INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

The process by which instruction is improved through the analysis of learning needs and systematic development
of learning experiences. Instructional designers often use technology and multimedia as tools to enhance
instruction.
Instructional Design is defined as a systematic process that is employed to develop education and
training programs in a consistent and reliable fashion (Reiser, Dempsey, 2007). In addition, it may
be thought of as a framework for developing modules or lessons that (Merrill, Drake, Lacy, Pratt,
1996):

o increase and enhance the possibility of learning

o makes the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing,

o encourages the engagement of learners so that they learn faster and gain deeper levels of
understanding

In a nutshell, instructional design can be thought of as a process for creating effective and efficient
learning processes. The list at the bottom of the page links to several types of instructional design
processes. Some, such as Gagn and Keller , are concepts that work in most instructional design
projects.

While other models are aimed at specific learning processes, such as van Merrinboer's 4C/ID model ,
which is used when the learners must master complex problem solving. Cognitive Task Analysis is
even more specific it is used to analyze tasks that are largely covert and nonprocedural in nature.

Learning can be quite complex, thus there is no one size fits all methodology. This is why
instructional designers need to familiarize themselves with the various learning theories and
concepts so that they can refer back to them when they experience new and/or complex
design problems.

Differences Between Instructional Design and Instructional System

Design

Instructional Design (ID) models differ from Instructional System Design (ISD) models in that ISD
models have a broad scope and typically divide the instruction design process into the five phases of
analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation that is often referred to as ADDIE
(van Merrinboer, 1997). Reigeluth (1983) made the same point when he noted that ID models go
into much more detail than ISD, albeit that detail has a narrower focus.

In addition, ISD models use both formative evaluations in all the phases and a summative
evaluation at the end of the process. Examples of ISD models are ADDIE and the Dick and
Carey model.
On the other hand, ID models are less broad in nature and mostly focus on analysis and design, thus
they normally go into much more detail, especially in the design phase.

ID models are normally employed in conjunction with ISD models (van Merrinboer, 1997, pp 2-3).
The ISD process keeps the entire training, development, or educational project on the correct path to
reach the learning goals, while one or more ID models are used in conjunction that best supports the
learning process being designed.

For example, you might use both ADDIE to ensure you reach your goal and 4C/ID to design the parts
of the learning processes that require complex problem solving. This allows ISD to be similar to
plug-and-play, in that you plug the needed ID theory into the ISD model as this example shows:

STRATEGIES OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

There are three types of learning strategies in Instruction Design organizational, delivery, and
management (Reigeluth, 1983):
1. Organizational

Organizational strategies are broken down on the micro or macro level so that the lesson may be
properly arranged and sequenced. Some methods for performing this can be found at Sequencing and
Structuring Learning Modules .

The last step in the design phase is to determine the sequence and structure of the material to
ensure the learning objectives are met. A proper sequence provides the learners with a pattern of
relationship so that each activity has a definite purpose. The more meaningful the content, the
easier it is to learn and, consequently, the more effective the instruction.

Proper sequencing also helps to avoid inconsistencies in the content of the instruction. When
material is carefully sequenced, duplication is far less likely. Indeed, the presence of duplication
often indicates that the program has not been properly sequenced.
Some of the techniques and considerations used in sequencing are:

o Job Performance Order: The learning sequence is the same as the job sequence.

o From Simple to Complex: Objectives may be sequenced in terms of increasing complexity.

o Critical Sequence: Objects are ordered in terms of their relative importance.

o Known to Unknown: Familiar topics are considered before unfamiliar ones.

o Dependent Relationship: Mastery of one objective requires prior mastery of another.

o Supportive relationship: Transfer of learning takes place from one objective to another, usually
because common elements are included in each objective. These should be placed as close together as
possible so that the maximum transfer of learning can take place.

o Cause to Effect: Objectives are sequenced from cause to effect.

2. Delivery

Delivery strategies are concerned with the decisions that affect the way in which information is
transferred to the learners. Delivery is the means of communicating and transferring a learning
process to the learners. For example, you can deliver a lesson in the classroom or via elearning. This
is quite similar to the concept of media . Some methods of delivery are:

o Social Learning and Social Media

 Instructional Design: Social Learning and Social Media
Note: Do not confuse the term Social Learning with Bandura's Social Learning Theory in which
outcome and self-efficiency expectations affect individual performance (DeSimone, Werner,
2012). Bandura's Social Learning Theory is more detailed in that it has several types of modeling
(Acquisition, Inhibition, Disinhibition, Facilitation, Creativity) that explain in detail how we
learn from others, in addition to key terms, such as cueing and self-efficacy. While Social
Learning is normally more of a general term for learning in a social environment. Some people
use the term Social Media Learning for learning from others through mobile devices such as
smart phones (e.g., iPhones or Androids) or tablets, such as an iPad.

Conte and Paolucci (2001) define social learning as a process of learning caused or favored by
people being situated in a common environment and observing one another. This allows the
learners to not only perceive each other for comparison and self-evaluation, but also see others as
a neutral source of information, which may help or speed several forms of instrumental learning.

Within a social learning episode the learners update their own knowledge base (adding to, or
removing from it a given information, or modifying an existing representation) by perceiving the
positive or negative effects of any given event undergone or actively produced by another person
on a state of the world in which the learner has as a goal (Conte, Paolucci, 2001).

Social media may thought of as communication tools that allows users to create, modify, and/or
distribute content. And rather than being a broadcast model for one-to-many, such as a typical
web page, social media are more of a many-to-many model that allows a conversational format
for people to create, share, and remix information.

Social media includes such tools as blogs, microblogs (e.g., Twitter & Yammer), file sharing (e.g.,
Flickr & SlideShare), Virtual Meeting Places, (e.g., Adobe Connect & Elluminate), social sites
(e.g. Facebook & MySpace) and wikis.

Social media has provided a virtual bridge by acting as the common environment in a social
learning episode. This virtual bridge allows the learners to interact with each other in much the
same manner as they would in a common environment, thus they are virtually able to observe and
learn from others. Space has shifted as they now do not have to be in the same physical location..

The consensus is that social media are dramatically changing the relationships of individuals to
society. Credited with phenomena that range in scope and scale from toppling governments
(Moldova), to unleashing mass mobilizations (protest in Iran, humanitarian aid in Haiti), to
uplifting individual artists from constraints of social class (the UKs singer Susan Boyle), the
media that flows over digital social networks offers individuals and communities opportunities to
communicate with broad global reach as well as with personal intimacy. For the first time, people
can see each others worlds across previously socially defined boundaries, one to one across
time and space, or one to millions. These outcomes are not due to the technology alone. The Web
2.0 features that have enabled this are not just the technical implementations themselves, but the
frameworks of participation and sharing they enable, structure, and call upon us to enact
(Lewis, Pea, Rosen, 2010).

The authors go on to note that by building these social media tools, people are able to transform
their environments and restructure the functional systems in which they act and learn (Vygotsky,
1978; Wartofsky, 1983).
Probably the main question to ask is, Are social media tools just as good in a social learning
situation as the common environment they are replacing? Just as the common environment is a
medium that allows learning methods to take place, these tools are also media that carry the
learning methods. And as the research has shown, it is the learning methods that matter the most,
while media are selected for their ability to effectively and efficiently carry the learning method
(Clark, 2001). Thus, just as long as a social media tool can transport the learning method, then it
should have little or no effect on the learning.

So what gives these new social media tools the capability to allow people to learn and transform?
Mason and Renniet (2008) wrote that there were four major benefits of learner generated content
that these tools provide:

o The learners have the tools to actively participate in the construction of their experience, rather than
passively absorbing content.

o The content can be continually refreshed by the learners rather than requiring expert input.

o Many of the tools are collaborative in nature, thus the learners develop team skills.

o Shared community space and inter-group communications are a large part of what excites young
people [and many people of other ages]; therefore it should help to motivate them to learn.

So as an Instructional Designer you can use social media tools to:

o Provide a means of social learning when the learners are spaced apart. This learning is important for:

o Solving small everyday problem before they get big (distributed problem solving).

o Creating an environment that supports creativity.

o Forming ad hoc workgroups as needed to address business challenges.

o Building a work environment that is flexible.

o Guide them to create their own collaborative knowledge bases, rather than relying on others to do it
for them.

o Increase the feeling of being a team when the learners are separated by distance by:

o increasing participation

o helping to represent the corporate brand

o developing community

o Help motivate them as this is a primary requirement for learning.

 o Classrooms

Classroom settings permit the use of a wide variety of training methods, e.g. video, lecture,
simulation, and discussion. Also, the environment, such as seating arrangements , can be
controlled to create a climate conducive to learning and classrooms can accommodate a large
number of learners. The main limitations may involve increased costs, e.g. space rental and
travel. In addition, the classroom may be quite dissimilar to the job setting.

Some of the questions to ask when deciding on the learning setting are:

o Does the task require high psychomotor or knowledge skill levels? If the skill level is too high, it may
be too disruptive for the work environment to use OJT or to difficult for self-learning.

o What is the consequence of inadequate performance? If the consequence is too severe, do not leave it
to chance for the correct performance to be learned.

o Do the learners have the prerequisite skills? The more prerequisite skills that they lack, then the more
you will probably need a classroom environment.

o Will the course content likely to change quickly? Classroom environments are normally very
adaptable for handling rapid changes due to the versatility of instructors.

o Are special facilities or equipment required, such as simulators or training devices?

o How high is the task decay rate? If it is high and the performers will not be able to put their newly
acquired knowledge and skills to use right away, then there is a good chance they will loose what they
learned consider elearning or OJT.

o Do large groups need to be taught the same thing at the same time?

o Can the learners be adequately trained elsewhere? Classroom learning is normally costlier than other
forms of learning.

o eLearning
In 1985, William Rainey Harper, distance-education pioneer and president of the University of
Chicago wrote: The day is coming when the work done by correspondence will be greater in
amount than that done in the classrooms of our academies and colleges.
In 1999, John Chambers, president and CEO of Cisco Systems, quoted to the New York Times:
The next big killer application for the Internet is going to be education. Education over the
Internet is going to be so big it is going to make email usage look like a rounding error.
It seems as if every new technology becomes training's new darling. Trainers blame their present
tools and thus readily embrace new technologies. But in reality, these same trainers do not define
performance problems and solutions in the required detail, hence, they go in quest of a silver
bullet. . . but unfortunately there is no silver bullet... or mystical orb to be found at the end of
their journey.
While elearning is having a huge impact in the learning, training, and development profession,
there is still a great deal of hype, thus this report looks objectively at both the hype and the
validity of elearning.

Marc Rosenberg (2001) confines elearning to the internet as: the use of internet technologies to
deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance. It is based upon
three fundamental criteria:

o networked

o delivered to the end-user via a computer using standard internet technology

o focuses on the broadest view of learning

Allison Rossett (2001) defines elearning as: Web-based training (WBT), also known as elearning
and on-line learning, is training that resides on a server or host computer that is connected to the
World Wide Web.

She considers WBT or elearning as belonging to Technology-Based Training training that is

delivered partially or entirely through electronic hardware, software, or both (2001, p161).

These two definitions perhaps come the closest as to how most learning professionals define
elearning.

Another one that pretty much stays within the network framework is Clark Adrich (2004). He
defines elearning as: a broad combination of processes, content, and infrastructure to use
computers and networks to scale and/or improve one or more significant parts of a learning value
chain, including management and delivery.

Originally aimed at lowering management cost, while increasing accessibility and for
measurability of employees, elearning is increasingly being used to include advanced learning
techniques, such as simulations, communities of practice, and including customers and vendors as
well.

E l e c t r o n i c B a s e d D e fi n i t i o n s

A somewhat different approach carries it beyond the internet to the computer itself. ASTD's
Learning Circuits (now defunct) defined it as electronic learning covering a wide set of
applications and processes, such as web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual
classrooms, and digital collaboration. It includes the delivery of content via internet,
intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN), audio- and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD-
ROM.

Thus, this definition defines elearning as residing on electronics or mostly computer based.

E c c e n t r i c B a s e d D e fi n i t i o n s

Some definitions try to pinpoint it exactly, but end up missing the entire concept of it.

E v e r y t h i n g b u t Tr a i n i n g

in a Chief Learning Officer article (2003), Brook Manville defines elearning as: including not
only Internet-published courseware, but also the tools for managing, modularizing and handling
the following:

o Different kinds of content and learning objects (including both electronic and non-
electronic forms, and even traditional classroom instruction).

o Just-in-time and asynchronous learning, such as virtual labs, virtual classrooms and
collaborative work spaces.

o Simulations, document repositories and publishing programs.

o Tools for prescribing learning, managing development pathways and goals and handling e-
commerce and financial transactions related to learning.

o The utilities and capabilities for supporting informal learning, mentoring, communities of
practice and other non-training interventions.

In other words, elearning does most everything in the corporate world related to learning except
for training !

o Lecture
Lectures can be an efficient and effective way to depart knowledge (Pascarella, Terenzini, 1991).
Studies have found them to be just as effective as other methods, such as group discussions) when
it comes to instructing declarative knowledge (knowing that, e.g., that Washington D.C. is the
capital of America), as opposed to procedural knowledge (knowing how, e.g., how to drive a
car).
Lecturing in the classroom should stay at a minimum as it needs to remain a place for active
learning, thus whenever possible, put the lecture in an audio file, such as mp3, so that they can be
uploaded to an iPod or similar device that allows them to be portable. The research is starting to
show this as the best method for delivering them ( Science Direct [pdf] and The Independent ) and
that learners prefer this method (New Scientist ). For more on learning with iPods, iPods for
Learning .
Although this is the most popular way to present information, since it is easy to design and
implement, it can also be one of the worst methods as it can be quite passive if done incorrectly.
Lectures vary from the passive, such as presenting a discourse (extended speech) on a subject, to
interactive, such as a primary presenter who encourages an exchange of ideas. To improve this
method as a learning device, provide plenty of activities to help the learners grasp and understand
the subject. When used correctly, lectures can set the stage for deeper levels of learning to take
place.

o mLearning
The term mlearning is short for mobile learning. It basically means elearning through a mobile
device, such as a mp3 player (iPod), smart cellphone portable computer, or iPad. This means the
learners do not have to be in a fixed, predetermined location.
mLearning has been defined as any activity that allows individuals to be more productive when
consuming, interacting with, or creating information, mediated through a compact digital device
that the individual carries on a regular basis, has reliable connectivity, nd fits in a pocket or purse
(eLearning Guild, 2007).
Metcalf (2006) notes that mLearning combines the technologies of mobile computing with
elearning and may be defined as any form of electronically delivered instruction material with an
emphasis on Internet or wireless based technologies.
As noted in the above definitions, mlearning is mostly thought to be associated with a mobile
device being connected to the Internet. mLearning relies on a device with anywhere, anytime
wireless access and that it is based on these concepts Rosen (2010):
o Information is available anywhere there is Internet access
o Information is available anytime
o Information is available through devices that are becoming commonplace and will soon be affordable
to most people.
o Information can be pushed from the environment to the learners and pulled by the learners from the
environment
o The learning environment is fluid and adapts as the learner learns.
mLearning was first intended to deliver formal learning, such as sideshows or information; but
with the rise of blogging and microblogging apps (such as Twitter or Yammer), it is now largely
thought as an aid to informal learning (Pachler, Bachmair, Cook, 2009). That is, rather than
delivering full courses, mlearning is more about performance support and complimenting learning
(Clark, 2011).
This differs from dL (distance Learning ) in that dL is mostly concerned with formal learning.
One of mlearning's most interesting abilities is being able to shift learning across both time and
space. For example, if all your perspective learners reside at company headquarters, then
 classroom training normally becomes easy to coordinate because of such scheduling programs as
MS Outlook. If time is critical, such as the learners having different times that they need to learn
something, then elearning becomes a consideration.
But if the learners are scattered across the country (such as salespersons) and time dictates the
best time and place for them to learn, then mlearning might be a consideration. Of course just like
anything else, it does have its certain limitations, mostly the small screen found on such portable
devices. Thus while mlearning will never replace the classrooms or elearning, it is a good tool to
consider when you have to shift the learning among places and time.
Its main strengths are that mobile devices are becoming quite ubiquitous and pervade across
several generations of learners as a primary choice of communication, especially the younger
generation.
Thus, mLearning also differs from dL in that while dL may place the students and instructors in
the same time (synchronous learning), mlearning is normally performed asynchronously.

o Video
3. Management

Management strategies involve the decisions and processes that allow the learners to interact with
the learning activities in order that they may increase their knowledge and skills. Some of the
strategies are:

o Action Learning

o The roots of action learning can be traced to action research, a concept and term
originated by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s (Weisbord, 1987). Reginald W. Revans pioneered
the concepts of action learning more than 50 years ago through the use of in-depth
research and work in coal mines, hospitals, and other industries. He was invited to try
out his theories in Belgium that led to an upturn in the Belgian economy.
o Action learning is continuous process of learning and reflection with the intention of
getting something done. It does not use project work, job rotation, or any form of a
simulation such as case studies or business games. Learning is centered around the need
to find a solution to a real problem. Most action learning processes take from four to
nine months to complete. Learning is voluntary and learner-driven. In addition,
individual development is just as important as finding the solution to the problem
(Revans, 1998).

Teams of learners with diverse backgrounds conduct field projects on complex organizational
problems requiring use of skills learned in formal training sessions. The learning teams then
meet periodically with a skilled instructor to discuss, analyze, and learn from their experiences.

Action Learning can be viewed as a formula: [L = P + Q]:

 o Learning (L) occurs through a combination of

o programmed knowledge (P) and

o the ability to ask insightful questions (Q).

Revans based his learning method on a theory called System Beta, in that the learning process
should closely approximate the scientific method. The model is cyclical you proceed
through the steps and when you reach the last step, you relate the analysis to the original
hypothesis and if need be, start the process again. The six steps are:

o Formulate Hypothesis (an idea or concept)

o Design Experiment (consider ways of testing truth or validity of idea or concept)

o Apply in Practice (put into effect, test of validity or truth)

o Observe Results (collect and process data on outcomes of test)

o Analyze Results (make sense of data)

o Compare Analysis (relate analysis to original hypothesis)

Note that you do not always have to enter this process at step 1, but you do have to complete
the process.

Revans suggest that all human learning at the individual level occurs through this process. Note
that it covers what Jim Stewart (1991) calls the levels of existence:

o We think - cognitive domain

o We feel - affective domain

o We do - psychomotor domain

All three levels are interconnected what we think influences and is influenced by what we do
and feel.

Five basic elements of action learning are the problem, set, client, set advisor, and process.

o The Problem must be salient to the learners (the outcome of the problem solutions must matter to
 them).

o Participants within the small group (set) may all work on the same problem or different problems.

o The clients may either deal with strategic issues (what to do), or tactical issues (how to do it).

o The set advisor is normally a colleague or leader. The set advisor in turn must be supported by the
leaders and the training department.

o It uses a process which brings people together to find solutions to problems and, in doing so,
develops both the individuals and the organization.

o Boot Camp

While the Armed Services traditionally used boot camps, other organizations occasionally use
them in order to accelerate learning through immersion type learning. Boot camps normally
have smaller classes than conventional ones with typically a dozen learners or less. Applicants
are screened to ensure they have a certain level of knowledge of the subject matter so that other
learners are not slowed down in the rapid learning environment. Boot camps are held away from
the learner's work environment so there will not be any distractions, normally run from one to
two weeks, and immerse learners in one subject for 12 to 16 hours a day to prepare them for a
certification test.

The advantage of this type of training is companies get an up-and-running performer back
within a short period of time. While the disadvantages include that learners will lose their
newly acquired skills if they are not used right away due to the rapid pace in which they were
acquired, and some learners like the slower pace of traditional learning programs.

During the rush to repair all the Y2K bugs in the late 1990s, a lot of software and computer
training programs used boot camp learning philosophies in order to bring programmers quickly
up to speed. They are not as popular now due to the slow down in the tech sector, but can still
be found. Correctional facilities have used them, but these are not normally very successful.
The reason the Armed Services and the tech sector found them useful, but not the correctional
sectors, have more to do with contextual factors. For example, a programmer entering a tech
boot camp prior to 2000 had career opportunities, while a prisoner entering boot camp was
doing so because of punishment.

When deciding if boot camps will work, look closely at the learners and the course that you
have right now. Are the learners well motivated to complete the course as is? Is the course
 exciting? Look at yourself and the other trainers if you were to radically change hours, how
would you manage your other life (outside the workplace)? Look at the organization is it the
type of organization that would support such an endeavor (not only the course and learners, but
also you, such as provide compensation time?

o Fishbowls

Fishbowls are used for dynamic group involvement. The most common configuration is an "inner ring"
(Group A), which is the discussion group, surrounded by an "outer ring" (Group B), which is the
observation group. Just as people observe the fish in a fishbowl, the "outer ring" observes the "inner ring".

Where as most small groups normally have 3 or 4 learners, the fishbowl normally has 4 or 5 learners in
group A, and 4 or 5 learners in group B. This tends to get the discussions going better as people are
normally somewhat self-conscious about being observed. Once the learners get used to each other, then you
can reduce the size of the groups. If the anxiety of being observed is too great to do the activity, have them
discuss it. The anxiety should dwindle once it comes out in the open. They will get a lot more out of the
activity if they are not inhibited in the discussion. The most that you should ever have in each group is 10
learners (10 performing and 10 observing). Too large of groups allows some of the learners to "hide" (not
contribute).

Group A is given an assignment, such as a discussion or exercise to perform, while group B observes. After
10 to 30 minutes, the groups exchange (group A observes while group B performs the activity). They can
either perform the same activity, a modified version, or a new activity.

The group observing will either observe the process, the content, or both depending on the desired outcome.
In the example exercise listed below, the learners are mainly observing a process as the desired outcome is
to learn "observable behavior." While another fishbowl exercise might have the observers concentrate on
the content so that a process or procedure might be improved.

After the activity, you can have each group give feedback to each other, either on a group to group basis,
individually, or in pairs. If you feel that the learners are not ready for public feedback, use the one-on-one
or two-on-two method.

A couple of different configurations:

o Place an empty chair in the inner-circle. A person from the outer-circle may sit in it at any time and
interject her or his viewpoint or comment for 1 minute (or a given time period.)

o Every 3 or 5 minutes, a member of the outer-circle replaces someone in the inner-circle. This
continues until everyone has had a chance to participate and observe.

o Once the inner-circle has performed or at a set time or procedure, they turn around in their chairs
and receive feedback from the outer circle on a one-on-one basis.

And the most important part of any activity ensure you have some pre-planned questions to ask the
learners once they are assembled back into a large group. This is where the real reflection often occurs.
o Lockstep

o This platform has the learners proceeding at the same pace. It requires fewer instructors
and is normally more easily managed than self-paced platforms. One of its main
advantages from a learner's point of view is that it is highly social in nature.
o It is often the medium of choice for most training sessions. One of the main
disadvantages often leveled at lockstep is that the pace is set for average learners. . .
but, there are no average learners as we all have special learning requirements
and styles . However, you can adapt to individual learning differences when they are
having difficulty with the task as lockstep is NOT robot training. Yes, everyone goes
along at basically the same pace, but having skilled instructors allows a great deal of
adaptability in this type of environment.

o Personalized System of Instruction

PSI is also known as the Keller plan. First described by Fred Keller in Good Bye Teacher -
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968). It is composed of small self-paced modularized
units of instructions where study guides direct learners through the modules. Unit tests are
given on each module where the learners must show mastery by scoring at least a 90%. Student
proctors are used to help with individual problems and lectures are given for motivational
problems only. PSI combines mastery learning with principles of reinforcement learning theory.
Mastery learning requires that the desired student performance be stated precisely using
performance or learning objectives.

The modules can consists of reading assignments, films, audio tapes, field trips, programmed
instruction, conducting an experiment, conducting an interview, etc. The performance
evaluations can be essays, multiple choice, oral exams, written report, etc. Although not
required, bonus points are encouraged to be given to learners who complete the tests in a timely
manner since procrastination in a self-paced course is the biggest problem.

Keller divided the process for creating PSI into four steps:

o Determine the material to be covered in the course.

o Divide the material into self contained modules (segments).

o Create methods of evaluating the degree to which the learner has conquered the material in a given
module.

o Allow learners to move from module to module at their own pace.

o Programmed Learning
Although Sidney Pressey (1927) originated programmed learning, B. F. Skinner (1958)
popularized it. Skinner's approach has been called linear in nature and involves the following
features:

o Learners are exposed to small amounts of information and proceed from one frame or one item of
information, to the next in an orderly fashion (this is what is meant by linear)

o Learners respond overtly so that their correct responses can be rewarded and their incorrect
responses can be corrected

o Learners are informed immediately about whether or not their response is correct (feedback)

o Learners proceed at their own pace (self-pacing)

Branching programmed learning is similar to linear programmed learning except that it is more
complicated because it attempts to diagnose the learner's response. It usually involves a multi-
choice format:

After the learners have been presented a certain amount of information, they are given a
multiple-choice question. If they answer correctly they branch to the next body of information.
If they are incorrect, they are directed to additional information, depending on the mistake they
made. Many CBT training courses are based on the concept of linear or branching programmed
learning.

Programmed learning has been proven to be effective (Schramm, 1964). A review of 165 studies
of programmed learning was made. Of 36 studies that compared programmed learning with the
more traditional kinds of training, 17 found programmed instruction to be more effective, 18
found both kinds of instruction to be equally effective, and only one found traditional training
to be more effective.
Some other specific strategies, such as note taking and modeling, can be found in the following links
(Marzano, 1998):

o Linguistic Learning Mode

o Of the three learning modes , the linguistic mode is perhaps the one that receives the
most attention from a learning perspective. This is because content is often presented
linguistically and in turn, learners are often expected to respond linguistically. However,
learning is often negative impacted because we rely on it too much by failing to account
for the nonlinguistic and affective learning modes.

o Nine Strategies for Improving Learning

o Ceri Dean, Elizabeth Hubbell, and Howard Pitler (2012) identified a framework for
instructional design that includes nine instructional strategies:

Since their research was targeted for the educational environment, I adapted a couple of the
strategies to better reflect the needs of adult learners in organizations:

o They use the term Cooperative Learning. I changed it to Collaborative Learning.

o They use Assign Homework and Provide Practice, where I changed it to Provide
Practice and Experience.
 The Nine Strategies shown in the above chart are:

1. Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback - Provide learning objectives that improves
performance, which in turn, has a positive impact upon the organization. In addition, provide
timely feedback and assessments that correlates with the learning objectives and corrects non-
performance..

2. Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition - Reinforce the learners efforts to show
appreciation for their newly learned skills in order to build self-esteem. This will help to give
them the belief that effort pays off.

3. Collaborative Learning - This is quite similar to cooperative learning in that the learners
work together in small teams to increase their chance of deeper learning. However,
collaborative learning is a more radical departure from cooperative learning in that there is not
necessarily a known answer, which better reflects the needs of the organization. For example,
the question how effective is elearning? provokes a wide range of possible answers,
depending upon the learners' perspectives. Because the collaboration sometimes results from
less purposeful and focused activities, some of the learning will be unintentional or
serendipitous. Beside cooperative and collaborative learning, you can use other group activities,
such as fishbowls , case studies , action learning , etc. that provide similar benefits.

4. Questions, Cues, and Advance Organizers - Questions give the learners a chance to retrieve
their newly learned knowledge, which provides reinforcement of their newly acquired skills and
knowledge.

Cues can be thought of as a brief preview of a skill, action, or information that will later be
presented in the learning process. For example, it can be as simple as saying, I wonder what
will happen if I push this button? This simple statement can raise the learners' curiosity levels
so that the importance of pushing that button remains in their memory. Marzano (1998, p.89)
reported that achievement can be raised by 37 percentile points when cueing is used.

Images can be used as cues, such as a graphic or picture that reinforces the instructor's
message:

An advance organizer is information that is presented prior to learning a new concept or idea
that allows the learners to organize and interpret new incoming information (Mayer, 2007).
Learning is more difficult when we have to learn completely new concepts that have no
relationship to our previous knowledge. Examples are flow charts that illustrate processes,
outlines or bullets to show how content is organized, and mind maps that show how concepts
are related. An advanced organizer is part of scaffolding .

5. Non-Linguistic Representations - The use of visuals, such as graphs, demonstrations,

charts, pictures, and models help to reinforce the understanding of concepts.
Models (as in people, drawings, or three-dimensional) help to reinforce both the declarative and
procedural network by giving them a visual cue. Marzano (1998, p.91) reported an effect size of
1.48 (which indicates that achievement can be raised by 43 percentile points) when graphic
representations are used to support linguistic learning modes.

The combined use of drawings, flowcharts, mappings, instructions, etc. can be combined to
produce knowledge maps, rather than linear readings.

6. Summarizing and Note Taking - Note taking has a positive impact since it involves the
learners in the subject matter that is transpiring in class, it cause us to reflect on the subject and
then record our thoughts, it helps us in interpreting the subject matter, and it provides an
additional linguistic reinforcer. You can help them with note taking by providing rough outlines
and fill-in-the-blanks. But do not just rely on one method. Vary the methods to fit the subject
e.g. give them a rough draft, then a fill-in-the-blank, then a mapping outline.

Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the learner's involvement or
engagement (which includes note-taking) in the learning process, the greater the knowledge
acquisition. Marzano (1998) reported that note taking techniques have an overall effect size of .
99, indicating a percentile gain of 34 points. These techniques require students to generate
personal linguistic representations of the information being presented.

7. Providing Practice and Experience - Activities (manipulatives hands-on learning)

engage learners. While we can learn the basics of such activities as football, chess, PowerPoint,
or leading by observing or hearing about it, we do not really understand it until we actually do
it.

Pascarella & Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the learner's involvement or
engagement is in the learning process, the greater the knowledge acquisition.

Marzano 1998, p.91) reported an effect size of 0.89 (which indicates that achievement can be
raised by 31 percentile points) when manipulatives (engaging the learners) are used. In
addition, he reported (p.93) an effect size of 1.14 (which indicates that achievement can be
raised by 37 percentile points) when experimental learning is used and an effect size of .54 (a
percentile gain of 21 points) by using problem solving processes.

Providing experience helps to ensure the learners can use their newly acquired skills and
knowledge to improve their performance on the job. Of all of the strategies discussed here, this
is the only one that actually shows that the learning processes actually pays off with real
performance, while the other ones help you to create better learning processes.

8. Identifying Similarities and Differences - This helps the learners to gain insight, draw
inferences, make generalizations, and develop schemas. There are four process for
 accomplishing this:

o Comparing and Contrasting - Comparing items, such as concepts, ideas, things, etc. in
order to identify important characteristics that are similar. Contrasting concepts, ideas,
things, etc. in order to identify important characteristics that are different.

o Classifying items, such as concepts, ideas, things, etc. into groups and labeling them.

o Creating Metaphors in order to understand and define how two items are similar or
related in an abstract way.

o Creating Analogies to think about the relationship between two items and extend that
relationship to another set of items. This is the most complex format as the learners must
think about relationships between relationships.

An activity similar to Comparing and Contrasting is matching example/non-example pairs .

When presenting information to the learners it is helpful to use different approaches.

See, Approaches to Presenting Information and Examples .

Note: Schemata (Schema): A mental model of a person, object or situation. Schema include
cognitive maps (mental representations of familiar parts of one's world), images, concept
schema (categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties), event scripts (schema
about familiar sequences of events or activities) and mental models (clusters of relationships
between objects or processes).

9. Generating and Testing Hypothesis - Encouraging prediction and explanation around these
predictions forces learners to think about the content in terms of outcomes.

o Nonlinguistic Learning Mode

o The nonlinguistic processor encodes experiences as mental pictures, olfactory sensations
(smell), kinesthetic sensations (touch), auditory sensations (sound), and taste sensations
(Marzano, 1998, p19).

o While various linguistic methods are designed into most learning processes, the
nonlinguistic and affective modes are often omitted as learning designers do not realize
their importance. If any one of these three learning processors are denied or not
reinforced, the learning process normally lengthens or is ineffective.

o Mental Images

o Mental images can increase nonlinguistic retention through the use of such techniques as
metaphors, reflection, activities, short videos, images, or storytelling. To truly
 understand a subject matter we need to be creative with it in order to adapt it to our
environment. It is through the power of mental images that we are able to change our
mental representations of how things work to how we can make them work for us.

o Marzano (1998, p102) reported an effect size of 1.13 (which indicates that achievement
can be raised by 37 percentile points) by using techniques that enhance visual memory.

o Semantic, Concept, or Mind Mapping

o Learners should not only be presented images, such as pictures or videos, they should
also create their own. This can be achieved by creating graphic representations when
taking notes (connected nodes composed of lines, circles, & drawings). For example:

o Learning Models for Pedagogy (click for larger image)

o Mind maps work by allowing the learners to organize material into an easy understood
visual image that allows them to understand and recall important concepts.

o While normal note taking has an overall effect size of .99, indicating a percentile gain of
34 points, graphic representations produced a percentile gain in achievement of 39
points (Marzano, 1998, p91). One of the most effective of these techniques is semantic
mapping (Toms-Bronowski, 1982) with an effect size of 1.48 (n=1), indicating a
percentile gain of 43 points. With this technique, the learner represents the key ideas in
a lesson as nodes (circles) with spokes depicting key details emanating from the node.

o Concept mapping was developed by Professor Joseph D. Novak at Cornell University in

the mid-sixties and based on the theories of David Ausubel. The reason it works better
than normal note taking is that the inner node(s) represent the learner's prior knowledge
and then as the learner grasps new ideas or concepts, additional nodes are added to
represent them. Thus the learner is able to graph new knowledge built on previous
knowledge in a dynamic way rather than through a strictly linear method.

o The difference between concept maps, mind maps, Semantic maps is that while concept
maps may represent several different, but related concepts, mind maps normally
represents one central concept. Thus a mind map may look more like a tree, while a
concept map normally looks more as a network with a central node that spreads more or
less evenly in all direction.

o Semantic maps refer to the whole genre of note taking performed in a graphical manner,
 thus it includes both concept maps and mind maps.

o Mental Imagery

Have the learners practice the task in their minds (visualization)

Mental Imagery, sometimes referred to as visualizing, is quasi-perceptual experience, in that it

resembles perceptual experience, but occurs in the absence of the appropriate external stimuli.
It has long been used in sports, such as golf and tennis, but has recently been shown to be
helpful in learning various mental and physical tasks. Mental Imagery builds upon learning
experiences through the means of imagining one self to perfectly perform a set of steps or
actions, which in turn builds organized set of propositions that are stored in the brain. These
sets of propositions can then be used when one actually performs the task.

The Other Senses

Also, do not forget the other senses. VAK would tell us to let the learners play with a koosh
ball, however, I believe this has more to do with personal satisfaction than with actual learning.
What really needs to happen is to allow them to touch, move, listen and/or smell the subject
mater if at all possible... sort of what Zen is built uponbecome one with the subject.

o Affective Learning Mode

The affective mode uses the power of feelings and emotions to engage and reinforce
learning. Bloom's Taxonomy also noted the importance of it by including it in the three learning
domains along with the cognitive and psychomotor domains.

Fe e dba c k a n d Pr ai se

Explicit feedback on how well the learners' goals or objectives are met improves performance.
You want to try to keep the feedback positive as the goal is to reinforce their drive to perform
better, not to beat them down in utter defeat. In addition, it is important to not only provide
feedback, but also give praise or positive reinforcement that is focused and accurate.

Marzano 1998, p.95) reported an effect size of 0.74 (which indicates that achievement can be
raised by 27 percentile points) when praise is used, while providing feedback (p.108) on the
type of strategy to use and how well the learner uses it had a effect size of 0.61 (percentile gain
of 37 points).

Learning Objectives

Most of us know that providing the learning objectives increases the chance for learning to
occur, but if you also allow the learners to adapt the objectives to meet their personal goals, you
further increase the chance as they now start to own the objectives.

Marzano 1998, p.94) reported an effect size of 0.97 (which indicates that achievement can be
raised by 34 percentile points) when goal specification is used. When students have some
control over the learning outcomes, there is an effect size of 1.21 (39 percentile points).

Note that providing a learning objective is similar to cues or scaffolding in that it provides a
framework for the learners to build their skills and knowledge upon.

Arousal

Use arousal (emotions) to increase learning. A certain amount of arousal can be a motivator
toward change (with change being learning). But too much or too little will have a negative
affect. You want a mid-level point of arousal to provide the motivation to change (learn). Too
little arousal has an inert affect on the learner, while too much has a hyperactive affect. Each
type of learning has its own optimal level of arousal. The more intellectually or cognitive a task
is, then the more lower the level of arousal should be so that you do not "overload" the learners.
On the opposite end of the scale are tasks that require less mental activities or tasks requiring
endurance and persistence. They require higher levels of arousal to fully engage the learners in
the learning process. Some learning should be fun, some should be dry, some learning requires
an emotional charged classroom, and some require an emotionless state.

Drive

In Daniel Pink's book, Drive (2011), he list three intrinsic motivators:

o Autonomy gives people real control over their working environment, such as what to
work on and how to do it. There are normally two ways job enlargement and job
enrichment.

o Job enlargement adds a more variety of tasks and duties to the job so that it is not
as monotonous. This takes in the breadth of the job. That is, the number of
different tasks that an employee performs. This can also be accomplished by job
rotation.

o Job enrichment, on the other hand, adds additional motivators. It adds depth to
the jobmore control, responsibility, and discretion to how the job is performed.
This gives higher order needs to the employee, as opposed to job enlargement
which simply gives more variety.

o Mastery is our drive to do things better or learn a new task because we all want to do
better. We can do this through formal or informal learning . To help an employee learn a
 new task, see the section on Situational Leadership .

o Purpose - We want purpose in our life and life does not stop at work, even if the task is
difficult. A main effector of purpose is arousal .

Should Instructional Design be called Learning Design?

Recently, there has been a strong movement to call Instructional Design Learning Design, with the
premise that this will focus the process more on the learners rather than the content. However, others
have criticized this because we cannot design learning as it is the outcome of good instruction, rather
we can only design the instruction, which is a process.

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/development.html