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To cite this article: Arturo Calvo-mora , Antonio Leal & Jos L. Roldn (2005) Relationships
between the EFQM model criteria: a study in Spanish universities, Total Quality Management &
Business Excellence, 16:6, 741-770, DOI: 10.1080/14783360500077708
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Total Quality Management
Vol. 16, No. 6, 741 770, August 2005
N
ARTURO CALVO-MORA, ANTONIO LEAL & JOSE L. ROLDA
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Department of Business Administration & Marketing, Research Group on Innovation, Quality and Change
Management, Faculty of Business and Economic Science, University of Seville, Spain
KEY WORDS : EFQM model, higher education, universities, partial least squares
Introduction
It is inevitable for quality management processes, which have helped to transform
businesses and overcome many of their problems, to be transferred to the field of education
(Peak, 1995). Moreover, the rapid and continuous changes taking place in the economic
and social environment require the educational and management models of this kind of
institution to be modified (Salmon, 1993; Schargel, 1995).
Different approaches have been adopted for the introduction of quality management in
universities, such as self-assessment and external assessment of the institutions, accredita-
tion systems or models of total quality management. The latter represent a strategic option
and an integrated management philosophy for organizations, which allow them to reach
their objectives effectively and efficiently and to achieve a sustainable competitive
advantage (Goldberg & Cole, 2002). Their implementation has taken the European Excel-
lence Model of the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) as a European
context point of reference.
In Spain, the First National Plan for the Assessment of Quality in Universities, in 1995,
and the Second Plan, in 2002, aimed to establish a series of indicators that give infor-
mation about the quality level of processes, products and services in centres of higher
education. Three assessment guides, known as protocols, emerge from these plans for
teaching, research and management (the latter clearly inspired by the EFQM Model).
This study has the following three aims. First, to obtain a model that will serve as a
reference for centres of higher education in order to evaluate and improve the quality of
the management and provision of services. Second, to analyse the validity and predictive
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power of the EFQM Model adapted to the university sphere. Third, to test the relationships
implicit in this model since, as Black & Porter (1996) or Westlund (2001) point out, it is
necessary to perform more empirical research to explore more deeply the links between
the agents that compose the EFQM Model and the results.
To achieve these objectives, this study begins with a description of the EFQM Excel-
lence Model and the empirical work that has tried to verify the connection between the
key implementation factors and the results. This analysis, along with the EFQM Model,
will serve as the basis for establishing our research model and hypotheses. Finally, the
research methodology followed and the principal results and conclusions arising from
the study are presented.
organization, that is to say, not only to private companies (Zink & Schmidt, 1995; Osseo-
Asare & Longbottom, 2001).
Literature Review
Much of the literature on TQM is of a descriptive nature and lacking in consistent research
that addresses the relationships that may exist between quality practices and between the
latter and the results. Only recently have there been attempts to identify these relationships
and to advance the development of a better knowledge and understanding of quality
management (Kannan et al., 1999: 35).
Specifically, up to the beginning of the 1990s, the literature contains numerous real
cases of companies who have been successful in implementing these management prac-
tices, especially in Japan and North America (Porter & Parker, 1993). Other studies
describe the basic concepts and the management practices that must guide this phenom-
enon and propose particular processes for quality implementation and improvement, as
well as the results obtained or which should be obtained. On this point, practically all
of the great authorities on the subject have declared their position, such as Deming,
Crosby and Juran.
However, prior to the study by Saraph et al. (1989), there was no systematic and scien-
tific attempt to organize and synthesize the large amount of material that has been written
about quality. Therefore, it was important to develop and advance knowledge of the oper-
ation of quality management via empirical research. Such studies would allow the deter-
mining of possible relationships between the critical implementation factors and, at the
same time, identify those that are the most important in order to achieve better results.
744 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Pursuing this theme, some studies, such as those by Ahire et al. (1996), Anderson et al.
(1994; 1995), Curkovic et al. (2000), Dow et al. (1999), Flynn et al. (1994; 1995), Kanji
(2000), Powell (1995) and Ravichandran & Rai (2000), start from the identification of the
key TQM dimensions after an exhaustive analysis of the literature. Next, they construct
valid and reliable scales to measure them. Finally, the possible relationships between
the dimensions and the measurements of results are analysed. Another group of studies
is formed by those whose objective is to verify the relationships established in excellence
models in different contexts such as Black & Porter (1996), Eskildsen & Kanji (1998),
Flynn & Saladin (2001), Pannirselvan & Ferguson (2001), Wilson & Collier (2000) or
Winn & Cameron (1998). Our research belongs, therefore, to this last line or tendency
in TQM research.
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model are defined, the relationship (two by two) between these variables is established by
proposing hypotheses, and these hypotheses are supported by the theoretical and empirical
references provided by the TQM literature.
Leadership & Commitment: Excellent leaders develop and facilitate the achieve-
ment of the mission and vision. They develop organizational values and systems
required for sustainable success and implement these via their actions and beha-
viours. (EFQM, 1999: 12)
and promoter of the TQM implementation process. But to be successful one has to
move into action. Here, investment in human, material and financial resources supporting
the achievement of the objectives and the development of policies and strategies becomes
indispensable (Ahire et al., 1996). Moreover, the involvement of the entire workforce
must be fostered and their efforts directed towards improvement recognized (Yusof &
Aspinwall, 1999).
The above aspects are confirmed by empirical studies performed by some authors such
as Ahire et al. (1996), Anderson et al. (1995), Eskildsen & Dahlgaard (2000) or Flynn
et al. (1994), which demonstrate the significant positive correlation between leadership
and the other key TQM implementation factors. Wilson & Collier (2000), taking
Malcolm Baldriges model as a reference point, prove the relationship that exists
between leadership, human resource management, strategic planning and information
and analysis. Pannirselvam & Ferguson (2001) perform a similar empirical analysis on
a sample of companies and observe a significant relationship between leadership and
human resource management. In their analysis of the European Excellence Model,
Eskildsen & Dahlgaard (2000) find significant positive relationships between leadership,
people management, policy and strategy, and alliances and resources. Davies et al. (2001)
and Detert & Jenni (2000) undertake their study in the field of higher education and reach
this conclusion: the leadership must clearly establish and maintain the focus on stake-
holders, give priority to long term strategic planning, ensure an appropriate structure
and system for continuous improvement, motivate individuals and teams, and monitor
success. In short, leadership is the engine, the driver and soul of all aspects of the
quality system.
From the above, we can extract the following research hypotheses:
H1a: The leadership and commitment of the management have a positive influence on
people management.
H1b: The leadership and commitment of the management have a positive influence on
policy and strategy.
H1c: The leadership and commitment of the management have a positive influence on
partnerships and resources.
Policy & Strategy: Excellent organizations implement their mission and vision by
developing a stakeholder-focused strategy that takes account of the market and
sector in which it operates. Policies, plans, objectives, and processes are developed
and deployed to deliver the strategy. (EFQM, 1999: 14)
746 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Policy and strategy must be put into practice through the deployment of the key pro-
cesses, suitable policy and staff management, and through the establishment of partner-
ships (Winn & Cameron, 1998).
The theoretical and empirical literature analysed focuses on the development
and implementation of specific quality policies and strategies (Quazi et al., 1998;
Ravichandran & Rai, 2000; Saraph et al., 1989), and on how these should be integrated in
the organizations policies and strategies (Black & Porter, 1996; Porter & Parker, 1993;
Wilson & Collier, 2000). Other studies make no explicit reference to policy and strategy
but analyse it as a fundamental aspect within other dimensions such as the shared vision
(Dow et al., 1999). This includes aspects such as the establishment in the organization of stra-
tegic planning processes, which encompass the points of view and requirements of internal and
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external customers. For his part, Powell (1995) speaks of the adoption and communication of
the philosophy, which implies the introduction of TQM principles into the companys
mission, vision, strategies and policies. That is to say, it involves moving from ideas to
deeds, and is achieved via the appropriate execution of the organizations key processes.
Detert & Jenni (2000) speak of a system thinking, which requires all members of the
organization to take into account how their actions affect those of other people in the uni-
versity institution. In a centre of higher education, this overall vision may be demonstrated
using clear goals shared by all: professors, students and managers. These goals must take
shape in all the activities of the university via the strategic planning process (Zink &
Schmidt, 1995).
From the above, we can extract the following research hypotheses:
People Management: Excellent organizations manage, develop and release the full
potential of their people at an individual, team-based and organizational level. They
promote fairness and equality and involve and empower their people. They care for,
communicate, reward and recognise, in a way that motivates staff and builds com-
mitment to using their skills and knowledge for the benefit of the organization
(EFQM, 1999: 16)
Partnerships & Resources: Excellent organizations plan and manage external part-
nerships, suppliers and internal resources in order to support policy and strategy
and the effective operation of processes. During planning and whilst managing part-
nerships and resources they balance the current and future needs of the organiz-
ation, the community and the environment. (EFQM, 1999: 18)
Analysing the structure of the relationships in the EFQM Model, process management
appears to be the link between the other agents and the results. In the industrial sector,
process management means the performance of activities such as management, control
and improvement of design and manufacture, preventive maintenance of equipment,
the statistical monitoring of processes, reduction in the inspection and variability of pro-
cesses, etc. These aspects are positively related to particular measurements of the
748 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
organizations results, people and customers (Curkovic et al., 2000; Eskildsen &
Dahlgaard, 2000; Pannirselvam & Ferguson, 2001; Wilson & Collier, 2000). From the
university point of view, it is fundamental for these institutions to make efforts to ident-
ify their key processes and establish priorities for improvement in terms of their relative
impact on results. The key processes of a higher education centre will not be the same as
those in other organizations, but once they have been identified, there should be no
differences in terms of their management and improvement (Zink & Schmidt, 1995).
The key processes are considered to be those that have a significant effect on the critical
results for a given organization (Kanji & Tambi, 1999; Osseo-Asare & Longbottom,
2002). In the universities, these processes are identified by Zink & Schmidt (1995) as
the processes of administration and service, teaching and research. For Hubbard
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(1994) and Zink & Schmidt (1995), the critical results for any university are customer
satisfaction with the services provided, the value which the market attributes to its gradu-
ates, the volume of scientific production and its impact on the different knowledge areas,
or the efficiency of resource management.
From the above, we can extract the following research hypotheses:
Methodology
The data were obtained using a questionnaire following the self-assessment philosophy of
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the EFQM Model of 1999 and with the objective of covering the criteria, sub-criteria, and
areas of the model. The questionnaires were addressed to the senior staff at the univer-
sities. The unit of analysis was the centre since it groups together administrative and man-
agerial tasks, along with other aspects related to teaching and the provision of services to
the university community.
Pilot Study
A first version of the questionnaire was sent to 10 professors with experience in the quality
area and to a Dean and Deputy-Dean who had participated in quality assessments of their
centre. Our objective was to achieve the content validity of the measurement instrument.
One week after the questionnaire had been sent, interviews were conducted to get these
individuals comments. These were later incorporated into the final questionnaire
(Table 2; Appendix A).
Sample
The population studied was formed by 346 centres of Spanish public universities evaluated
under the National Plan for the Assessment of Quality in Universities in the implemen-
tations in 1996, 1998, 1999 or 2000. A random stratified model was developed, with
the allocation being proportional to the number of centres in each university so as to
obtain representative samples of each stratum. The study considered a confidence level
of 95%, a sample error of 5% and p q 0.5. From this, the optimal sample size
ought to be 186 university centres. The number of returned questionnaires was 119, of
which eight had to be eliminated because they had not been completed correctly. As a
result, the number of valid questionnaires was 111, representing a response rate of a
little over 32% of the population. The sample error obtained with the final sample is
7.76%. The characteristics of the sample are set out in Table 1.
Measures
In order to measure the key implementation factors and the results, we took as a reference
the EFQM Model of 1999, and an adaptation of this model for the field of higher education
developed by the Club Gestion de Calidad (Quality Management Club), an EFQM partner
in Spain. In this respect, the information envisaged by the EFQM Model is appropriate for
developing measurement scales (Eskildsen & Kanji, 1998).
750 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Frequency Percentage
To measure the key implementation factors, seven-point Likert scales were used
(Table 2). Three types of measurement scales were used for the results (Appendix A).
The former takes into account the change that has taken place in particular indicators of
results in the past three years (people and student negative critical incident reduction,
Table 2. Measures
and environmental protection activities variables). Although covering other fields, this
type of measure is used by Anderson et al. (1995), Powell (1995) or Saraph et al.
(1989). The second type is the level of student, staff and society satisfaction. The satisfac-
tion level is an indicator of quality management much used in the literature (Larson &
Sinha, 1995; Saraph et al., 1989; Terziovski & Samson, 1999; Wilson & Collier 2000),
basically in relation to internal and external customer satisfaction.
The third type of measurement of results refers to the tendency and evolution of particu-
lar indicators in an interval of time (those related to the results of the university, student
failure and dropout rate, image of the university, or support for cultural and sporting activi-
ties). This way of measuring results is used in the EFQM Model of 1999 and in other
research studies such as those by Powell (1995) or Wilson & Collier (2000).
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Each scale was reviewed using factor analysis in order to establish its unidimensional-
ity, with the exception of the Centre Results measure, whose indicators were considered as
formative, i.e. cause or give rise to the unobserved theoretical construct. Therefore, the
manifest variables produce or contribute to the latent variable (LV) (Fornell, 1982).
These indicators are not necessarily correlated. Rather, each indicator may occur indepen-
dently of the others (Chin & Gopal, 1995).
Based on the constitutive definition of the EFQM variables applied to a university
context presented earlier, we mapped a group of factors or dimensions with respect to
their higher level construct, namely Process Management, People Results, Student
Results, and Society Results. Factor scores, computed by averaging the item scores for
each dimension, were used as indicators of the constructs in the research model. This
was necessary since the tool applied to assess the model, Partial Least Squares (PLS),
does not directly support second-order factors.
each indicator may occur independently of the others (Chin & Gopal, 1995). Conse-
quently, traditional reliability and validity assessment have been argued as inappropriate
and illogical (Bagozzi, 1994; Bollen, 1989). In our research model, all first-order factors
are constructs specified with reflective indicators, with the exception of indicators of the
Centre Results variable that was modelled formatively.
On the other hand, we have represented process management, people results, student
results, and society results variables as second-order factors. Following this approach, we
have had to make a choice between a molar and molecular1 approach to analysis. The
choice depends primarily on whether the first-order factors or dimensions are viewed as
causes or as indicators of the second-order factors (Chin, 1998b). If a change in one of the
dimensions or beliefs necessarily results in similar changes in other beliefs, then a molecular
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model is appropriate. Otherwise, a molar model is suitable (Chin & Gopal, 1995). In our
research, we have decided to model process management and society results as molar
second-order factors. For example, increasing the quality of the educational processes
does not imply an increase of the quality of the administrative processes. People results
and student results have been considered as molecular second order factors. Besides, the
items for each dimension were optimally weighted and combined using the PLS algorithm
to create a latent variable score. The resulting score reflects the underlying construct more
accurately than any of the individual items by accounting for the unique factors and error
measurements that may also affect each item (Chin & Gopal, 1995). As a result, the dimen-
sions or first-order factors become the observed indicators of second-order factors.
A PLS model is analysed and interpreted in two stages: (1) the assessment of the
reliability and validity of the measurement model, and (2) the assessment of the structural
model. This sequence ensures that the constructs measures are valid and reliable before
attempting to draw conclusions regarding relationships among constructs (Barclay et al.,
1995).
Measurement Model
The measurement model in PLS is assessed in terms of individual item reliability,
construct reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. As we explained
earlier, we would like to point out that this is appropriate only for constructs with reflective
indicators and molecular second order factors.
2001; Mathieson et al., 2001). High collinearity among indicators may exist and would
produce unstable estimates and would make it difficult to separate the distinct effect of
the individual indicators on the construct. Therefore, we performed a collinearity test
using the SPSS program. The results showed minimal collinearity with the variance
inflation factor (VIF) of all items ranging between 1.070 and 1.822, both for formative
indicators and first-order factors linked to molar second-order constructs (Appendix B).
This is far below the common cut-off threshold of 5 to 10 (Kleinbaum et al., 1988).
Appendix B shows the individual item weights and loadings of the variables. Loadings
are generally above 0.7 both for indicators and for first-order factors (dimensions) related
to molecular higher order constructs. Some variables do not reach this level; nevertheless
we decided to keep them because this rule of thumb should not be so rigid at early stages of
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Discriminant validity
To assess discriminant validity, AVE should be greater than the variance shared between
the construct and other constructs in the model (i.e. the squared correlation between two
constructs). For adequate discriminant validity, the diagonal elements should be signifi-
cantly greater than the off-diagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns
(Barclay et al., 1995). This condition is satisfied for reflective variables and molecular
second-order constructs in relation to the rest of the variables (Table 3). For the variable
with formative indicators (process management) and molar higher order factors, we
cannot analyse their situation because of the non-availability of AVE values.
Structural Model
Figure 3 shows the variance explained (R2) in the dependent constructs and the path
coefficients (b) for the model. Consistent with Chin (1998a), bootstrapping (500 resam-
ples) is used to generate standard errors and t-statistics. This allows us to assess the stat-
istical significance of the path coefficients.
Fifteen of 16 hypotheses were supported (Table 4). H1a c were proved, although H1c
was only marginally confirmed. This shows the leadership & commitment variable
exerts a significant positive influence on subsequent variables, both directly and indirectly
through the policy & strategy. In its turn, this latter plays an outstanding role as the proven
hypothesis H2a c demonstrates. Moreover, H3 and H4 have also been supported, which
proves the influence of the antecedent variables (policy & strategy, people, and
754
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A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Table 3. Discriminant validity coefficients
Leadership & Policy & People Partnerships & Process People Student Centre Society
Commitment Strategy Management Resources Management Results Results Results Results
Diagonal elements (values in parentheses) are the square root of the variance shared between the constructs and their measures (AVE). Off-diagonal elements are the corre-
lations among constructs. For discriminant validity, diagonal elements should be larger than off-diagonal elements. (n.a.) Non-applicable
Relationships between the EFQM Model Criteria 755
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partnerships & resources) on the process management variable. Of the three hypotheses
whose origin was process management (H5a2c), only H5a has been rejected. However,
this variable has an indirect effect on student results through the people results variable.
Indeed, we should underline the important impact of process management on people
results (H5b, b 0.611, p , 0.001). This study also proves hypotheses H6a b and H7,
which support all links between centre results and explanatory variables. Finally, we
found a strong relationship between centre results and the society results variable.
The research model seems to have an appropriate predictive power for most of the
dependent variables. The mean of the explained variance of the implied variables is
39.85%.
Discussion
Tables 4 and 5 summarize the results obtained in the testing of hypotheses as well as the
different effects between variables and the percentage of the total variation of the depen-
dent variable accounted for by each independent variable. Additionally, they will help us
with the discussion of the results.
First, it is confirmed that the leadership and commitment of the senior officers of the
centres act as the driving-force of the whole of the quality management and quality
improvement process. This can be seen from the effect this variable has on policy & strat-
egy, partnerships & resources, and people and process management. These relationships
756
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A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Table 4. Structural model results
are confirmed by the work of Ahire et al. (1996), Eskildsen & Dahlgaard (2000), Flynn
et al. (1995) or Wilson & Collier (2000), although in a field different from education.
In the latter field, and using the Malcolm Baldrige Model as a reference, Winn &
Cameron (1998) confirm the relationship between leadership, policy & strategy, and
people and process management.
Secondly, the policy and strategy must act as a reference for the setting of staff policy
and the management of resources and processes. Reiner (2002) confirms how policy and
strategy play a central role in the block of agents. This aspect is also highlighted by Ahire
et al. (1996) and Eskildsen & Dahlgaard (2000), confirming the relationship between
policy & strategy and the management of people and resources. Wilson & Collier
(2000) also verify positively the relationship of policy & strategy with the management
of people and resources. Winn & Cameron (1998) positively confirm this relationship
in the field of education.
Thirdly, appropriate management of people is key to the management of processes. In
this respect, Eskildsen & Kanji (1998) show that those organizations which make no
efforts in motivating or training their employees do not manage to involve them in
process improvement. In the empirical literature, there are several studies that corroborate
the positive relationship between the management of people and resources (Flynn &
Saladin, 2001; Wilson & Collier, 2000; Winn & Cameron, 1998). In the field of education,
Detert & Jenni (2000) emphasize the role of motivation and training as key factors affect-
ing the continuous acquisition of new knowledge, skills and abilities by all employees,
758 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
thus leading them to perform their job better. Moreover, as is confirmed by our study, suit-
able process development does not depend exclusively on people and the organizations
policy and strategy but also on appropriate management of material and financial
resources and the involvement of suppliers in these processes. This aspect is corroborated
by the work of Eskildsen & Dahlgaard (2000).
Fourthly, the results of our research confirm the effect of process management on
the results of people, students (as external customers), and the centre. Nonetheless, the
relationship between processes and the student results takes place indirectly through the
results of people (teaching, administration and services staff), reaching a significant value
(0.2976). These results are in keeping with those of Anderson et al. (1995) about the fact
that the principal determinant of peoples and customers results is the form in which the
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organization manages its key activities and continuously improves them. Winn &
Cameron (1998) and Flynn & Saladin (2001) also verify this relationship as well as the influ-
ence of management of key processes on the overall results of the organization.
With regards to the type of process that affects the results to the greatest extent, and with a
focus on the formative measures, special attention must be paid to the weightings (Mathie-
son et al., 2001: 105). Our study reveals that administrative and educational processes are
those with the greatest weight and, therefore, those that most influence the results.
It is worth noting that not only are the results affected by the key processes, but the
achievement of excellent results will be produced by a coordinated effort of all activity
areas of the organization or agents of the model (Ghobadian & Woo, 1996). In our
study, this aspect can be verified by analysing the indirect relationships that exist
between the agents of the model and the different measurements of results.
Finally, the results of our research also confirm the existence of an internal logic con-
necting the results of the EFQM Model (Ghobadian & Woo, 1996), although, due to the
adaptation of the model to the field of higher education, these relationships do not coincide
exactly with those of the reference model. Our study confirms how people results influence
student results, and how both people and student results affect the centre results. Lastly,
the manner in which society perceives the work performed by universities is directly deter-
mined by the overall results of the institution and indirectly by the results of people and the
centre.
set goals and objectives that are consistent with these values and create an appropriate
organization and system to achieve them.
This definite management commitment must go hand in hand with a well-defined policy
and strategy, implemented and communicated at all levels of the institution. The absence
of this prevents measurement of the effectiveness and efficiency of universities or any of
their subsystems, in addition to creating disequilibrium in the allocation of resources
within the system. Policy and strategy must be based on the needs and the current and
future expectations of the stakeholders, and supported by the mission, vision and values
established by the institution.
Subsequently, the planning must be put into practice through concrete actions aimed at
continuous improvement and generating more and more value for the stakeholders. That is
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to say, via a suitable design, management and improvement of key processes. The man-
agement of key processes links the other variables defining the system with the measure-
ments of the results. With this in mind, each university centre must try to identify its key
processes, document them and assign people to be in charge of monitoring and improving
them. For these monitoring and improvement activities, it is essential to have a system of
indicators to evaluate the effectiveness and the efficiency of the processes, and, in addition,
provide transparent external information (students, society, etc). For public universities, it
is essential the authorities and other stakeholders understand the actions of the university
centres. Within these processes, the importance of teaching and administration stand out
due to the effect they have on the results of students and people, and, indirectly, on the
results of the centre and of society.
Human resource management is a basic pillar of successful quality management. Here,
the effect of this variable on processes, the results of students, the workforce and the
overall results of the institution is noteworthy. Improvement is a process of organizational
learning, which is largely based on people. Therefore, the participation of the entire work-
force in improvement activities must be encouraged, and the efforts made must be
rewarded and recognized.
Moreover, the universities and their centres, as with any other organization, must try to
optimize the scarce resources they have (monetary, information, infrastructure or techno-
logical) and execute adequate control and management of suppliers of specific inputs that
represent a significant budgetary cost. In this way, appropriate management of partner-
ships and resources will have a positive effect on the development of processes and will
indirectly affect results. As far as the results are concerned, in order to achieve better
results of people and students, the development and improvement of the teaching and
administrative processes must be strengthened, supported and promoted. To achieve
this, the university should deploy the human and material means necessary for the appro-
priate development of these processes. In addition, the improvement of these results will
have a positive effect on the results of the university and on how customers and society in
general perceive the role of the university.
Limitations
The study has certain limitations that must be considered when it comes to interpreting the
results and conclusions arising from it.
A first limitation is related to the notion of causality. Although evidence is provided on
the causality of the model, this has not really been tested. Our study has considered a
760 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
flexible modelling directed more towards prediction than causality. A second limitation is
determined by the technique used for the proposed model: the structural equations, which
assume the linearity of relationships between the latent variables. Thirdly, the study has
relied on measurements based on the perceptions of the individuals who participated in
it. But it has to allow for the possibility that the perceptions of those surveyed do not
provide a completely accurate picture of reality. Finally, the design of the research
employed was cross-sectional instead of longitudinal. In this respect, the quality assess-
ment and improvement is a process that develops over time and whose effects are
really appreciated only in the long term. It would, therefore, be appropriate to follow a
longitudinal approach for future research.
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Note
1. Whereas the molar attitude represents an emergent construct that is formed from the first-order factors, in
the molecular approach it is hypothesized that an overall latent construct exists and is indicated and
reflected by the first-order factors (Chin & Gopal, 1995).
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Policy & Strategy: Indicate the degree of agreement or disagreement with the following
statements using the following scale: 1 (totally disagree); 4 (neither agree nor disagree);
7 (totally agree).
ps1: The Centres policies and strategies are in line with its mission, vision and values
ps2: The Centres policies and strategies are clearly formulated in writing
ps3: All the areas in the Centre are involved in the process of formulating and commu-
nicating the policies and strategies
ps4: There is a formal process of reviewing and updating policies and strategies
ps5: The Centres policies and strategies are structured in a Strategic Plan
ps6: The Centres goals are set out in writing and in a clear and quantifiable manner
ps7: The goals are communicated at all levels of the organisation
ps8: The principles of quality are incorporated into all of the Centres policies, strat-
egies and goals
ps9: There is a procedure allowing for the deployment of the policies and strategies and
for their being turned into short term plans
ps10: The formulation and revision of policies and strategies include the needs and
expectations of the stakeholders
People Management: Indicate to which extent the Centre has a formal system to carry out
the following questions. Use the following scale: 1 (no system); 4 (the system exists but it
is not a formal one); 7 (the system is formal and subject to revisions).
pm1: Identifying the staffs present and future needs regarding knowledge, competen-
cies and skills
pm2: Developing training plans for the improvement of the staffs knowledge, compe-
tencies and skills
pm3: Promoting actions which support the staffs commitment and involvement in the
improvement actions
pm4: Encouraging the staffs assumption of responsibilities and empowerment to carry
out improvement actions
764 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
pm5: Developing suitable channels for sharing and communicating better practices,
knowledge and experiences
pm6: Recognising quality improvement related efforts, either at a personal or group level
pm7: Establishing social benefits and improvement of the staffs services and facilities
pm8: Encouraging the staffs involvement in topics related to health and safety, the
environment, and social and ethic responsibility
Partnerships & Resources: Indicate the degree of emphasis the Centre places on each of
the following questions, using the following scale: 1 (no emphasis); 4 (moderate empha-
sis); 7 (strong emphasis).
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pr1: Establishment of partnerships with suppliers to generate value and mutual benefits
pr2: Development of agreements guaranteeing the exchange of knowledge and experi-
ences with suppliers
pr3: Making appropriate investments for the development of the Centres policy, strat-
egy and continuous improvement
pr4: Suitable use of the stock, the materials and the energy
pr5: Identification and evaluation of the impact of new technologies on the Centre
pr6: Implementation of mechanisms for the collection and use of data supporting the
Centres policy and strategy
pr7: Implementation of mechanisms for the identification of the information needs of
the stakeholders
pr8: Use of information for the continuous improvement of the management system and
the services
Process Management: Indicate the degree of agreement or disagreement with the follow-
ing questions using the following scale: 1 (totally disagree); 4 (neither agree nor disagree);
7 (totally agree).
Educational Process
ep1: The teaching activity envisages the students needs and expectations
ep2: The teaching activity envisages the companies needs and expectations
ep3: The teaching activity envisages the needs and expectations of the community or the
society in general
Research Process
rp1: The research activity envisages the students needs and expectations
rp2: The research activity envisages the companies needs and expectations
rp3: The research activity envisages the needs and expectations of the community or the
society as a whole
Administrative Process
ap1: The Centre makes efforts addressed to identifying and analysing key processes and
actions
ap2: There is documentary support for processes (field of action, the actions they are
made of, validity, etc.)
ap3: Responsibilities are allocated for the periodic monitoring and review of the processes
ap4: Data are collected about claims and suggestions of the stakeholders, then used to
improve the processes
Relationships between the EFQM Model Criteria 765
ap5: Creativity and innovation are applied to the development of new processes and
services
ap6: Procedures are developed aimed at guaranteeing the adequate provision of services
to the stakeholders
ap7: Specific services are developed to support people and students
People Results
People Negative Critical Incident (NCI) Reduction
Based on the last three years, indicate the change undertaken on each of the following indi-
cators, according to the following scale: 1 (very significant increase); 4 (same as in pre-
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People Satisfaction
According to the following scale, rank the staffs present level of satisfaction: 1 (totally
dissatisfied); 4 (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied); 7 (totally satisfied)
pps1: Teaching and research staff
pps2: Administration and service staff
Based on the last three years, indicate the tendency and evolution of the following aspects
according to the following scale: 1 (very significant decrease); 4 (unchanged); 7 (very sig-
nificant increase)
pps3: Teaching and research staff satisfaction
pps4: Administration and service staff satisfaction
Student Results
Student Negative Critical Incident (NCI) Reduction
Based on the last three years, indicate the change undergone by each of the following indi-
cators according to the following scale: 1 (very significant increase); 4 (same as in pre-
vious years); 7 (very significant decrease).
snci1: Average time needed to respond or solve claims and/or complaints
766 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Student Satisfaction
Based on the last three years, indicate the change undergone by each of the following indi-
cators according to the following scale: 1 (very significant increase); 4 (same as in pre-
vious years); 7 (very significant decrease).
Based on the last three years, indicate the tendency and evolution of the following aspects
according to the following scale: 1 (very significant decrease); 4 (unchanged); 7 (very sig-
nificant increase).
Centre Results
Based on the last three years, and according to the following scale, indicate the tendency
and evolution of the following parameters of Centre results: 1 (very significant decrease);
4 (unchanged); 7 (very significant increase)
Society Results
Society Satisfaction
Based on the last three years, indicate the change undergone in the following questions
according to the following scale: 1 (very significant worsening or decrease);
4 (unchanged); 7 (very significant increase or improvement).
sos4: Based on the last three years, indicate the tendency and evolution of the surround-
ing community or society with regards to the Centre according to the following
scale: 1 (very significant decrease); 4 (unchanged); 7 (very significant increase)
Variance Average
CONSTRUCT/ inflation Composite variance
Dimension/ factor reliability extracted
Indicator (VIF) Weight Loading (rc) (AVE)
LEADERSHIP & 0.9200 0.5916
COMMITMENT
(Reflective)
lc1 0.8354
lc2 0.7439
lc3 0.7954
lc4 0.7774
lc5 0.7524
lc6 0.7142
lc7 0.7238
lc8 0.8026
POLICY & STRATEGY 0.9350 0.5895
(Reflective)
ps1 0.7353
ps2 0.7957
ps3 0.7271
ps4 0.7896
ps5 0.7202
ps6 0.7939
ps7 0.8176
ps8 0.8084
ps9 0.7371
ps10 0.7447
(continued)
768 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Appendix B. Continued
Variance Average
CONSTRUCT/ inflation Composite variance
Dimension/ factor reliability extracted
Indicator (VIF) Weight Loading (rc) (AVE)
pm3 0.8967
pm4 0.8953
pm5 0.8746
pm6 0.7990
pm7 0.7289
pm8 0.7032
PARTNERSHIP & 0.9250 0.6067
RESOURCES (Reflective)
pr1 0.7214
pr2 0.7606
pr3 0.7694
pr4 0.7246
pr5 0.7591
pr6 0.8142
pr7 0.8514
pr8 0.8206
PROCESS MANAGEMENT n.a. n.a.
(Molar 2nd order factor)
Educational Processes 1.803 0.5166 0.8892 0.7281
ep1 0.8365
ep2 0.8270
ep3 0.8948
Research Processes 1.455 0.1554 0.8210 0.6048
rp1 0.7466
rp2 0.7756
rp3 0.8096
Administrative Processes 1.395 0.5359 0.9154 0.6076
ap1 0.7784
ap2 0.7349
ap3 0.7898
ap4 0.7668
ap5 0.8133
ap6 0.8192
ap7 0.7505
(continued)
Relationships between the EFQM Model Criteria 769
Appendix B. Continued
Variance Average
CONSTRUCT/ inflation Composite variance
Dimension/ factor reliability extracted
Indicator (VIF) Weight Loading (rc) (AVE)
pnci2 0.8331
pnci3 0.7470
pnci4 0.6475
People satisfaction 0.8386 0.8590 0.6065
pps1 0.6102
pps2 0.8113
pps3 0.8620
pps4 0.8078
People Skills & Knowledge 0.7376 0.9170 0.7873
psk1 0.8680
psk2 0.8885
psk3 0.9051
STUDENT RESULTS 0.7970 0.6628
(Molecular 2nd order factor)
Student NCI Reduction 0.8251 0.8010 0.6694
snci1 0.8719
snci2 0.7607
Student Satisfaction 0.8030 0.7990 0.5035
ss1 0.6385
ss2 0.6037
ss3 0.8450
ss4 0.7265
CENTRE RESULTS n.a. n.a.
(Formative)
cr1 1.368 0.3596
cr2 1.253 0.2897
cr3 1.190 0.2130
cr4 1.587 0.5069
cr5 1.822 -0.4607
cr6 1.587 0.2964
cr7 1.176 0.3237
cr8 1.536 -0.1605
(continued)
770 A. Calvo-Mora et al.
Appendix B. Continued
Variance Average
CONSTRUCT/ inflation Composite variance
Dimension/ factor reliability extracted
Indicator (VIF) Weight Loading (rc) (AVE)
sos2 0.6967
sos3 0.8438
sos4 0.8651
Environmental protection 1.070 0.3679 0.8420 0.6403
activities
epa1 0.8596
epa2 0.7832
epa3 0.7541