pump characteristic read from graphs and
nomographs normally furnished by each pump
manufacture for their products.
Reciprocating Pumps
Reciprocating pumps are plungers or cylindrical
rams that are made to move to and fro by an
engine or motor crank mounted on a wheel of
the drive. The movement allows pressure to
build up with each stroke, which is then pushed
up to higher levels in subsequent strokes. A set
of valves on the suction and delivery prevents
back-flow and building up of pressure.
Reciprocating pumps give a fluctuating flow,
which is overcome by having two or more
cylinders acting together to provide uniform
flow. Reciprocating pumps generally have limited
discharge capacity but generate very higher
pressures.

Efficiency of the pump is quite low due to

several moving parts and valves. The pumps
have limited applications in building water supply
systems and high-pressure applications.

Vertical Submersible Pumps

Vertical wet or dry-pits submersible pumps are
those in which the pump is submerged in liquids
and driven by a vertically-mounted motor driven
by a long shaft. The motor is normally above the
high-flood level or above the maximum waterlevel in the tanks to prevent the motor from
submerging in water.

Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps (Figure 6.1) have circular
impellers mounted on a shaft inside a housing
known as volute. When rotated at high speed,
the impeller creates a vacuum and sucks the
water in the volute. The circular motion of the
impeller transfers the rotating dynamic energy to
water, which then develops pressure at the outlet
and the water can be transferred to a higher level.
Centrifugal pumps are more efficient than
reciprocating pumps as they have lesser rotating
parts.

In dry-pit pumps, pumps are installed in a

separate dry compartment and bearings of the
pump shaft lubricated by specialized mechanism
which pumps grease in the required positions.
Vertical pumps used for clear water and sewage
pumping are submerged or at some level as that
of the liquid and thus have positive suction. They
are ideal for automatic operations, difficult
suction conditions or where priming of the
pump is a problem. The vertical pump shaft
length is a limitation and is normally restricted to
5-6m.

Depending on the type of impellers used, the

pumps have a variety of pumping applications.
They are used extensively in water supply,
irrigation, sewage, heating air conditioning and in
domestic appliances such as air coolers, washing
machines, dish washer, etc.
They can pump large volumes of water and
generate high pressures up to 200m and above.
Centrifugal pumps can be installed in a variety of
ways and conditions as per site conditions.
Surface mounted pumps are universally used for
all applications under positive or negative suction
conditions.

Figure 6.2: Typical Submersible Pump

Fully Submersible Pumps
Fully submersible pumps (Figure 6.2) have a
monobloc-type pump couple to an electric
motor. The entire electrical pump and motor
combination is submerged in the water. The
water also acts as a coolant and the pumps have
no priming problems or any limitations of
suction lift.

Figure 6.1: Typical Centrifugal Pump

29

Submersible pumps are commonly used in

tubewells, deep open-wells, canals, lakes, lift
irrigation and other water supply schemes.

They are designed for an average duty cycle of 20

min per hour. Although they can run for longer
periods, their life will be shortened. Continuous
duty pumps can run 24 hours per day as long as
they are located in a sump where incoming water
can flow over a motor. These pumps are often
found in water feature or pond where 24 hour
circulation is required.

Submersible pumps are easy to install and do not

required a separate pump house above or below
ground, thus saving considerably in terms of
costs.
Jet Pumps

The rainwater is caught in a collecting tank, from

which it is pumped into a pipe system. The
rainwater can then be taken from this in the
same way that drinking water can. If the tank
should ever run dry, it can be supplied with
drinking water.

To overcome the suction limitations of surfacemounted pumps, a special suction device known
as jet assembly is used to lift water from depths
of 6-40m.
The jet assembly, in principle, applies additional
energy at the suction point in the form of a
properly designed jet in a venture tube.

The common demands on the control system for

a rainwater pump are as follows:

The additional energy is derived from the pump

itself from its delivery side. The pressure of the
jet pump has to be high for the jet action, but
delivery pressure is controlled by a pressure
regulator.

Rainwater Pump

The water must be available at all times.

When the switch to drinking water takes
place, no rainwater must get into the
drinking water system.
If there is not enough water in the
rainwater tank, the pump cannot be
switched on (run-dry protection).

Self-sucking pump with fixed flow control,

especially designed for use in rainwater
harvesting systems is shown in Figure 6.3. The
pump curve shown in Figure 6.3 can be used to
select an appropriate size of the pump which is
based on the lifting head and desired flow.

Pumps can be broken down into two major

categories consists of clear or gray water pumps
and solids handling pumps. Within these two
broad categories, they are further differentiated
by the type of impeller employed, the design of
the motor, and the expected duty cycle.

The typical equipment and accessories of the

pump is as follows:

Clear or rainwater pumps are designed to pump

water that is free of trash, sewage and other large
solids. These pumps employ oil filled motors. Oil
transfers heat from the motor to the pump case
and also lubricate the bearings and mechanical
seals. Motors are rated for either intermittent or
continuous duty. Intermittent duty pumps are
the most common for rainwater harvesting
system.

30

Filter with hose connection for easy

cleaning
Sound absorptive rubber stands
Inlet plugs on pressure and suction sides
Cable for electric connection.

Submersible pump designed for use in rainwater

systems is shown in Figure 6.4. The pump is
available in two different types:

Submersible pump with float and suction

pipe to be fitted into an underground
tank. Flow control and control unit are
mounted indoors.
Pump with mounted pressure control for
separate installation in a dry space.

The pump curve shown in Figure 6.4 can be

used to select an appropriate size of the pump
which is based on the lifting head and desired
flow. The typical equipment and accessories of
the pump is as follows:

Float valve with suction pipe

Sound absorptive rubber stands
Inlet plugs on pressure and suction sides
20 m cable for electric connection.

The Configuration of the pumping system for

rainwater tank is shown in Figure 6.5. The details
of various pump installations and rainwater tank
placement are shown in Figure 6.6, Figure 6.7,
Figure 6.8 and Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.4: Typical Rainwater Pump for Indoor

and Underground Installation

Figure 6.3: Typical Rainwater Pump for Indoor

Installation
Figure 6.5: Typical Configuration of the
Pumping System for Rainwater Tank

31

Figure 6.6: Typical Storage Tank and Pump

Installed in the Basement.

Figure 6.8: Typical Underground Storage Tank

with Submersible Pump.

Figure 6.7: Typical Underground Tank and

Pump in the Basement.

Figure 6.9: Typical Underground Storage Tank

with Submersible Pump and Pump in the
Basement.

32

Rainwater Filters
Rainwater quantity varies and is affected by
environmental factors and commercial activities
in the area. The addition of the rainwater filter
will improve the quality of the water.
The rainwater filter can be part of the rainwater
downpipe, be separate from a tank or be
attached to a tank. The rainwater filter also can
be installed below ground. The size and volume
of rainwater filter are size as per following below;
Table 6.1 Guidelines for residential first flush
quantities
Rooftops of 100m2 or smaller
25 -50 liters
Rooftops of 100m2 or larger
50 liters per
100m2

Figure 6.11: Floating Ball Valve Fist Flush

System
Maintenance of rainwater filter
The rainwater filter systems are to be maintained
regularly and the maintenance are to be carried
out as follows:
1. Contaminated water in the rainwater
filter should be drained on a regular basis
after each rainfall event.
2. Remove debris whenever necessary.
3. Debris shields and vegetation traps
should be cleaned regularly to allow
unrestricted flows to filter storage.

Table 6.2 Guidelines for surface catchments or

for very large rooftops
Rooftops or surface catchments 2500 liters
of 4356m2 or larger
(5000liters if surface contains excessive soil, dust or debris)
Multiple first flush devices instead of a larger first flush
may be required depending on slope of the catchments
surface and time required for rainwater to reach the first
flush device.

Figures 6.12 and 6.13 indicate the installation of

the filters in the rain harvesting system. The
detail cross sectional views on the filters are
shown in figures 6.14 and 6.15.

Figure 6.10 : Typical Fist Flush System

Figure 6.12: Typical Configurations of Rainwater
Filters for Underground Rainwater Tank.
33

Figure 6.13: Typical Configurations of Rainwater

Filters for Rainwater Tank at Ground Level.

Figure 6.15: Typical Downpipe Vortex

Rainwater Filter.

Figure 6.14: Typical Downpipe Rainwater Filter.

34

CHAPTER 7
Design Example for Rainwater Harvesting System
Case Study
The example of the rainwater tank sizing is based
on the proposed construction of 18 storey office
including 3 storey podium and one storey car
park for MITI (Ministry of International
Industrial for Malaysia).
The rainwater will be collected from the roof of
the (office and podium block) and from the
proposed building and directed to the downpipe
and rainwater tank located at ground level of the
building (Figure 7.1).
Part of the collection consists of the green roof
garden landscapes with the ornamental plant and
trees to meet the functional objective of the
building (see Appendix for the detail drawing).

Figure 7.1 Proposed Rainwater Harvesting

System

The rainwater harvesting system is assumed to be

used as a bathroom cistern flushing for supply
up to 1,000 installation of cisterns.

There are several mathematical models available

for determining the size of tank needed to
provide defined security of supply. In some
cases, the computer-based models are used to
prepare tables of calculated tank size.

Rainwater Tank
The sizing of rainwater tank is based on the
maximum volume of the water capture from the
roof area to the rainwater harvesting system. The
next step is to calculate the security of supply
that is the size of the tank needed to ensure the
volume of water collected and stored in the tank
will be sufficient to meet demand throughout the
year, including during the drier months or
through periods of low or no rainfall. This is
particularly important in the case where the tank
is to represent the sole source of water supply.

The simplest way of checking a tank size

estimated to provide water throughout an
average year, is to use monthly rainfall data and
to assume that at the start of the wetter months
the tank is empty. The following formula should
then be used for each month:
Vt = Vt-1 + (Runoff Demand)
Vt = theoretical volume of water
remaining in the tank at the end
of the month.
Vt-1 = volume of water left in the tank
from the previous month

35

Starting with the tank empty then Vt-1 = 0. If,

after any month, Vt exceeds the volume of the
tank, the water will lost to overflow. If Vt is ever
a negative figure then demand exceeds the
available water. Providing the calculated annual
runoff exceeds the annual water demand, Vt will
only be negative if periodic overflows reduce the
amount of water collected so it is less than the
demand.

Calculations should be repeated using various

tank sizes until Vt is 0 at the end of every
month. The greater the values of Vt over the
whole year, the greater the security of meeting
water demand when rainfalls are below average
or when dry periods are longer than normal. The
greater the security, the larger the size and cost
of the tank shall be.
The maximum tank size and related data are
shown in Table 7.1, while the monthly
catchment calculation is shown in Table 7.2

Tank size is not necessarily based on collecting

total runoff (maximum volume of water
available) from the roof area. If the water
demand is less than the maximum volume of
water available then some overflow might occur
while demand is still met. If water demand is to
be met throughout the year, the tank should be
large enough so that Vt is never negative.

Table 7.1: Maximum Tank Size

Average monthly flushing
Total annual rainfall
Monthly average (mm)
- data from 1983-1997
Catchment area
Catchment efficiency
Runoff Formula
Tank size

456,000 liters (Assumes 1000 peoples, 3.8 liter from 6/3 cistern
4 flushes per day/person)
2520 mm
Jan 107, Feb 200, Mar 266, Apr 293, May 217, Jun 153, July
150, Aug 195, Sept 237, Oct 248, Nov 235 & Dec 219.
6000 m2
75%
Runoff (liters) = 0.75 (efficiency) Rainfall Roof Area
eg. Jan runoff = 0.75 107 6000 = 481 500 liters
750,000 liters

Table 7.2: Monthly Catchment Calculation

Month
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec

Monthly Rainfall (mm)

107
200
266
293
217
153
150
195
237
248
235
219

36

Runoff (liter)
481 500
900 000
1 197 000
1 318 500
976 500
688 500
675 000
877 500
1 066 500
1 116 000
1 057 500
985 500

Vt (liter)
25 500
469 500
1 210 500
2 073 000
2 593 500
2 826 000
3 045 000
3 466 500
4 077 000
4 737 000
5 338 500
5 868 000

Pipe Sizing for Rainwater Installation

The conveyance system of the rainwater
harvesting should be designed to ensure the
plumbing installation is economic, systematic,
can be maintained efficiently and safe by
following the standard guidelines and the
requirement of local authority

In building where high peak demands occur, a

loading unit rating for such appliances is not
applicable and 100% of the flow rate for these
appliances is required as shown in Table 7.4. The
same applies to automatic flushing cisterns for
urinals.

In designing for water supply installation, an

assessment must first be made of the probable
maximum water flow. In most buildings it
seldom happens that the total numbers of
appliances installed are ever in use at the same
time, and therefore, for economic reasons, it is
usual for a system to be designed for a peak
usage which is less than the possible maximum
usage.

The pipe sizing can be determined using a well

known practical formula known as Thomas-Box
equation given as follows:
q=

d5 H
25 L 10 5

where
q = discharge through the pipe (liter/s)
d = diameter of pipe (mm)
H = head of water (m)
L = total length of pipe (m)

The probable maximum demand can be assessed

based on the theory of probability. This method
use a loading unit rating which is devised for each
type of appliance, based on its rate of water
delivery, the time the taps are open during usage,
and the simultaneous demand for the particular
type of appliance.
Table 7.3 gives the loading unit rating for various
appliances.

37

Table 7.3: Loading Unit Rating for Various Applications

Loading Unit Rating
Dwelling and flats
W.C. flushing cistern
Wash basin
Bath
Sink
Offices
W.C. flushing cistern
Wash basin (distributed use)
Wash basin (concentrated use)
School and industrial Buildings
W.C. flushing cistern
Wash basin
Shower (with nozzle)

2
1 1/2
10
3-5
2
1 1/2
3
2
3
3

Public bath

22

Table 7.4: Recommended Minimum Flow Rate at Various Appliances

Type of appliance

Rate of flow (liter/s)

W.C. flushing cistern

Wash basin
Wash basin with spray
taps
Bath (private)
Bath (public)
Shower (with nozzle)
Sink with 13 mm taps
Sink with 19 mm taps

0.12
0.15
0.04

Sink with 25 mm taps

0.60

0.30
0.60
0.12
0.20
0.30

38

Effective Length of Pipe

The diameter of the pipe necessary to give a
required flow rate will depend upon the head of
water available, the smoothness of the internal
bore of the pipe and the effective length of the
pipe.

Table 7.5: Frictional Resistance of Fittings

Expressed in Equivalent Pipe Length
Nominal
outside
diameter
(mm)
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100

An allowance for the frictional resistance set up

by fittings such as elbows, tees, taps and valves
must be added to the actual length of the pipe.
Table 7.5 gives the allowance for fittings
expressed in equivalent pipe lengths.
In calculating the diameter of a pipe to supply
individual fittings, the loss of head through the
draw-off tap should also be taken into account.
Table 7.6 gives the allowances for draw-off taps
expressed in equivalent pipe lengths.

Meter run of pipe

Elbow
Bend
Tee
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.7
2.0
2.7

0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.6
2.0

Table 7.6: Frictional Resistance of Draw-off Taps Expressed as Equivalent Pipe Lengths
Fitting (BS 1010)

15 mm diameter bibtap or pillar tap

20 mm diameter bibtap or pillar tap
25 mm diameter bibtap or pillar tap

Discharge
rate tap fully
open
(liter/s)
0.20

Equivalent length of pipe of same

diameter as tap (m)
Copper
Galvanised steel
2.70

4.00

0.30

8.50

5.75

0.60

20.00

13.00

39

1.2
1.4
1.8
2.3
2.7
3.4
4.2
5.3
6.8

Figure 7.2: Loading Units

Figure 7.3: Head Loss through Stop Valve

40

Figure 7.4: Pipe Sizing Chart

Pipe Sizing Example
The calculation of main pipe size for rainwater
tank serving a typical bathroom of a commercial
building, the appliances in the bathroom consist
of 5 W.C. flushing cisterns, 10 wash basins and 5
showers with nozzle. The layout of the system is
shown in Figure 7.5.

The calculation of loading rating per unit

appliance from Table 7.3.
W.C. flushing system (WC)

= 5 units

Wash basin (WB)

= 10 units

Shower (SR)

= 5 units

The calculation of total loading.

5 WC 2

= 10 units

10 WB 1.5

= 15 units

5 SR 3

= 15 units

Total

41

= 40 units

The head loss in 25 mm copper pipe due to

frictional resistance obtained from Figure 7.4 is
0.10. The head loss due to fitting of stop valve is
equivalent to 0.6 (Figure 7.3). Hence, the total
head loss can be calculated as follows:
Total head loss = (19.6 0.1) + 0.6
Total head loss = 2.56 meter
Figure 7.5: Example layout of the Plumbing
System Serving a Bathroom

The available head is 5 meter, therefore the

residual head at appliances distribution point is:
Residual head = 5 2.56

The flow rate for 40 units loading is 0.70 liter/s

using relationship between design flow rate and
loading unit shown in Figure 7.2.

= 2.44 meter the system

is adequate.
The calculation of the pipe size using ThomasBox equation:

The calculation of head loss due to frictional

resistance for elbow and tee in equivalent pipe
length from Table 7.5.

Effective length

= 19.6

Elbow

= 0.7 meter run of pipe

Design pipe flow

= 0.70 liter/s

Tee

= 1.8 meter run of pipe

Head

= 2.44 m

The calculation of the effective length of the

main pipe serving the appliances in the
bathroom. Assuming the system used 25 mm
(O.D) galvanized steel pipe.
actual length of
the main pipe
effective length

Therefore
d =5

= 15 meters

The pipe size used 25 mm is acceptable.

= actual length +
equivalent length

equivalent length = 4 elbows + 1 tee

equivalent length = (0.7 4) + (1.8 1)
= 4.6 meters
effective length

0.70 2 25 19.6 10 5
= 25.04mm
2.44

= 15 + 4.6
= 19.6 meter

42

REFERENCES

Atlantis Stormwater (2002), Atlantis Stormwater Design Manual, Atlantis Stormwater Ltd.
Bushmans (2004), Tank Installation Examples, Bushmans Group.
CUPDR (2003), Guidelines for Plumbiong Associated with Rainwater Tanks in Urban
Areas, Committee on Uniformity of Plumbing and Drainage Regulations in NSW, Circular
P&D No. 18.
DID (2000), Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia, Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Malaysia.
Texas Water Development Board (1997), Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting, Texas
Water Development Board in Coorperation with the Center for Maximum Potential
Building System.

APPENDIX
Design Criteria - Minimum Standard
No.

Design

Depth/Size/
Height/Length
-

Gradient

300mm

2m

1.

Impervious Layer
(Sidewalks, Terrace, driveways,
parking)

2%

2.

Berm

3.

Extended Holding Area ( drip line to

edge of Basin)

4.

Depression slope

500mm
(Maximum)

1:4 (maximum)

5.

Tree height for rooftop

6m
(Maximum)

6.

Rainfall depth for rooftop garden

40mm
(Maximum)

7.

First Flush

50 liter per 100m2 of

collection area

8.

Downpipes

4%

9.

Storage Tank

100mm
(minimum)
900 mm
(minimum height)

10.

Pipe Storage

900mm
(Minimum dia)

2%

11.

Storage Volume

2 weeks
(Minimum)

12.

Proximity to water supply pipe line

100mm above ground

300mm below ground

APPENDIX
IBU PEJABAT JPS KUALA LUMPUR
JALAN SALAHUDDIN
Capacity
:
Catchment Area :
Demans
:

80 m
2548 m
Toilet Flushing &
External Washing

In July 2003, JPS has installed a 80 m

underground
moduler
tank
for
stormwater attenuation and rainwater
reuse.
Harvested rainwater from the roof
catchment, collected through the gutter
and downpipe was first filtered before
storage in the underground tank. The
water is then pump to header tank and
distributed to the toilet on the various
floors.
The project are design as such at the pipe
and fitting are exposed to provide visual
to visitors.

JPS HEADQUARTERS

GUTTER AND DOWNPIPE

MODULAR STORAGE TANK

RAINWATER FILTER

PLUMBING SYSTEM