Earthing- A.C.

Systems

Engr. S.M. Mujumdar

shrimujumdar@gmail.com
PLEASE SWITCH OFF
YOUR MOBILE
SMM 2
 CAUTION

Material presented is intended as a course material for a

specific training programme. No part of this may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without explicit permission.
Information contained herein is from sources believed to be
reliable. Author shall not be responsible for any errors,
omissions or damages arising out of use of this
information. It is not intended to provide engineering or
other professional services. If such services are required,
the assistance of an appropriate professional should be
sought.

7-Jul-13 SMM 3
 Agenda
Concept
Effect of current on human
Step, Touch & Transferred potential
Earthing of equipment & Lines
Earthing of GIS
Earthing at consumer end
Special aspects about earthing
Design of Earthmat
Earthing audit
Misconcepts about earthing
Case studies
Question / Answers

7-Jul-13 SMM 4
 Fault current return path..(1)

7-Jul-13 SMM 5
 Fault current return path..(2)

7-Jul-13 SMM 6
 Fault current return path..(3)

7-Jul-13 SMM 7
 Fault current return path..(4)

7-Jul-13 SMM 8
 Objective of Earthing

A safe grounding (earthing) system has two objectives :

To provide means to carry electric currents into earth under

normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating and
equipment limits or adversely affecting continuity of service

To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not

exposed to the danger of critical electric shock.

(IEEE Std. 80-2000)

7-Jul-13 SMM 9
 Components of Earthing system

7-Jul-13 SMM 10
Earthmat Layout

Vertical
Earth
electrodes

Horizontal
conductors

11
 Typical Equipment earthing

7-Jul-13 SMM 12
 Earth Electrode

Rod Electrode Pipe Electrode Pipe-in-Pipe Electrode

7-Jul-13 SMM 13
 Earth Resistance

Earth Resistance of Pipe / rod electrode

R = [ln(8L/d) 1)] / 2L
L= length of pipe/rod in m;
d = outer dia. of pipe;
=resistivity in ohm-m
Earth resistance of a horizontal round conductor buried at
depth
R = {[ln(2L/dh)] 1}/L
L= length of Horizontal Conductor in m;
d = outer dia. Of conductor;
h = depth in m
=resistivity in ohm-m
SMM 14
Plate Electrode

R = [( / 2)] / 4;

( A= Area of one face in sq. m)

SMM 15
 Soil properties
Earth is a poor conductor of electricity
Typical Resistivity() of soil is 100 M & for Cu is 1.7 x 10-8 M.
[ Conductivity of 25 x 4 mm Copper & 800 x 800 M (158 acre) soil is same]
Two main constituents of soil are Silicon Oxide & Aluminum Oxide
which are insulators
Soil becomes conductive due to salts and moisture embedded in between
Surface of Soil layer clay and sand mixed with decayed vegetable
material. When dry this does not conduct. With moisture content, it
becomes conducting.
Soil under the surface of earth is non-homogeneous. Hence resistivity
varies in wide range between 1 M and 100,000 M. Depends on type,
nature of soil & physical / chemical composition of soil.
Sandy soil drains faster, Solid rock does not retain water have higher .
Black cotton soil or soil with high organic contain retain moisture & have
lower .
Soil resistivity measurement is important for design of earthing system
SMM 16
 Typical Resistivity of soil
Sl. Type of Soil Resistivity (-M)
No. Usual variation
1 Tap water 0.01 - 500
2 Sea water 0.02 -20
3 Lake water non polluted (in hilly terrain) 200 and up
4 Surface soil (clay, sand & decayed organic) 5- 50

5 Shale (fine grained rock of mud & clay) 5 - 500

6 Deep limestone 5 4,000
7 Clay (viscous earth-Al silicate),black clay 8 - 100
8 Concrete, new or buried in earth 25 - 500
9 Sand and Gravel 40 - 300
10 Sand clay and Gravel mixture 50 - 250

7-Jul-13 SMM 17
 Typical Resistivity of soil.contd.

Sl. Type of Soil Resistivity (-M)

No. Usual variation
11 Decomposed gneiss ( rock with quartz, mineral) 50 - 500
12 Surface limestone (mainly Calcium carbonate) 100 10,000
13 Granite 200 10,000
14 Concrete dry 200 - > 1,000,000
15 Sandstone dry 1,000 - > 10,000
16 Basalt (dark colored fine rock) 1,000
17 Gravel 1,000 10,000
18 Primary rock (gneiss, granite) 10,000 50,000
19 Asphalt wet 10,000 6,000,000

Source: CBIP Publication No. 302

7-Jul-13 SMM 18
 Range of earth resistivity

Type of earth Average

Resistivity(-m)
Wet organic soil 10

Moist soil 100

Dry soil 1,000

Rock 10,000

Lake water non polluted 200 and up

(in hilly terrain)

7-Jul-13 SMM 19
 Effect of Moisture, Temp. & Salt

103 103 103

102 102 102

10 10 10

1 1 1

Reinhold Rudenberg, Grounding Principles and Practices-Part 1, Fundamental

Considerations on Grounding Currents, Electrical Engineering. Jan 1945
IEEE Std. 81-1983

7-Jul-13 SMM 20
 Variation of soil resistivity

Moisture in the soil is the most important factor determining

its conductivity / resistivity. Conditions which increase /
decrease distribution of moisture content in the soil, result in
corresponding changes.
Resistivity undergoes seasonal changes as per moisture in
the soil, due to climatic conditions.

Values of resistivity are minimum in rainy season and

maximum in summer / dry season.

For safe design of earthmat, measurements in dry season are

to be adopted.
7-Jul-13 SMM 21
 Soil resistivity measurement

Soil resistivity tester is used for measurement of soil

resistivity.
The testers of two types are available namely:
Battery operated digital tester
Crank operated tester
Power frequency and also harmonic leakage currents often
flow in the earth. Tester should have inbuilt capability to filter
out such noise signals.
Tester should be calibrated prior to operation
Normally two methods are used for measurements:
Four electrode(pin) method
Three electrode(pin) method

7-Jul-13 SMM 22
 Wenners four Electrode method

Earth Tester
C1 P1 P2 C2

a a a

Depth of burial of spike < a/20 =2aR

This method was developed by Dr. Frank Wenner (US) in 1915

7-Jul-13 SMM 23
 Schlumberger- Palmer
four Electrode method

Earth Tester
C1 P1 P2 C2

c d c
Depth of burial of spike < d & c = c (c+d) R /d
C > 2d
Shortcoming of Wenner method: When Spacing is increased, there is a rapid decrease in
magnitude of potential between inner electrodes which some instruments may not read.

7-Jul-13 SMM 24
 Three-pin method

= 2 b R / [ ln (8 b/d)-1]
7-Jul-13 SMM 25
 Soil Resistivity Measurement

Measure the resistivity along perpendicular and

diagonal directions by varying distance a
a= 1,2,5,10,20 & 3550 m

7-Jul-13 SMM 26
 Interpretation of measurements

Calculate the average value of soil resistivity

If most of the readings are within +/- 30 %; soil can be

considered as Uniform soil.

If readings are beyond above limit soil to be considered as

Non-uniform soil.

7-Jul-13 SMM 27
 Effect of current thro human body
Effect of electric current through the vital parts of human body
depend on the duration, magnitude and frequency of this current.
Most dangerous consequence could be ventricular fibrillation, a
condition of uncoordinated action of main chambers of the heart,
resulting in immediate arrest of blood circulation.

Currents at 50 Hz about 0.1 A can be lethal. But human can sustain

larger currents at 25 Hz or DC or at frequencies in the range of
3,000 - 10,000 Hz.

Current depends on voltage applied and body resistance.

Resistance is mainly offered by skin. Skin resistance increases with
thickness and diminishes with moisture / perspiration. Except for
skin; blood vessels, intravascular spaces etc. offer conduction
system.
7-Jul-13 SMM 28
 Effect of AC / DC current on human
AC DC

AC- Extended Muscle contraction; DC- Convulsive contraction

7-Jul-13 SMM 29
 Influence of frequency on human

Source: IS 8437

7-Jul-13 SMM 30
 Tolerable current for human body
As per studies by Dalziel, 99.5% of all persons can safely withstand without
ventricular fibrillation, the passage of current (IB) for duration ranging from
0.03 to 3.0 sec and is related to energy absorbed by the body as per formula:
SB = (IB)2 x ts
Value of SB = 0.0135 for person weighing 50 kg
i.e. IB = 116 mA for 1 sec.&
SB = 0.0246 for person weighing 70 kg
i.e. IB = 157 mA for 1 sec.

Ts IB (50 kg) IB (70 kg)

0.2 sec 259 mA 351 mA
0.5 sec 164 mA 222 mA
1.0 sec 116 mA 157 mA

7-Jul-13 SMM 31
 Human Body and foot resistance

Body resistance including skin ranges from 500 to 3000 which

reduces by damage or puncture of skin at contact point.

For earthing design, resistance of human body from hand-to-feet,

foot-to-foot and also hand-to-hand is considered as 1000 ohm as
per IEEE 80-2000.

Human foot is represented as a conducting metallic disc and

resistance of shoes, socks, etc. is neglected.

Ground resistance of foot on surface of a earth resistivity

(m) is :
Rf = /(4 x r) r=0.08 m
Rf 3 per foot.

7-Jul-13 SMM 32
 Electrode Earthing Resistance

Earthing
Resistance of
Electrode is made
up of :

1. Resistance of
(metal)
electrode
2. Contact
resistance to
soil
3. Soil resistance
from electrode
to infinite earth
7-Jul-13 SMM 33
 Resistance offered by earth

Concentric shells of Earth

Approx. 90% of the resistance between

R= (/2) dx/x2 driven rod & earth lies within a radius
of about two m from rod.
7-Jul-13 SMM 34
 Voltage on soil around earth rod

7-Jul-13 SMM 35
 Touch and step potential

Surface Potential
Distribution (SPD)

7-Jul-13 SMM 36
 Transferred Potential

Station 1 Station 2
GPR STN 1

Et r r d

GPR STN 2

7-Jul-13 SMM 37
 Definitions (IEEE std. 80)
Ground Potential Rise (GPR):
Max. electrical potential that a substation grounding grid may attain
relative to a distant grounding point assumed to be at potential of remote
earth.
Step Voltage :
The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a
distance of 1 m with the feet without contacting any other object.
Touch Voltage :
The potential difference between the ground potential rise (GPR) & the
surface potential at the point where a person is standing while
simultaneously having a hand in contact with a grounded structure.
Mesh voltage :
The maximum touch voltage within a mesh of grounding grid.
Transferred voltage :
A special case of the touch voltage where a voltage is transferred into or
out of substation from or to a remote point external to substation site.
7-Jul-13 SMM 38
 Touch / Step voltage. Eq. circuit.

7-Jul-13 SMM 39
 Earth resistance measurement
Installations & apparatus >650 V:

Every earthing system .. Shall be tested for its resistance to earth

on a dry day during dry season not less than once a year and
records of such tests shall be maintained and produced.

Installations & apparatus <650 V:

Every earthing system .. Shall be tested for its resistance to earth on

a dry day during dry season not less than once in every two year
and records of such tests shall be maintained and produced

7-Jul-13 SMM 40
 Connection with Earth
For installations & apparatus >650 V

(1)All non-current carrying metal parts associated with HV /EHV

installation shall be effectively earthed to a grounding system or
mat which shall

(i) Limit the step and touch potential to tolerable values;

(ii) Limit ground potential rise to tolerable value so as to prevent danger
(iii) Maintain the resistance of earth connection to such value as to make
operation of protective device effective.

(2) In the case of star-connected system with earthed neutrals or delta

connected system with earthed artificial neutral point-

(i) the neutral point of every generator & transformer shall be earthed by
connecting it to earthing system not by less than two separate & distinct
connections

7-Jul-13 SMM 41
 Zigzag earthing transformer

In case of the delta

connected system the
neutral point shall be
obtained by the insertion of
a grounding transformer and
current limiting resistance or
impedance wherever
considered necessary at the
commencement of such a
system.
Core winding
System
connection
7-Jul-13 SMM 42
 Star- delta earthing transformer

7-Jul-13 SMM 43
 Transformer and Generator

Neutral point of every generator and transformer shall be earthed

by connecting it to the earthing system by not less than two
separate and direct connections.

the frame of generator, stationary motor,..& all metallic parts not

intended as conductors of all transformers..shall be earthed by two
separate and direct connections with earth.
In case of generating stations and sub-stations; the system neutral
earthing and protective frame earthing may be integrated into
common earthing grid provided combined mat does not exceed
permissible step & touch potential.

7-Jul-13 SMM 44
 Earthing of Power Transformer
or Reactor

End view Plan

7-Jul-13 SMM 45
 Earthing of DTC

To main earth ring

7-Jul-13 SMM 46
 Earthing of Pole mounted DTC

7-Jul-13 SMM 47
 Earthing of Isolator
(Aux. Earthmat)

7-Jul-13 SMM 48
 Earthing of Surge Arrestor

7-Jul-13 SMM 49
 Typical Earthing arrangement

7-Jul-13 SMM 50
 Statutory Provision O.H. Lines

Earthing
All metal supports and all reinforced and prestressed cement
concrete supports of over-head lines and metallic fittings
attached thereto, shall be permanently and efficiently earthed.
For this purpose a continuous earth wire shall be provided and
securely fastened to each pole and connected with earth
ordinarily at three points in every km. the spacing between the
points being as nearly equidistant as possible. Alternatively,
each support and the metallic fitting attached thereto shall
be efficiently earthed.
Each stay-wire shall be similarly earthed unless an insulator has
been placed in it at a height not less than 3.0 metres from the
ground.

7-Jul-13 SMM 51
 Earthing of Tower
STUB ANGLE

7-Jul-13 SMM 52
 Counterpoise type of earthing
(For lines)

Lightning strokes have

the ability to discharge
thousands of amperes
in short time. This
needs to be discharged
into earth. If ground has
high resistance, Back
flashover occurs.
Back flashover can be
avoided by improving
resistance of the earth
point.

7-Jul-13 SMM 53
 Earthing for Dist. lines

7-Jul-13 SMM 54
 Earthing for Dist. Lines .contd.

7-Jul-13 SMM 55
 Overhead lines..contd.
(For installations and apparatus < 650 V)
(i) neutral conductor of a 3 4 w system .. Shall be earthed by not
less than two separate and distinct connections with min. of two
different earth electrodes.. To bring the earth resistance to a
satisfactory value both at generating station and at sub-station.
(ii) the earth electrodes so provided, shall be inter-connected to
reduce earth resistance.
(iii) neutral conductor shall also be earthed at one or more points
along the distribution system or service line

7-Jul-13 SMM 56
 L.T.Earthing Systems

TN-S System TN-C System

7-Jul-13 SMM 57
 Earthing of Cable screens
Short length cables

Circulating currents reduce the Ampacity.

Open End or

Maximum sheath voltage is taken as 65 V

7-Jul-13 SMM 58
 Earthing of Cable screens
Induced Screen Voltage
Cross Bonding of the metallic screens

7-Jul-13 SMM 59
 Earthed terminal on consumer's premises

Earthed terminal on
consumer's premises
(1) The supplier shall
provide and maintain on the
consumer's premises for
the consumer's use a
suitable earthed terminal in
an accessible position at or
near the point of
Earthed Terminal commencement of supply.

Metallic bearer wire

...supporting O.H. service
line of voltage <650 V shall
be efficiently earthed.

7-Jul-13
REC Standard SMM 60
Drg. H-2 & 3
 Consumer premises

Regulation
Earthed terminal on
41(xiv)..where the
consumer's premises supply voltage is not
exceeding
In case of installation of
voltage exceeding 250 V
the consumer shall, in
addition, provide his own
earthing system with an
independent electrode.

7-Jul-13 SMM 61
 Earthing of enclosures

.where the supply voltage is not exceeding 250 V and where the
installations are either new or renovated all plug sockets shall be of the
three-pin type, and the third pin shall be permanently and efficiently
earthed.
7-Jul-13 SMM 62
 Earthing of GIS
Characteristics of GIS
Area occupied is 10-25% of equivalent AIS
Equipment are placed closer requiring high density grid i.e. more
ground conductor in given area
Transient Enclosure Voltage (TEV) :
Due to Lightening strokes, phase to earth faults and discharges
during switching ( of say Isolators) , generate very High Frequency
(HF) transients (at most for 20-30 ms) that can couple onto the
grounding system. HF currents cause local transient potential rise
because of high reactance of earth connection ( 1 m Cu 0.003 at
50 Hz; 60 at 10 MHz ) . Earth connection must be short /direct.
Discontinuities :
GIS has discontinuities in the enclosure. Hence HF transients
generated inside of screening get transferred to exterior of GIS.
Main flange joints made using sandwich of metal flange & insulating
spacer can lead to sparking during switching operations.

7-Jul-13 SMM 63
 Metal-to-Metal touch situation
(Typical in GIS)

Touch voltage criteria for GIS

(Et 2 + E to max 2 ) < E touch permissible

7-Jul-13 SMM 64
 Earthing of GIS .contd.

Basic requirement of earthing system for AIS & GIS are same.
Provision of Mesh arrangement : to provide larger length by
adopting mesh arrangement,
Connection to reinforced concrete mat : connecting earthmat to
reinforcing steel provided in the concrete floor slab.
Use of deep driven rods or chemical treatment of the soil.
Frequent and short connections of GIS enclosures to earthgrid.
Connection should be as near to ground level as possible.
Use of non-linear resistances at the location of discontinuities
Proper routing of control circuits and screening of control cables.
Group of Control cables can be enclosed in metallic conduits.
Interact and adopt the recommendations of GIS manufacturer .

7-Jul-13 SMM 65
 Special aspects (1)

Earthing of Lightning Arrestors

Current through Lightning Arrestor have high frequency

components. The inductance of the grounding conductor may
introduce a high impedance to lightening current which is not
desirable.
Hence Lightning Arrestor earthing conductor should be short
and direct. It should not be enclosed in metallic conduit.
Exclusive earth electrode should be provided along with
interconnection with earthing grid. Earthing connection preferably
should be through insulated cable from about 2 m from ground
level.

7-Jul-13 SMM 66
 Special aspects (2)
Earthing of Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT)

CVT offers relatively low value of impedance to steep fronted

surges. Hence high frequency currents flow through it to earth.
Low impedance earth connection should be provided. Otherwise
high transient potential could appear on earthing connections.
Each CVT shall be earthed through a independent earth
electrode and it should be connected to earthmat.
Earthing of Lightning Mast & Tower with peak

Lightning Masts and Peak to the tower are provided for Direct
stroke Lightening Protection (DSLP). Down conductors from top
of Lightning Masts and Peak to the tower are clamped down and
connected to low impedance earthing system.

7-Jul-13 SMM 67
 Special aspects (3)
Exclusive two earth electrode for transformer Neutral.
All structures within substation to be connected to earthmat
at min. two points.
Rails supporting transformers to be earthed min. every 30m

Cable supporting structures to be earthed.

All interconnections to be welded (thermoweld) except
equipment earthing pads
Fence Earthing (Normally earthing grid is extended 1 to 2 m
outside fence.)

Gate Opening area to be part of earthmat.

7-Jul-13 SMM 68
 Special aspects. Contd.

Gravel / PCC in Switchyard

Operating shaft / mechanism box to be connected to extra
ground mat at shallow depth
Metallic conductor going outside switchyard (Transferred
potential)
Provision of earthing ring around control room building
All panels / cubicles within control room to be connected to
above ring
Spacing between electrodes

7-Jul-13 SMM 69
 Spacing between Earth Electrode

Over lapping resistance areas

of two earth rods
7-Jul-13 SMM 70
 Design Considerations

Guiding standards IEEE 80, Central Board of Irrigation &

Power India (CBIP) Publication Nr. 302 & 311.
Estimation of fault current flowing between the grid and
earth (SLG or LLG fault)
Basic Objectives:
Adequacy of Ground conductor for fault current
(considering corrosion)
Step potential within tolerable
Touch (Mesh) Potential limit
Minimum Ground Resistance

7-Jul-13 SMM 71
 Data for Design of Earthing system

Data required
i. Area covered by substation

ii. Resistivity of soil at site

iii. Maximum earth fault current

iv. Maximum grid current

v. Fault clearing time

vi. Resistivity and depth of surface layer (i.e. Gravel or PCC)

7-Jul-13 SMM 72
 Earth fault current

Design of earthing system requires magnitude and duration of

Maximum current that flows thro earthing conductors
Maximum current that flows between earth conductors and soil

Zero sequence fault current I0 (for single line to ground fault)

I0 = E /(X1+X2+X0) .(a)

Zero sequence fault current I0 (for double line to ground fault)

I0 = E *X2/ X1 * (X2+X0)+ (X2+X0) .(b)

Maximum from (a) or (b) is considered for design

7-Jul-13 SMM 73
 Grid Current

Path for the flow of the current supplied to the fault by remote
source through transmission line
7-Jul-13 SMM 74
 Grid Current computation

IG = Sf .Df. If
Sf is fault current division factor Component of If flowing thro soil
Df is decrement factor for entire duration of fault
( Takes care of DC offset current)
Fault duration sec. 0.008 0.1 0.25 0.5 or more
Df 1.65 1.25 1.10 1.0
If is rms value of ground fault current in A

GPR = IG.Rg
(Ground Potential Rise The maximum electrical potential that a
substation earthing grid may attain relative to a distant earthing point)

7-Jul-13 SMM 75
 Metals for earthing
Galvanic Electrode Potential
series (Volts)
Corroded End ( - ) Magnesium -2.37
Aluminum -1.66
Zinc -0.76
Iron -0.44
Tin -0.14
Lead -0.13
Copper +0.34
Silver +0.8
Protected End (+) Gold +1.5 (Noble)
Ref.: The Electrochemical Series
Referred to Hydrogen electrode

7-Jul-13 SMM 76
 Dissimilar metal Galvanic cell

0.78 VOLTS

7-Jul-13 SMM 77
 Copper theft

[Source: Transmission & Distribution World; December 2010]

7-Jul-13 SMM 78
 Copper-clad steel

7-Jul-13 SMM 79
 Size of Earth conductor
Size of earth conductor mainly depends on:
Material being used
Fusing temperature of the material
Type of conductor-to-conductor joints
In flammable areas, specified maximum temperature

A= Kx I t
A in sq.mm & I in kA
Material K for welded joints K for bolted joints
Copper 4.7 5.8
Steel 12.15 15.7
Aluminium 8.4 12.0

7-Jul-13 SMM 80
 Area of substation
Following premises are generally covered within fenced area of
substation:
Switchyard
Control room
D.G. set building
Fire- fighting pump house
LT station for auxiliary power supply

Earthing conductor shall be buried covering entire fenced area. For

buildings, the earthing conductor shall be laid around the building
typically at 1500 mm.

Often earth electrode conductor is extended 1 to 2 meters beyond

fence line. (save in case of masonry wall along border)
7-Jul-13 SMM 81
 Duration of fault current
Duration of fault current is considered for:

Sizing of earth conductor (tf) should be maximum, considering

operation of backup protection
1 sec. for Digital/Static relay & 3 sec. for E.M. relays.

Computing maximum permissible value of Estep/ Etouch

potential (ts)
0.5 sec. for Digital/Static relay & 1 sec. for E.M. relays.

7-Jul-13 SMM 82
 Tolerable voltages
Tolerable Step potential
Estep = ( RB + 2 Rf) IB
RB Body Resistance 1000 , Rf Foot resistance 3 , 116 m
Estep = (1000 + 6 Cs s) 0.116 / ts
Cs - Reduction factor to account for depth of laying (hs) and Gravel
= 1- {[0.09(1- / s)]/[2hs+0.09]}
s - Resistivity of Gravel (3000 m ) , - Resistivity of soil

Tolerable Touch / Mesh potential

Touch voltage is maximum within a mesh of earth grid.
Hence Mesh voltage is considered while designing.
Emesh = ( RB + Rf /2) IB
Emesh = (1000 + 1.5 Cs s) 0.116 / ts

7-Jul-13 SMM 83
 Achievable voltages
Achievable Step potential
Estep = .Ks.Ki. IG / LS
Ks, Ki -factors considering depth of burial, geometry of plot etc.
LS = 0.75(LC-Length of Grid conductor) + 0.85(LR-Length of all Ground rods)
- Resistivity of soil

Achievable Touch/Mesh potential

Emesh = .Km.Ki. IG / LM
Km spacing factor as per proposed mat layout of plot, spacing, plot shape,
depth of conductor burial etc.
If there are no ground rods in corner or along perimeter ,
LM Total length of Horizontal and vertical earth rod (LC + LR )
Otherwise i.e. with ground rods in corner and along perimeter,
LM =LC+{1.55+1.22 [LR/(L2X+L2Y)]}*LR
LX &LY are maximum length in X & Y direction respectively.
Length of conductor influences achievable values.
7-Jul-13 SMM 84
 Substation Ground Resistance

is the resistivity of the soil in ohm-m

Resistance is mainly dependant on area & length

of buried conductor. Not on material or cross section
of conductor.

7-Jul-13 SMM 85
 Design Procedure
Assume some spacing

Compute tolerable values of EStep & ETouch (EMesh)

Compute Resistance & Grid Potential Rise

Compute attainable values of EStep & ETouch (EMesh)

Attainable Value less than Tolerable values ?

if Yes design is over,

if not .
Modify spacing, add more vertical rods
& Repeat till it is OK.

7-Jul-13 SMM 86
 Earthing Design.. a case study
Switchyard area : 210 m X 180 m
3 fault current : 40 kA; 1 fault current : 26.5 kA
Soil Resistivity () : 68.7 m
Earthing conductor : 75 X 10 mm M.S.Flat (FGL - 600 mm)
Gravel thickness : 100 mm ( = 3000 m)

Spacing m Permissible 20 20 17 17
No of Ground. Rods Values Volts 50 68 50 68
(116 mA 1 sec.)
E step 2231 371 365 356 353

E touch 681 787 772 691 680

7-Jul-13 SMM 87
 Criteria for safe design
Following is the clarification issued by IEEE in year 2001.

. IEEE Std 80-2000, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC

Substation Grounding is based on the safety criteria of
acceptable touch and step potentials. Substations with low
resistances are not an indication of safe design, nor is a
substation with a high resistance necessarily an indication of
an unsafe design. The resistivity of the soil, the magnitude of
the available fault current, and the physical layout of the
ground grid itself determines a safe design.

7-Jul-13 SMM 88
 Measures to lower resistance
Increase the area for laying the earthmat. If available,
connect with adjacent grounding facilities.

Provide satellite earth grid

Increase the length of conductor by laying more vertical rods

along perimeter or increasing length of the rods.

Reducing spacing between earthmat grid.

Placing of ground enhancement material around grounding

conductor in trench.

Concrete-encased electrodes (Concrete is hygroscopic with

resistivity of 30-90 -m).

7-Jul-13 SMM 89
 Satellite Earthgrid

Source: CBIP Publications No. 302

7-Jul-13 SMM 90
 Counterpoise grid in s/s

Spacing of
main grid
may be okay
for Step
voltage but
not for Touch
voltage.
Counterpoise
mat is
provided with
less spacing
at shallow
depth
Source: CBIP Publications No. 302

7-Jul-13 SMM 91
 Soil Treatment
One of the method to improve soil resistivity is to use
resistivity enhancement material along with vertical rod
electrode. This method effectively increases the diameter of
the electrode by modifying the soil surrounding the electrode.
Use Sodium chloride, Calcium chloride, Magnesium / Copper
sulphate
Use of Bentonite (natural clay) which can absorb water up to 5
times its weight & swells up to 13 times of dry volume. It retains
absorbed moisture for longer period.
pH value ranges between 8 to 10.
Calcium sulphate (Gypsum) having pH value 6.2 to 6.9 is also
used.
Conductive cement ( Marconite) is premixed with water and
absorbs moisture from surrounding soil.
7-Jul-13 SMM 92
 Rod electrode
(with Ground resistance improvement material)

Source: CBIP Publications No. 302

7-Jul-13 SMM 93
 Earth conductor
(with Ground resistance improvement material)

SMM 94
 Effect of Artificial Treatment

Source: Megger

7-Jul-13 SMM 95
 Earthing Audit
Assessment of Quality and Capability of earthing system.
Typically tasks involved are:
To check continuity of all connections to earth electrode
To perform the Fall of Potential test on the earthing grid
Where number of separate earth electrodes are connected together,
each of them is to be tested for its individual resistance.
This exercise is carried out before energisation of newly
constructed substation, as well as for existing stations.

While conducting test at an energised station, precaution for safety of

personnel and equipment must be taken. It is preferable to switch off
the source supply during test. Test should not be carried out during
the period of lightening activity. Use of H.V. rated insulated gloves /
boots, eye protection, helmet etc. well-known precautions be observed.

7-Jul-13 SMM 96
 Fall of Potential Method. Methodology
% Distance from earth grid under test

20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 100%

Earth
Grid G

P1 P2
C2

C1

7-Jul-13 SMM 97
 Fall of Potential Method .contd.

7-Jul-13 SMM 98
 Test eqpt. set up for a 90/180o test

7-Jul-13 SMM 99
 Typical 90/1800 test results
o

7-Jul-13 SMM 100

 Acceptable Bonding Readings

7-Jul-13 SMM 101

 Resistance measurement
(Ground Electrode)

LEM Geo X
Earth Tester

7-Jul-13 SMM 102

 Power Distribution: Computer, Electronic devices
Isolating
Transformer

415/240 V Power
Supply Panel
Source:
IEEE
Std. 142-2007

7-Jul-13 SMM 103

 Clarifications(1)

Earth resistance of Copper electrode is better than Steel

electrode ??

Pipe / rod electrode: R = [ln(8L/d) 1)] / 2L

Round conductor buried at depth: R = {[ln(2L/dh)] 1}/L
Plate Electrode: R = [( / 2)] / 4;
It is seen from above equations that Resistance is
independent of resistivity of material. It depends on resistivity
of soil

7-Jul-13 SMM 104

 Clarifications (2)

Buckets and buckets of water

poured in the earth pit will bring
down earth resistance value ??

The resistance to earth of a

given earth electrode depends
upon the electrical resistivity of
the soil in which it is installed.
Moisture content is one of the
controlling factors of earth
resistivity (upto 20% moisture).

7-Jul-13 SMM 105

 Clarifications (3)
Earth pit filled to the brim with salt and charcoal will reduce
resistance drastically ??

To reduce soil resistivity, it is necessary to dissolve in the

moisture, (normally contained in the soil) some substance,
which is highly conductive in its water solution. The most
commonly used substances are salt & charcoal in suitable
proportion. It must be noted that the additive substance
would reduce the resistivity of the soil, only when it is
dissolved in the moisture in the soil. Dry additives do not
serve any purpose at all. So, there is no point, in just filling up
the pit with salt & charcoal.

7-Jul-13 SMM 106

 Clarifications (4)
Vary vary long rod / pipe
electrodes would reduce the
resistance substantially ??

The resistance to earth of a pipe or

rod Electrode diminishes rapidly within
the first few meters of driving, but less
so at depths greater than 2 to 3m in
soil of uniform resistivity. As can be
seen from the graph, after about 3m
depth, there is no appreciable change
in resistance to earth of the electrode.
Except in special cases.

7-Jul-13 SMM 107

 Clarifications (5)

Plate electrode is efficient than strip electrode ??

Consider a Plate electrode (1m x 1m x 8 mm) and

Strip electrode (28 mm dia. L= 13 m) with same volume(0.008m3).
Soil with = 100 -m and
electrode buried at 1 m below ground.
For plate electrode R = [( / 2)] / 4 = 31.3
For strip electrode R = {[ln(2L/dh)] 1}/L = 14.3

Hence plate electrode is rarely used in present practice.

7-Jul-13 SMM 108

 Case study (1). Corrosion of material

Grounding Duration Corrosion rate-mils per year - average

Metal (Months) Untreated Treated soil : Treated soil:
soil Salt-Charcoal Bentonite
Mild steel 60 0.72 2.44 2.86

Galvanised 60 0.40 1.28 0.44

Iron (GI)
Copper 60 0.26 0.36 0.16

Courtesy : CPRI

7-Jul-13 SMM 109

 Case study(2)

Soil =100 m ; Gravel 150 mm thick with = 3000 m;

Permissible touch voltage = 856 V

7-Jul-13 SMM 110

 Case study(2).. Contd.
Transferred potential

7-Jul-13 SMM 111

 Case study(2).. Contd.

7-Jul-13 SMM 112

 Case study(3)
Effectiveness of Bentonite
Ref. Rod Resistance (ohm)
In 300 mm
Location Period % Reduction
Normal dia.
Bentonite

Chandigarh May 88 117.5 49.25 58

(Ord. Soil) Sept 88 22 20 9.1

Mohali May 88 36 19.95 44.6

(River Bed) Sept 88 12 11 8.33

Source: CBIP Technical

Report No.86 Nov. 1992

7-Jul-13 SMM 113

 Any Questions ????

7-Jul-13 SMM 114

 Use of Gravel. Advantages

Provides high resistivity surface layer (Prime objective).

Impediment to the movement of reptiles.

Prevents formation of oil pool from leaked oil.

Discourages growth of weeds.

Helps in retaining moisture in the underlying soil.

Discourages running of person in the switchyard.

7-Jul-13 SMM 115

 Ground grid integrity test
Test conducted before energisation of newly constructed
substation to detect open ends, if any.
This test is also carried out following damage, if any, to
electronic / solid state equipment due to lightening surge.
Variable voltage source (0-35 V, 0-300 A), voltage / current
measuring device & two test leads.
One lead is connected to reference ground riser and other to
ground riser under test.
Typically 300 A is injected and voltage drop, current is
measured (by clamp-on Ammeter).
Procedure repeated for different sets of risers.
Often cable tracer is employed to locate broken ground
conductor.

7-Jul-13 SMM 116

 Bonding test

7-Jul-13 SMM 117

 Factors for achievable voltage

Achievable value of Step / Touch (Mesh) voltage depends on:

Grid current
Length of Conductor used for earth mat
Diameter of Conductor used for earth mat
Depth at which the earth mat is buried
Spacing between earthing conductor
Shape of plot
Provision of electrode along periphery
Dissipation of current from earthing conductor to soil
etc.etc.
Empirical formulae provides estimation of Step / Touch
(Mesh) voltage in worst case.

7-Jul-13 SMM 118