TECHNICAL ELECTIVE 2 (CETE 543)

World's Twelve Largest Earthquakes

This course deals with the fundamentals and basic Includes all measured earthquakes since 1900
concepts of seismic design as well as the minimum standards for
the analysis, design, and construction of earthquake resistive
structures. The course covers the introduction to seismology and Magnitude Location Date
seismic analysis of buildings and structures, effects of
earthquake on bearing capacity, procedure for the design of
earthquake resistant structures, calculation of seismic forces, and 9.5 Chile 05/22/1960
dynamic analysis of structures. It also deals with the
determination of loads of structures due to motions, methods of 9.2 Alaska 03/28/1964
analysis for lateral forces, approximate dynamic analysis, time
history analysis, concepts of mass, damping, stiffness of Off the coast of Northern
structures, design for inelastic behavior and retrofitting of 9.1 12/26/2004
Sumatra
existing building. Critical building configurations and
appropriate methods of analysis are also given emphasis.
Applications and specifications as applied to vertical and 9.0 Honshu, Japan 03/11/2011
horizontal structures are also given importance. A thorough
knowledge and proficiency in Structural Theory is imperative. 9.0 Kamchatka 11/04/1952

Introduction to Earthquake Resistant Design 8.8 Off the coast of Chile 02/27/2010

EARTHQUAKE occur when two tectonic plates move 8.8 Off the coast of Ecuador 01/31/1906
suddenly against each other. The rocks usually break
underground at the hypocentre and the earth shakes. Waves
spread from the epicenter, the point on the surface above the 8.7 Rat Islands, Alaska 02/04/1965
hypocentre.
8.6 Northern Sumatra 03/28/2005
If a quake occurs under the sea it can cause a tsunami.
8.6 Tibet 08/15/1950
Millions of earthquakes occur around the world annually.
Most are too small to be felt.
An average of 3,000 magnitude 5.0 quakes are recorded Off the coast of Northern
each year. 8.6 04/11/2012
Sumatra
Magnitude Earthquake Effects Estimated
Number 8.6 Andreanof Islands, Alaska 03/09/1957
Each Year
Usually not felt, but can be recorded Data from the United States Geological Survey.
2.5 or less 900,000
by seismograph.
Often felt, but only causes minor
2.5 to 5.4 30,000
damage.
"The Great Chilean Earthquake
Slight damage to buildings and other
5.5 to 6.0 500
structures. 9.5 Magnitude - May 22, 1960 near Valdivia, Chile
May cause a lot of damage in very
6.1 to 6.9 100 The world's largest earthquake with an instrumentally
populated areas.
documented magnitude occurred on May 22, 1960 near
7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. Serious damage. 20 Valdivia, in southern Chile. It was assigned a magnitude of 9.5
Great earthquake. Can totally One every by the United States Geological Survey. "1960 Valdivia
8.0 or greater destroy communities near the 5 to 10 Earthquake."
epicenter. years occurred beneath the Pacific Ocean off the coast of
Chile, 2,000,000 people were left homeless
Earthquakes were responsible for an estimated 1.87 million destroyed or damaged thousands of buildings
deaths in the 20th century with an average of 2,052 fatalities casualty range from a low of 490 to a high of
per event affecting humans between 1990 and 2010. "approximately 6000"
costs of the damage were estimated to have been
between $400 and $800 million in 1960 dollars, which
Seismic risk poses the biggest risks for cities in the world. would be about $3 to $6 billion today, adjusted for
inflation
Earthquake impact is assessed by the Modified Mercalli produced a powerful tsunami that travelled at a speed
Intensity Scale, which describes the severity of damages of about 200 miles per hour across the Pacific Ocean
from the event on a scale from I to XII 13-foot-high tsunami
HAWAII
I - no damage 240 hectares (600 acres) inland of Hilo harbor were
XII - complete destruction with no surviving structures inundated, $75 million damage
it killed 61 and seriously injured 43,Waiakea area of
Important factors in earthquake vulnerability: Hilo, Hawaii
1. Building design JAPAN
2. Geography destroyed more than 1600 homes and left 185 people
3. Development indicators dead or missing
Onagawa

PHILIPPINES
32 people were killed in the Philippines about 24 hours
after the earthquake
Great Alaska Earthquake
9.2 Magnitude - May 28, 1964 near Anchorage,Alaska
caused about $2.3 billion in property loss (in 2013
dollars; equivalent to $311 million in 1964)
took 131 lives (tsunami 122, earthquake 9)
Kamchatka Earthquake
9.0 Magnitude November 4, 1952 in East Russia
Property damage from these waves was estimated at
$800,000 to $1,000,000
left an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 people dead
Northern Sumatra Earthquake
9.0 Magnitude December 26, 2004 Off the West Coast of
Norhern Sumatra, Indonesia
Deadliest natural disasters in recorded history killing
227,898 people in 14 countries
Number of countries damaged: 14, including
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Myanmar,
Malaysia, The Maldives and Somalia
Date of last major tsunami in the Indian
Ocean: 1945
Disaster and humanitarian crisis statistics
Number of people killed: Latest figures indicate at
least 226,000 dead, including 166,000 in Indonesia,
38,000 in Sri Lanka, 16, 000 in India 5300 in Thailand
and 5000 foreign tourists
Number of people injured: Over 500,000
Potential additional deaths from infectious
diseases 150,000
Number of people affected: Up to 5 million people
lost homes, or access to food and water
Number of children affected : Around a third of the
dead are children, and 1.5 million have been wounded,
displaced or lost families
Number of people left without the means to make a
living: One million
Number of World Heritage Sites destroyed or
damaged: Five, including: the Old Town of Galle in
Sri Lanka, the Tropical Rainforest of Sumatra in
Indonesia and the Sun Temples of Konarak in India
Estimated cost of tsunami early warning technology
in Indian Ocean: $20 million
Estimated cost of aid and reconstruction following
tsunami: $7.5 billion
An island suddenly uplifted after the Dec 2004 quake.
Before the quake the island was only as large as the
green area covered in trees.
Great Sendai Earthquake or Great Thoku Earthquake
9.1 Magnitude - May 11, 2011 near the East Coast of Honshu,
Japan
the total damages from the earthquake and tsunami are
estimated at $300 billion dollars (about 25 trillion yen)
confirmed deaths is 15,891 as of April 10, 2015
more than 2,500 people are still reported missing
NUCLEAR MELTDOWN
The tsunami caused a cooling system failure at the
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, which
resulted in a level-7 nuclear meltdown and release of
radioactive materials
TOP 5 STRONGEST EARTHQUAKES TO HIT THE
PHILIPPINES
Moro Gulf Earthquake
Magnitude 8.0 (August 17, 1976)
A magnitude 8.0 earthquake took place near Mindanao
and Sulu a little past midnight of August 17, 1976 that
was felt as far as Visayas
followed by a massive 4 to 5 meters high tsunami
covering 700 kilometers of coastline bordering the
island.
Because it was dark, the people were caught by the
raging water which claimed 8,000 lives, injuring
10,000, and leaving 90,000 more, homeless.
Luzon Earthquake
Magnitude 7.8 (July 16, 1990)
A total of 2,412 people died
at least 10-billion worth of damages to public and
private properties was reported after a magnitude 7.8
earthquake struck Northern and Central Luzon at
around 4:00 p.m. of July 16, 1990.
Hyatt Terraces Plaza, Nevada Hotel, Baguio Hilltop
Hotel, Baguio Park Hotel, and FRB Hotel, all in
Baguio collapsed trapping and burying people alive.
Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Luzon (November 30, 1645)
The magnitude 7.5 earthquake that crushed Luzon on
November 30, 1645 at about 8:00 pm was called the
most terrible earthquake in Philippines history. The
Epicenter of the said quake was in Nueva Ecija caused
by the San Manuel and Gabaldon Faults.
The extent of the tremor was felt as far as Cagayan
Valley. It has caused many landslides which buried
many people alive and destroyed many buildings and
churches including Manila Cathedral.
That time, only Spanish are counted so the recorded
number of casualties was only 600 while the injured
was 3,000.
Casiguran Earthquake Magnitude 7.3 -(August 2, 1968)
Most of the people in Casiguran, Aurora was still fast
asleep when a magnitude 7.3 earthquake struck at 4:19
a.m. of August 2, 1968.
It was another deadly and shocking seismic activity in
the country. And the City of Manila got the most
severe damage. Many buildings were either damaged
or destroyed totally.
The said event was also called the Ruby Tower
earthquake after the said six-story building located in
Binondo collapsed, and caused the death of 260
people. A total of 268 people died that day and 261
more were injured.
Bohol Earthquake
Magnitude 7.2 - (October 15, 2013)
The quake affected most of Central Visayas,
particularly Bohol and Cebu. It was felt in the whole
area of Visayas and reached as far as Masbate Island in
the north and Cotabato in Southern Mindanao.
According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council (NDRRMC), a total of 222
people died, 8 went missing and 976 others were
injured. An estimated 73,000 structures were damaged
wherein more than 14,500 of which were destroyed
totally.
THE RING OF FIRE

also called the Circum-Pacific belt, is the zone of

earthquakes surrounding the Pacific Ocean- about 90%
of the world's earthquakes occur there.
The next most seismic region (5-6% of earthquakes) is
the Alpide belt (extends from Mediterranean region,
eastward through Turkey, Iran, and northern India.

The top 15 countries in The Pacific Ring of Fire

1. Chile 9. New Zealand

2. Mexico 10. Papa New Guinea
3. United States 11. Indonesia
4. Antarctica 12. Canada
5. Russia 13. Peru
6. Japan 14. Taiwan
7. Philippines 15. Gautemala The Three Major Chemical Radial Divisions
1. Crust
2. Mantle
contains over 450 volcanoes and is home to 3. Core
approximately 75% of the world's active volcanoes
The Shallowest Layer of the Earth:
Volcanoes and Earthquakes of note: the Crust
1. Christchurch Earthquake, New Zealand The crust is the most heterogeneous layer in the Earth
2. Mount Saint Helens, Washington, USA The crust is on average 33 km thick for continents and
3. Mount Pinatubo, Philippines 10 km thick beneath oceans; however it varies from
4. Mt. Fuji, Japan just a few km to over 70 km globally.
5. Paricutin Volcano, Mexico The boundary between the crust and the mantle is
6. Santiago Earthquake, Chile mostly chemical. The crust and mantle have different
7. Sendai Earthquake, Japan compositions.
This boundary is referred to as the Mohorovii
The Ring of Fire is the result of plate tectonics. discontinuity or Moho.
It was discovered in 1910 by the Croatian seismologist
Tectonic plates are huge slabs of the Earths crust, Andrija Mohorovii.
which fit together like pieces of a puzzle.
The plates are not fixed but are constantly moving atop Middle Earth: The Mantle
a layer of solid and molten rock called the mantle.
Sometimes these plates collide, move apart, or slide Earths mantle exists from the bottom of the crust to a
next to each other. depth of 2891 km (radius of 3480 km) Gutenberg
Most tectonic activity in the Ring of Fire occurs in discontinuity
these geologically active zones.
It is further subdivided into:
1. The uppermost mantle (crust to 400 km depth)
ELEMENTS OF SEISMOLOGY 2. The transition zone (400 700 km depth)
3. The mid-mantle (700 to ~2650 km depth)
MYTHS AND LEGENDS 4. The lowermost mantle(~2650 2891 km depth)
5. The uppermost mantle is composed dominantly of
Earthquakes occur: olivine; lesser components include pyroxene, enstatite,
and garnet
When a frog that carries the world moves
(Mongolia)

When one of the eight elephants that carry the Earth

gets tired (Hindu)

When the giant on whose head we all live,

sneezes or scratches (Africa)

When the attention of the god Kashima (who looks

after the giant catfish Namazu that supports the Earth
and prevents it to sink into the ocean) weakens and
Namazu moves (Japan)

When the god Maimas decides to count the

population in Peru his footsteps shake the Earth. Then
natives run out of their huts and yell: Im here, Im
here!
Earths Core Interacting plates

Owing to the great pressure inside the Earth the Earths
core is actually freezing as the Earth gradually cools.
The boundary between the liquid outer core and the
solid inner core occurs at a radius of about 1220 km
Lehman discontinuity, after Inge Lehman from
Denmark.
The boundary between the mantle and outer core is
sharp.
The change in density across the core-mantle boundary
is greater than that at the Earths surface!
The viscosity of the outer core is similar to that of
water, it flows kilometers per year and creates the
Earths magnetic field.
The outer core is the most homogeneous part of the
Earth
The outer core is mostly an alloy of iron and nickel in
liquid form.
Collision leads to SUBDUCTION of one plate under
another. Mountain ranges may also be formed
(Himalayas, Alps...).
It produces strong and sometimes very deep
earthquakes (up to 700 km).
Volcanoes also occur there.
EXAMPLES: Nazca South America
Eurasia Pacific
Plates moving away from each other produce RIDGES
between them (spreading centres).
The earthquakes are generally weaker than in the case
of subduction.
EXAMPLES: Mid-Atlantic ridge (African South American
plates, Euroasian North American plates)
Plates moving past each other do so along the
TRANSFORM FAULTS. The earthquakes may be
very strong.
HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR?

As the core freezes latent heat is released; this heat Earthquakes occur at FAULTS.
causes the outer core to convect and so generates a Fault is a weak zone separating two geological blocks.
magnetic field. Tectonic forces cause the blocks to move relative one
to another.

MECHANICAL LAYERS

Litosphere
The lithosphere is the uppermost 50-100 km
of the Earth.
There is not a strict boundary between the lithosphere
and the asthenosphere as there is between the crust and
mantle.
It consists of both crust and upper parts of mantle.
It behaves rigidly, like a solid, over very long time
periods.

Astenosphere
The asthenosphere exists between depths of 100-200
km.
It is the weakest part of the mantle.
It is a solid over short time scales, but behaves like a
Elastic rebound theory
fluid over millions of years.
The asthenosphere decouples the lithosphere (tectonic
Because of friction, the blocks do not slide, but
plates) from the rest of the mantle.
are deformed.
Mesosphere
When the stresses within rocks exceed friction,
rupture occurs.
TECTONIC FORCES
The interior of the Earth is dynamic it cools down
Elastic energy, stored in the system, is released
and thus provides energy for convective currents in the
after rupture in waves that radiate outward from
outer core and in the astenosphere.
the fault.
Additional energy comes from radioactive decay.
Elastic waves Body waves
Convection in the astenosphere enables tectonic processes
Longitudinal waves:
PLATE TECTONICS
They are faster than transversal waves and thus
arrive first.
Tectonic plates
The particles oscillate in the direction of spreading
Tectonic plates are large parts of litosphere floating
of the wave.
on the astenosphere
Compressional waves, P-waves
Convective currents move them around with velocities
of several cm/year.
Transversal waves:
The plates interact with one another in three basic
The particles oscillate in the direction
ways:
perpendicular to the spreading direction.
1. They collide
Shear waves they do not propagate through
2. They move away from each other
solids (e.g. through the outer core).
3. They slide one past another
S-waves
EARTHQUAKE RECORDS AND MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Richter Magnitude Scale
SEISMOGRAM
A record written by a seismometer in response to
ground motions produced by an earthquake, explosion,
or other ground-motion sources.
SEISMOMETER
instruments that measure motions of the ground,
including those of seismic waves generated by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other seismic
sources.
THREE MAIN DEVICES OF SEISMOGRAPH
A mathematical formula used to measure the
magnitude of an earthquake.
first widely-used method to measure the magnitude of
an earthquake
was developed by Charles F. Richter in 1934
It used a formula based on amplitude of the largest
wave recorded on a specific type of seismometer and
the distance between the earthquake and the
seismometer

SEISMOGRAPH
Seismographs are devices that record ground motion
during earthquakes.
The first seismographs were constructed at the very
end of the 19th century in Italy and Germany.
Modern digital broadband seismographs are capable of
recording almost the whole seismological spectrum (50
Hz 300 s).
Their resolution of 24 bits (high dynamic range) allows
for precise recording of small quakes, as well as
unsaturated registration of the largest ones.

ACCELEROGRAPH and SEISMOSCOPE

Observational Seismology

We are now equipped to start recording and locating

earthquakes. For that we need a seismic network of as
many stations as possible.
Minimal number of stations needed to locate the
position of an earthquake epicentre is three.
Locating Earthquakes
To locate an earthquake we need precise readings of
the times when P- and S-waves arrive at a number of
seismic stations.
Accurate absolute timing (with a precission of 0.01 s)
is essential in seismology!
Knowing the difference in arrival times of the two
waves, and knowing their velocity, we may calculate
the distance of the epicentre.
This is done using the travel-time curves which show
how long does it take for P- and S-waves to reach
some epicentral distance.
After we know the distance of epicentre from at least
three stations we may find the epicentre like this
There are more sofisticated methods of locating
positions of earthquake foci. This is a classic example
of an inverse problem.
Magnitude determination
Besides the position of the epicentre and the depth of
focus, the earthquake magnitude is another defining
element of each earthquake.
Magnitude (defined by Charles Richter in 1935) is
proportional to the amount of energy released from the
focus.
Magnitude is calculated from the amplitudes of ground
motion as measured from the seismograms. You also
need to know the epicentral distance to take attenuation
into account.
Mercalli Intensity Scale
Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902, this scale uses
the observations of the people who experienced the
earthquake to estimate its intensity.
The Mercalli Scale isn't considered as scientific as the
Richter scale
Some things that affect the amount of damage that
occurs are:
the building designs,
the distance from the epicenter,
and the type of surface material (rock or dirt) the
buildings rest on.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
A seismic scale used for measuring the intensity of an
earthquake. Before the development of magnitude
scale, the size of an earthquake was determined based
on the earthquakes effects = intensity.
Expresses intensity in roman numerals. From I to XII
and provides a description of the effects caused by the
earthquakes.
XII highest intensity and total destruction.
Depends on the earthquakes magnitude, the distance
between the epicenter and the affected area, the local
geology, and the earthquakes duration.

Formula:
M = log(A) + c1 log (D) + c2
where A is amplitude of ground motion, D is epicentral distance,
and c1, c2 are constants.
There are many types of magnitude in seismological
practice, depending which waves are used to measure
the amplitude:
ML, mb, Mc, Ms, Mw, ...
Increase of 1 magnitude unit means ~32 times more
released seismic energy!
Moment-Magnitude Scale
Used by seismologists to measure the size of
earthquakes in terms of the energy released. It is based
on the amount of displacement that occurred along a
fault zone rather than the measurement of ground
motion at a given point.
To record motion in all directions, three seismographs
are required.
One seismograph is needed to measure vertical motion,
and two to record horizontal motion. The two
seismographs recording horizontal directions, record in
90-degree angles.
based on the total moment release of the earthquake
it works over a wider range of earthquake sizes and is
applicable globally
Moment is a product of the distance a fault moved and
the force required to move it
It is derived from modeling recordings of the
earthquake at multiple stations. Moment magnitude
estimates are about the same as Richter magnitudes for
small to large earthquakes
EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENT
Measure the amount of energy released
Measure the amount of damage caused
Magnitude = the measure of the strength of the
earthquake.
Richter Scale measures magnitude, 20th century
Moment Magnitude Scale, 21st century
o More accurate for large earthquakes
o Measures the strength based on the size of the
area of the fault that moves, the average
distance that the fault blocks move, and the
rigidity of the rocks in the fault zone.
o The larger the number, the stronger the
earthquake.
o Largest recorded9.5
o Magnitudes of less than 2.5 are usually not
felt by people.
ACCELEROGRAPH
refers to an instrument used for recording acceleration
of the ground during an earthquake. It is used to
monitor structures for earthquake response. It is
commonly called accelerometer
The accelerograph which is order of 20 x 20 x40 cm
in size, often can be conveniently installed in the
corner of small structure, such as an office, instrument
room, or storage room.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACCELEROGRAPH AND
SEISMOGRAPH
Accelerograph records ground acceleration while
Seismograph records ground motion. Accelerogram-graphic
record in chart form, produced by an accelerograph in response
to seismic ground motions
SEISMOSCOPE
Invented by Chinese inventor Zhang Heng in 132 A.D
An instrument that gives a qualitative measure of the
oscillatory motion produced by an earthquake or
other disturbance of the earth's surface
Unlike the seismograph, it lacks a device to calibrate
the time
EARTHQUAKE NETWORK (SEISMIC NETWORK)
Seismic Network is a new earthquake monitoring
system based on a dense array of low-cost acceleration
sensors.
It is responsible for the operational guidance and
management of the national seismic network, short-
term earthquake prediction, earthquake data collection,
report processing, scientific journal management,
seismological construction, technological research and
operations for emergency response .
PHIVOLCS Seismic Monitoring Network
The Philippines has a total of 65 seismic stations, 29 of
which are manned, 30are unmanned, and 6 volcano
stations.
The central operating station is located at PHIVOLCS
Main Office, Diliman, Quezon City.
All information is received at the Data Receiving
Center (DRC), which is operated 24/7 by the
Seismological Observation and Prediction Division
(SOEPD).
HOW TO BUILD SIMPLE SEISMOGRAPH?YOU WILL
NEED:
1 piece steel pipe, threaded at least at one end, 1 inch
by 3 feet (25 mm by 100 cm)
1 steel floor flange 3 1/2 inches (88mm) in diameter
(should fit the pipe)
1 steel rod 1/4 inch by 24 inches (6mm by 60cm)
1 piece steel wire app. 3 feet (100 cm) long
1 wind up alarm clock
1 piece of wood, 3/4 inches by 1 foot by 3 feet (20mm
by 305mm by 915mm)
STEPS :
1. Begin by screwing the flanged plate to one end of the
large board.
2. Drill holes through the top end of the pipe for the wire.
3. Drill a hole for the wire at about one inch (25mm)
from the end of the steel rod. The steel rod must be
pointed at both ends, so place it in a vise and file on
alternate sides of the rod.
4. After this is done, drill a small dimple about six inches
(150mm) above the threaded end of the pipe in which
one pointed end of the steel rod may rest.
5. Attach the wire to the end of the pipe and the end of
the rod next, and after screwing the pipe into position
tightly, place the pointed end of the rod in the dimple.
6. Wire some heavy weights to the steel rod. These may
be lead blocks as shown here, or bricks, or even sash
weights.
7. The recording device should be prepared next. This is
done by removing the glass or plastic cover on the
clock face and cementing a white cardboard disc to the
(hour) hand of the clock.
8. Use a candle or small lamp to cover the disc with soot.
9. Now mount the clock on a piece of scrap wood, so that
the point of the steel rod barely touches the disc at the
nine o'clock position on the dial.
10. Experiment with the position of the clock until the
correct location is found before fastening it
permanently.
For greater accuracy, be sure to clamp the baseboard to the
bench or table.