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Operations guide
Mechanical Fasteners
Mechanical fasteners are generally used where connections
can be easily assembled and disassembled.
2
Table of contents
1. Bolted Assembly 5
2. Molded-in Threads 9
5. Boss Caps 21
7. Self-Tapping Screws 25
8. Riveted Assembly 31
9. Hook-and-Loop Fasteners 33
10. Press-Fits 35
11. Snap-Fits 39
3
4
1 Bolted Assembly
5
Bolted connections can be used when
frequent assembly and disassembly of
components are required, see figure 1.
Figure 2
Hollow bosses are used to limit deection.
6
Figure 3
Bolts with a conical head should be
avoided.
7
Figure 5
Increase of the pre-stress in the bolt.
If the temperature increases, the thermal in the gures A and B respectively (see The bolt head and the nut can be
expansion of the two materials leads to the gure 5). The slope of the lines in these countersunk to improve appearance. Caps
elongation of the bolt and the compression gures is determined by the stiffness of on the nuts are also a good way of improving
of the plastic. This will increase pre-stresses the bolt and the stiffness of the plastic aesthetics. Hexagonal shaped depressions
in the bolt and the plastic, as shown construction. The two diagrams have been can be molded into the parts to prevent the
graphically in gure 5. combined in gure C, whereby the distance bold head or nut from rotating, simplifying
between the origins of both curves is equal the assembly operation and also making the
The force-displacement diagrams of the to L. The resulting increase of the pre-stress aesthetics of the assembly better.
plastic construction and the bolt are shown can be determined.
8
2 Molded-in
Threads
9
Design
Molded-in threads can be used when
frequent assembly and disassembly are
not required. Mechanical thread-forming
operations are eliminated in that way. Both
internal as well as external threads are
commonly used.
Figure 7
Avoid sharp edges.
Figure 8
For tapered (pipe) threads, provide a positive stop.
10
Stripped internal threads
The possibility to de-mold parts with internal
threads by stripping them from the core is
very limited and depends on the plastic type
and the thread shape. Only thermoplastics
with a low E-modulus and a high yield strain
are suitable. During the stripping process
the elastic limit must not be exceeded in
the thread during ejection from the mold
(see gure 9). For information about the
maximum allowable short-term strain in the
thread for DSMs thermoplastics, see par. 12.
Rounded threads are especially suitable for
this option.
Collapsible cores
Collapsible cores are used for smaller
Figure 9 parts, see gure 10. Parting lines due to
Stripping internal threads from the mold. the segments of the split core will appear.
Collapsible cores are wear-sensitive.
Figure 10
Collapsible core.
11
Unscrewing device for internal
threads
High-quality threads can be produced in
large production series using unscrewing
devices, see gure 11.
Figure 12
Mold without unscrewing device. The center line of the thread lies in the parting plane
of the mold.
12
Stripped external threads
Figure 13 shows the principle of stripping
external thread of from the mold. The same
considerations as for internal threads apply.
Figure 13
Stripping external threads from the mold.
Figure 14
Unscrewing device for external threads.
13
14
3 Calculation
of Plastic Screw
Threads
15
Tightening torque and torque in the The shear stress in cross-section B-B
The required tightening torque Mh can screw thread is not distributed uniformly
be calculated with the following formula.
where over the windings. The rst few windings of a
cos 2 cross-section = (ro4 ri4) / 2 of the steel part. The rst winding will then
where
ro = outside radius of the screw core bear as much as 50% of the total load, which
ri = inside radius of the screw core means that the stress level in the cross-
F = axial force in the screw section B-B should also be checked. The
R = average radius of the screw head
The equivalent stress id according to the nominal shear stress is then:
contact surface von Mises failure criterion is:
pitch t r p
p = thread = ( F / 2 ) / ( 2 p r0 ) = F / ( 4 p r0 )
M h = F h R +
+
radius ofcos 2
r
= pitch the thread id = (ax2+ 3 2)
= thread ank angle in radial direction and the equivalent stress id according to
h = coefcient of friction in the contact
This equivalent stress must be smaller than the von Mises failure criterion is:
surface under the head or equal to the maximum allowable stress for
t r of friction
p in the thread
= coefcient
Mt h = F
+ the material: id = (3 2 )= 3 F / ( 4 p r0 )
cos 2
The rst term in this expression represents id max Again this equivalent stress must be smaller
the friction under the head and
the last two
than or equal to the maximum allowable
terms represent the friction in the thread. stress for the material:
So the torque Mt in the thread is:
id max
t r p
M h = F
+
cos 2
The engineer must keep in mind that
the coefficient of friction can show large
variations, depending on the surface
roughness, the lubrication
conditions and
the surface pressure etc. For information on
coefcients of friction see par 14.
The stresses
in cross-section A-A
The nominal axial tensile stress ax and the
shear
stress in cross section A-A of the
shaft are:
11
ax = F / A
respectively
Figure 15
Screw.
11
16
4 Threaded Metal
Inserts
17
Insertion is a way to create a connection
that can be assembled and disassembled
repeatedly without problems. A metal part
is inserted in the thermoplastic and the
connection can be made using a standard
screw or bolt.
18
Molded-in inserts
The insert is put into the mold (cavity)
during the injection molding cycle, gure
18. It is important to heat the inserts to a
temperature close to the mold temperature
before molding to remove differences in
thermal expansion that can lead to a stress
build up at the metal/plastic interface. It is
also essential that the inserts are clean and
free of any process lubricants.
Thread-cutting inserts
Thread-cutting inserts (gure 20) are
comparable to self-tapping screws. The
insert is screwed into a drilled or injection
molded hole without internal thread.
19
Figure 20
Thread-cutting inserts.
Figure 21
Expansion insert.
20
5 Boss Caps
21
Boss caps (gure 22) are cup-shaped rings
stamped from metal sheet which are pressed
onto the top of hollow plastic bosses by
hand, with a pneumatic device, or with a
light press. The caps reduce the tendency
of the bosses to crack by reinforcing the
boss against the expansion force exerted
by screws. The caps are used with thread
forming screws and include a single thread
for additional strength.
Figure 22
Sheet metal boss cap pressed onto the top of the boss to reinforce the boss and provide
additional assembled strength.
22
6 Push-on/Turn-on
fasteners
23
Push-on and turn-on
fasteners are self-locking
and self-threading fasteners
respectively that replace
standard nuts. These
fasteners are pushed or
screwed onto studs molded
into a part, capturing the
mating component. They
are easy to use, inexpensive
and vibration resistant, and Figure 23
Sheet metal boss cap pressed onto the top of the boss to reinforce the boss and provide
provide a light to medium additional assembled strenght.
duty assembly, where clamp
load requirements are
minimal.
Figure 24
Push-on fastener for a permanent assembly.
Figure 25
Push-on nuts (A) and self threading nuts (B).
24
7 Self-Tapping
Screws
25
Self-tapping screws are used for assembling parts. Fewer parts need to be assembled compared
to bolt-and-nut connections, with lower fastener and equipment costs. No nuts are required, so
one smooth surface is obtained. Also the aesthetics of self tapping screws are better than bolts.
Recyclability is good.
In self-tapping screw assemblies, mating Thread cutting screws cut the thread during In special cases the usefulness should be
plastic threads are formed directly on the assembly. That means that every time the established by means of component tests.
part when the screw is tightened into the screw is assembled some material will be
assembly. They have limited durability and cut away. For that reason this type of screw
repeated assembly is possible to a certain is not recommended for repeated assembly
extent. and disassembly. In general, self tapping
screws are used for polymers with a low
A self threading screw assembly typically elongation at break and no ability to deform
includes a through clearance boss and a plastically. The relatively low hoop stress
boss with a pilot hole (gure 26). The holes level associated with their use makes them
can be molded-in or drilled through. The suitable for use with glassy amorphous
diameter of the pilot hole is greater than the materials subject to crazing. As this type
root diameter of the screw, but smaller than of screw generates small chips during the
the outside diameter of the screw. cutting process, space for the chips must
Self tapping screws can be distinguished be provided when blind holes are used. The
as either thread cutting screws or thread chips can be a nuisance when through pilot
forming screws. holes are used.
26
Standard thread cutting screws
Figure 27 shows some examples of standard
thread cutting screws. These screws are
provided with cutting slots.
Figure 28
Standard thread forming screws.
27
Self-tapping screws designed for
plastics
HiLo screws are designed with a double
lead, consisting of a high and a low thread.
The screw thread conguration has a smaller
minor diameter than that of conventional
screws and the high threads make a deeper
cut into the material between the threads,
contributing to greater resistance to pullout
and stronger fastening. The high thread has
a 30 thread angle and the low thread has a
60 thread angle.
Figure 30
Plastite thread-forming screws
Figure 31
PT screws for plastics up to 40% GF. Figure 33
28
Bosses
Optimum bosses can be designed using
recommendations given in the table 1. Material PT Screw Boss Insertion
A cylindrical lead-in counterbore should be System depth
considered in the design in order to reduce Hole di
edge stress.
Akulon PA6 and PA66 0.75 x d 1.85 x d 1.7 x d
PA6 + 30% GF 0.8 x d 2 x d 1.9 x d
Tightening torque
When using screw assembly, a distinct PA66 + 30% GF 0.82 x d 2 x d 1.8 x d
difference can be noticed between the Stanyl PA46 0.73 x d 1.85 x d 1.8 x d
torque required to assemble and that PA46 + 30% GF 0.78 x d 1.85 x d 1.8 x d
required to over tighten the screw, Arnite PET and PBT 0.75 x d 1.85 x d 1.7 x d
see gure 34.
PET and PBT + 30% GF 0.8 x d 1.8 x d 1.7 x d
29
30
8 Riveted
Assembly
31
Rivets provide a simple and economic
assembly pro-cess, and produce a strong
permanent mechanical joint. They are used to
join thin sections of plastics, plastic to metal
sheet or plastics to fabric. The process can
easily be automated. Different types of rivet
heads are available, as shown in gure 35.
Figure 38 Figure 37
Formed head on a rivet. Reinforcing under the head of the rivet.
32
9 Hook-and-Loop
Fasteners
33
Hook-and-loop fasteners are available in a
variety of shapes, sizes and colors.
Figure 39
Hook-and-loop tape.
34
10 Press-Fits
35
Introduction Surface pressure between the hub
Press-ts are a simple and cost effective and the shaft
means to connect two parts. A press-t The theory for thick-walled cylinders is
is usually applied to connect a hub to a outlined below, neglecting edge effects. di = inside diameter of the shaft
solid or hollow shaft, or to x a bush in a do = outside diameter of the shaft
housing. Interference between the two parts General case Di = inside diameter of the hub
supplies the required pre-stress to enable The surface pressure p between the hub and Do = outside diameter of the hub
the connection to transmit an axial force or the shaft is: Eh = modulus of the hub material
a torque. Es = modulus of the shaft material
i = interference between hub and
The hub and the shaft may both be of shaft =do Di
plastic, but a combination of plastic and vh = Poissons ratio of the hub material
metal is also possible. If different materials where A and B are geometry factors with vs = Poissons ratio of the shaft material
are used, attention must be paid to
differences in thermal expansion, which may
cause loosening of the connection or too
high stresses.
Stress relaxation
Stress relaxation in the plastic may also lead
to loos-ening of the connection. Isochronous
stress-strain curves can supply information
about the stress relaxation that will take
place, see gure 40.
Er = (t) / 0
Coefcient of friction
The external force or torque that can be
transmitted by the connection depends on
the coef-cient of friction .
36
Plastic hub - metal shaft
The stiffness of plastics is very low compared
to the stiffness of metals, so the deformation
of the shaft will be negligible if a plastic hub
is mounted on a metal shaft. The formula for
the surface pressure p between the hub and
the shaft is then reduced to:
Hub and shaft of the same plastic The maximum tangential stress ws in a M = do2 L p / 2
If the hub and the shaft are of the same hollow shaft is located at the inside of the
plastic with modulus E, the formula for the shaft: Assembling
surface pressure p between the hub and the Assembling can be made easier by warming
shaft is reduced to: ws = - 2p / { 1 ( di / do )2} up the hub and/or cooling down the shaft,
thus reducing the interference. The change
The tangential stress ws in a massive shaft in diameter d can be calculated as follows.
is con-stant:
d = T d
ws = - p
Stresses where
The stress distribution is shown Axial force
schematically in gure 41. The maximum The axial force F required to press the two T = temperature change
tangential stress wh in the hub will be the parts together and the axial bearing capacity = coefcient of linear expansion
critical stress in many cases, as this is a of the connection can be approximated by d = initial diameter
tensile stress. the equation:
37
38
11 Snap-Fits
39
Introduction
A snap-t is an effective method to design
the fasten-ing system into the product
design itself. A snap-t can be designed
to allow parts to be either permanently
fastened (or pre-determined to be
broken off) or for frequent assembly and
disassembly.
Figure 43
Snap-fit cylindrical type.
40
The force-deection diagram
In the general case, both parts will be defor
med during assembling, see the example
in gure 45. Part 1 is bent downwards over
a distance y1, part 2 is bent upwards over
a distance y2 and a deection force Fb acts
between the two mating parts.
Secant modulus
The spring characteristic of the parts must
be calculated from the part dimensions and
the material stiffness E. Youngs modulus E0
may be used as long as the strains remain
in the proportionality range of the stress-
strain curve, but for larger strains the secant
modulus Es should be used. Figure 47 shows
the denition of Es.
41
If a certain pre-stress cannot be avoided,
as the connection has to resist an external
load, this pre-stress should be minimized.
The designer should be aware that both the
possibility of breakage and the required
force to (dis)assemble can be dealt with
indepen-dently. In most cases the number of
snap-ts can be changed.
Stress concentrations
A common factor causing failure of a snap-
t is the inside radius r (see gure 45) in
transitions or the lack thereof. An inside
radius which is too small will induce stress-
concentrations. These sections with high
stresses are often weak because the strain
limit is reached sooner. A radius r = 0.5 mm
Figure 46
is satisfactory in most cases.
Force-deection diagram.
Coefcient of friction
The mating force Fa required to assemble
and the separation force Fd required to
disassemble the snap-t are determined
by several parameters. One of them is the
coefcient of friction , which characterises
the friction forces which must be overcome.
Poissons ratio
Poissons ratio must be known to calculate
the surface pressure and the stresses in a
cylindrical snap-t.
For information about this ratio see par. 12.
42
The return angle 2 determines the
maximum load that the snap-t can take
up. The maximum load bearing capacity is
reached for a return angle of 90. The return
angle determines if the connection will be + tan1
Fa = Fb
separable or inseparable, see gure 48. 1 tan1
2+ < 90: separable joint
2+ > 9: inseparable joint
= tan = coefcient of friction
Mating force and separation force
The mating force Fa required to assemble
Figure 48
can be calculated with the following formula.
Separable and inseparable joints.
+ tan1
Fa = Fb
1 tan1
where
Fb = deection force
= coefcient of friction
1 = lead angle
The same formula is used for the separation
following paragraphs.
the calculations are a simplication. In gene- Cantilever beam with constant rectangular cross section.
ral, the stiffness of the part that the snap-t
connects to is important. The formulas men-
tioned only roughly describe the behavior of
both the part geometry and the material. On 2 L2
y=
the other hand, the approach can be used as 3 t
a rst indication of whether a snap-t design
and material choice is viable or not. w t 2 Es Changing the height might reduce the
Fb =
6L ability of the snap-t to ensure a proper
39
Cantilever beam with constant connection.
rectangular cross section where the thickness of the beam t is uniform over
A simple type of snap-t, the cantilever the length of the beam in this example. A
beam, is demonstrated in Figure 49, which E s = secant modulus
more effective method is to use a tapered
this type of snap-t. The cross section is a t = height of the beam over the length of the beam. This type of
rectangle
2 L 2 and is constant over the whole
beam is discussed.
w = width of the beam
length
beam.
y = L of the = maximum allowable strain level of the increasing the beam length L is the best
3 t
material way to reduce strain as it is calculated to
The maximum allowable deection y and The four dimensions that can be changed by
the power of 2 (squared) in the equation
deection force Fb can be calculated with the
the designer are: for the allowable deection.
39
following formulas if the maximum allowable the height of the snap-t lip h is directly the deection force is proportional to the
strain level of the material is known. related to the performance of the lip. width of the snap-t lip w.
43
L2
y=
Table 2
Moment of inertia and distance from centroid to extremities.
44
L2
y=
3e
Es l
Fb =
eL
Figure 50
40
Table 3
Multiplier c as a function of the height.
2 L2
y = c
3 t1
2
w t1 Es
Fb =
6L
41
Figure 51
Tapered beam, rectangular cross section, variable height.
45
Beams
with other cross sections
The following general formulas for the
where
Es = secant modulus
I = moment
of inertia of the cross section
L = length of the beam
Figure 52
e = distance from the centroid to the
Cylindrical snap-fit close to the end.
extremities
= maximum allowable strain level of the
material
Figure 53
Cylindrical snap-fit remote from the end.
46
beam at the xed end and t2 is the height of
the beam at the free end.
Where
Table 5
Es = secant modulus Deflection force Fb.
L = length of the beam
c = multiplier
w1 = width of the beam
t = height of the cross section at the xed
end of the beam
= maximum allowable strain level of the
material
where
47
48
12 Maximum
Allowable Short
Term Strain
49
The maximum allowable short-term strain
in plastics must be known to calculate the
maximum permissible deformation, for DSM Products Polymer description (%) Dry / conditioned
instance of:
snap ts during assembly and
disassembly, Akulon PA6 and PA66 2.5 / 10 ( * )
threads during stripping from the mold, PA6 and PA66 + 15-35% GF 1.8 / 2.8
parts with undercuts during ejection from PA6 and PA66 + 40-50% GF PA6 1.5 / 2.0
the mold etc. and PA6.6 + GF + IM 2.3 / 4.0
FR = flame retardant
GF = glass fibre
IM = impact modifier
Table 6
Typical values for the maximum allowable short-term strain at 23C.
50
13 Coefcient
of Friction
51
The coefcient of friction must be known frictional forces that are proportional to generally be close to room temperature. The
for the calculation of constructions such velocity rather than load. In thermoplastics, coefcients of friction in the table can be
as bearings, snap ts and threads. The friction actually decreases as load increases. used for these applications. Table 7 gives
coefcient of friction depends on several values for various plastics when tested
factors: It is a characteristic of most thermoplastics either against itself or against steel.
that the static coefcient of friction is less
the material, than the dynamic coefcient of friction. The equilibrium dynamic coefcient of
the hardness of the counter surface, friction at elevated temperatures, after
the surface roughness, Running-in phenomena normally do not play several hours running, is of importance for
the service temperature, a role in applications such as snap ts and bearings. The temperature increase is the
the surface pressure, threads, and the temperature will result of the heat generated by the friction.
the sliding velocity,
running-in phenomena, elapsed time and
additives.
DSM Products Polymer description On itself On steel
Frictional properties of plastics differ
Akulon PA6 & PA66 0.15 0.45 0.20 0.50
markedly from those of metals. The rigidity
Stanyl PA46 0.15 0.45 0.20 0.50
of even the highly reinforced resins is low
compared to that of metals; there-fore, Arnite PBT 0.20 0.40 0.20 0.45
plastics do not behave according to the PET w 0.30 0.15 0.25
classic laws of friction. Metal to plastic
friction is characterized by adhesion and Table 7
deformation of the plastic, resulting in Coefcients of friction at 23C, without running-in.
52
14 Poissons Ratio
53
Poissons ratio is a measure of the lateral The Poissons ratio of polymers depends on: The values in table 8 can be used for
contraction of a material if it is subjected to mechanical calculations.
a tensile stress in the longitudinal direction. temperature
It is dened as follows: moisture content in case of nylons
bre content and the bre orientation in
l = - case of lled polymers.
where
Poissons ratios lie between 0.3 and 0.5 for Arnitel TPE 0.45 0.49
most polymers. Incompressible polymers,
like rubbers, have a Poissons ratio 0.5. Table 8
Other polymers have lower values. Poissons ratio at 23C
54