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Exergy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097089-9.00016-4
2013 Ibrahim Dincer and Marc A. Rosen. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved 335
336 Exergy
fuels, asphalt, and so forth. To accomplish this conversion, by Al-Muslim (2002) and Al-Muslim et al. (2003, 2005).
crude oil undergoes numerous chemical and physical The effects of varying key system parameters (e.g., distil-
processes in different parts of a refinery (Al-Muslim et al., lation column temperature and pressure) on system effi-
2003). Processing of crude oil into its constituents occurs in ciencies at various conditions are highlighted.
distillation columns, after the oil has passed through
desalination and cleaning processes. Working at tempera-
tures of up to 400 C, the gaseous crude oil is transferred 16.2 ANALYSIS APPROACH AND
into distillation columns and then condensed at varying ASSUMPTIONS
temperatures and pressures as part of the refining process.
The three governing equations commonly used in thermo-
Different condensates have varying boiling points, and
dynamic analysis of systems, conservation of mass and
the higher the boiling point is, the higher the gas ascends
energy, and nonconservation of entropy are applied here to
before condensing. For optimum operation of a distillation
crude oil distillation. For the process, steady-state steady-
column, accurate temperature, pressure, and flow mea-
flow behavior is assumed with negligible changes in kinetic
surements are required.
and potential energies. The ambient conditions are as
The boiling points of organic compounds sometimes
follows: T0 25 C 298.15 K and P0 101 kPa. For
help indicate other physical properties. A liquid boils when
every individual component, the three balances are applied
its vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
and quantities such as heat added, exergy loss rate, and
Vapor pressure is determined by the kinetic energy of
exergy efficiency are evaluated. After simplification, the
molecules. Kinetic energy is related to temperature and the
mass, energy, and exergy balances, respectively, are as
mass and velocity of the molecules. When the temperature
follows:
reaches the boiling point, the average kinetic energy of the X X
liquid particles is sufficient to overcome the forces of m_ i m_ e (16.1)
attraction that hold molecules in the liquid state. When i e
molecules in the liquid state have sufficient kinetic energy, X X
they may escape from the surface and turn into a gas. E_ i Q_ cv E_ e W_ cv (16.2)
i e
Molecules with the most independence in individual X X X
motion typically achieve sufficient kinetic energy (velo- _ i
Ex 1 T0 =Tj Q_ cv _ e W_ cv I_cv
Ex
city) to escape at lower temperatures. The vapor pressure i j e
for such a compound is higher and, therefore, it will boil at (16.3)
a lower temperature.
The utilization of thermodynamic analysis to improve where the exergy losses from a control volume and total
efficiency has increased in the industrial world for many exergy are given, respectively, as follows:
rev
reasons. Easily accessible energy resources are limited and I_cv W_ cv W_ cv (16.4)
environmental policies are becoming stricter. Increases in X
oil prices in the 1970s and rising concerns in the 1980s and Ex U P0 V T0 S m0;i Ni (16.5)
1990s about the adverse environmental impact caused by i
energy systems have caused considerable effort to be The exergy efficiency can be expressed as:
dedicated to improving efficiencies of existing and future X .X
designs of energy systems using thermodynamics and other j _ e
Ex _ i
Ex (16.6)
tools. e i
Energy analysis is conventionally used to optimize the
yield of desired products in crude oil distillation. However,
for economic, resource scarcity, and environmental 16.3 DESCRIPTION OF CRUDE OIL
reasons, we seek to optimize the utilization of energy
DISTILLATION SYSTEM ANALYZED
resources, and exergy analysis has become an increasingly
popular tool for such activities. However, most attention is Crude oil distillation is the first step in a refinery complex.
still focused on using energy analysis and many studies A physical process separates crude oil into different frac-
have been undertaken on energy analyses of various ther- tions depending on the difference of boiling temperatures
modynamic systems and processes in the petroleum and of its constituents. In most distillation plants, crude oil is
petrochemical industries. Relatively limited work has been processed in two towers: (1) the atmospheric tower where
reported on exergy analyses of distillation processes and light hydrocarbons are separated and (2) the vacuum tower
units. where heavier hydrocarbons are separated. The products of
A detailed exergy analysis of crude oil distillation crude oil distillation can be final products or feedstock to
systems is described in this chapter based on earlier reports other plants.
Chapter | 16 Exergy Analysis of Crude Oil Distillation Systems 337
16.3.1 Overall System of the components and parameters follows below (for
details, see Al-Muslim et al., 2003).
The crude oil distillation plant has many components, for
example, crude oil furnace, distillation towers, and heat
exchangers network. Figure 16.1 illustrates a schematic 16.3.2 System Components
diagram of the crude oil distillation system considered here.
16.3.2.1 Crude Oil Furnace 1 (Heater 1)
The system consists of two crude oil distillation units: (1)
the atmospheric distillation unit (ADU) and (2) the vacuum Crude oil is heated in this furnace using the hot exhaust of
distillation unit (VDU), two crude oil furnaces, and a heat fuel combustion. The crude oil starts vaporizing as heat is
exchanger network (HEN). The HEN is not shown, but its input. At the heater outlet, the crude oil is not totally
effect via utilizing high-temperature product streams to vaporized, being typically 75% vapor. Typical outlet
preheat the crude oil is analyzed. A crude oil mass flow rate temperatures are 350 Ce380 C. The charge (crude oil) can
of 507 kg/s (300,000 barrels per day) is considered. The be fed to the heater directly from storage tanks at atmo-
system is modeled to facilitate analysis, and a description spheric temperature, but in most plants the crude oil passes
Feed 18 T1 17
10
22 E1 Atmospheric residue Vacuum residue
E2
Steam in 24
Flue gas Flue gas
Heater 1 ADU Heater 2 VDU
338 Exergy
through a series of preheaters that utilize the high temper- exchangers where it cools and condenses. A portion of the
atures of the distillation column product streams. The outlet condensed liquid is returned to the top of the column at
temperature of the preheating heat exchangers can reach a lower temperature. The pump-around circuit draws liquid
280 C. from a certain tray, cools the liquid in heat exchangers, and
returns the liquid to a tray above the original tray at a lower
16.3.2.2 ADU temperature. The pump-around circuit is characterized by
the withdraw tray, the return tray, the mass flow rate, and
The ADU is a long column with many trays and operates at or the return temperature. The ADU has three pump-around
above atmospheric pressure (typically 200 kPa). The trays circuits (PA01, PA02, and PA03), which are described in
have bubble caps or holes to allow vapor to pass through them Table 16.1.
and are either of the two-pass of four-pass types. Crude oil Superheated steam is introduced from the bottom of the
enters the ADU in a tray above the bottom in the so-called column at about 350 C to reduce the partial pressure in the
flash zone. The crude oil vaporizes increasingly as rises. column and thus enhance vaporization and separation of
Liquid, referred to as atmospheric residue, is drawn from the the crude oil. The temperature profile is designed so that the
bottom tray. As the vapor rises, it passes through the trays and lowest temperature is well above the dew point temperature
cools as it comes in contact with the liquid. of the steam at column pressure to ensure it will not
Crude fractions settle in trays in the rectifying section condense in the column. Steam is typically supplied at
and are drawn off at five liquid side cuts depending on their about 1 kg steam/100 kg of crude oil. The important
average boiling point. The light products, which have low parameters of the ADU, which must be considered in
boiling points, tend toward the top and the heavier prod- design, are number of trays, crude oil entrance (flash zone),
ucts, with relatively higher boiling points, tend towards the and locations and draw-off rates of side cuts.
bottom. The side cuts are from heavy to light: heavy diesel, Parameters that are frequently varied during plant
medium diesel, light diesel, and kerosene. The very light operation are temperature profile and pressure profile of the
products, such as butane, and lighter in addition to light, column. The temperature profile can be controlled by
naphtha, exit as vapor at the top of the column. The varying the flow rate in the pump-around circuits and return
atmospheric overhead is partially condensed in heat temperature. Pressure profile can be controlled by varying
exchangers. When cooled, the naphtha condenses and exits column overhead pressure. Those profiles significantly
as a liquid while the lighter products remain as gases. affect column operation and the ability to produce the
Uncondensed vapor flows to the fuel gas system, which is desired products.
used as fuel for the furnaces.
In our model, a 27-tray column is assumed. The crude
oil is introduced in tray no. 5. The side cut trays are dedi- 16.3.2.3 Crude Oil Furnace 2 (Heater 2)
cated as follows: no. 7 for residue, no. 10 for heavy diesel, The purpose of this furnace is to heat the bottom residue
no. 14 for medium diesel, no. 19 for light diesel, and no. 24 from the ADU from 350 C to 400 C. Its operation is
for kerosene. The very light materials exit from the over- similar to that for Heater 1.
head tray (no. 1), and the very heavy materials from the
bottom tray (no. 27).
16.3.2.4 VDU
Heat is removed from the column through the overhead
condenser and a number of pump-around circuits, typically The VDU operates at vacuum pressure to help in separa-
three. The column overhead vapor passes through heat ting heavy hydrocarbons and allows temperatures for
TABLE 16.1 Data for the Pump-Around Circuits of the ADU and VDU
Pump-around circuit Withdraw tray Return tray Mass flow rate (kg/s) Return temperature ( C)
PA01 5 3 0.1 50
PA02 10 7 0.4 125
PA03 17 13 0.3 220
PA04 3 2 0.2 75
PA05 6 4 0.08 245
distillation that are lower than those in the ADU. The 16.5 ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSES
vacuum pressure is typically 18 kPa at the vacuum column
flash zone and 10 kPa at the column top. The vacuum is Energy and exergy analyses of the main system compo-
created by placing a series of ejectors in service. The VDU nents and the overall crude oil distillation system are
uses the same operating principles as the ADU, but with described.
fewer trays and side cuts.
In our model, a 12-tray column is assumed. Part of the 16.5.1 Crude Heating Furnace (E1)
residue is charged directly from the ADU at tray no. 7 and
Applying the energy balance in Equation 16.2 and
the other part is charged from the furnace at tray no. 2. The
assuming an adiabatic process, the hot air mass flow rate m_ 9
three side cuts are, in order of heavy to light, wash oil at
is evaluated as follows:
tray no. 4, heavy vacuum gas oil at tray no. 7, and light
vacuum gas oil at tray no. 10. The vacuum residue leaves h2 h1
m_ 9 m_ 1 (16.7)
from the bottom tray (no. 12) and usually is transferred to h10 h9
an asphalt plant.
Superheated steam is introduced at the bottom of the Equation 16.3 is used to find the exergy consumption
column. The function of the steam is the same as in the rate, noting that no chemical exergy change occurs in the
ADU. Heat from the VDU is removed mainly by the pump- heater since the chemical composition of crude does not
around circuits. The VDU has three pump-around circuits change:
(PA04, PA05, and PA06), which are shown in Table 16.1. I_E1 m_ 1 ex1 ex2 m_ 9 ex10 ex9 (16.8)
Again, the temperature and pressure profiles of the column
are the key parameters used to control the operation of the The exergy efficiency is determined with Equation 16.6:
unit.
!,
X X
jE1 _ i I_E1
Ex _ i
Ex (16.9)
16.3.2.5 HEN i i
The HEN has two purposes: (1) cooling product streams where the exergy input rate for the crude heating
from their boiling point temperatures to about 60 C and (2) furnace is given by the following:
preheating the crude oil from atmospheric temperatures to X
about 280 C. The heat exchangers are normally of the shell _ i m_ 1 ex1 m_ 9 ex10
Ex (16.10)
and tube type. i
TABLE 16.2 Input Date for Simulation of the Crude Oil Distillation Plant at Normal Operating Conditions
State Stream Phase Temperature ( C) Pressure (kPa) Mass flow rate (kg/s)
1 Crude feed Liquid 25 101 507
2 Crude heated Mixed 350 101 507
The exergy efficiency is found with Equation 16.6 as: exergy consumption rates are equal to the sum of the
" #
X .X internal exergy consumption rates of the individual
jT1 _ _ _
Exi 1 T0 =TQT1 I E1 _ i
Ex components. Thus,
i i
(16.14) X
_ i m_ 1 ex1 m_ 10 ex10
Ex (16.16)
where the exergy input rate for the ADU is: i
X
_ i m_ 2 2
Ex (16.15)
i I_overall I_E1 I_T1;ph I_T1;ch (16.17)
" #
X .X
16.5.3 Overall Exergy Efficiency joverall _ i 1 T0 =TQ_ T1 I_overal
Ex _ i
Ex
Taking the entire system as a control volume, external heat i i
transfer is observed to occur at T1. The overall internal (16.18)
Chapter | 16 Exergy Analysis of Crude Oil Distillation Systems 341
16.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the operations occurring in the plant devices, and include
simulation input data and output results (e.g., component
16.6.1 Simulation Results data, calculation sequence, heat exchanger summary,
A simulation of the system in Figure 16.1 was carried out column summary, stream molar component rates, and
by Al-Muslim et al. (2003, 2005) for actual operating stream summary).
conditions. Input data are given in Table 16.2 and the
simulation results in Table 16.3.
Detailed simulation results are reported in Al-Muslim
16.6.2 Energy and Exergy Results
(2002) and Al-Muslim et al. (2003), where the different By applying the energy and exergy balances from earlier
streams are identified with their properties (e.g., tempera- sections, we find energy and exergy efficiencies and
ture, pressure, and composition). The reports also describe irreversibility rates for individual components and the
TABLE 16.3 Simulation Results for Crude Oil Distillation Plant under Normal Operating Conditions
Steam Temperature Pressure Mass flow rate Specific entropy (kJ/ Specific enthalpy (kJ/
number Description Phase ( C) (kPa) (kg/s) kg-K) kg)
1 Feed Liquid 25 102 507.6221 4.440448 34.39055
2 Feed Vapor 352.3746 102 507.6221 6.615505 1040.125
3 Offgas Vapor 68.00522 206.6044 1.09E-12 4.216201 760.3895
4 Naphtha Mixed 68.00522 206.8148 0.566983 2.509089 164.5537
5 Kerosene Mixed 68.91907 208.4696 15.56693 3.039461 348.8646
6 Light diesel Mixed 68.86612 211.7791 32.14957 2.323762 182.8285
TABLE 16.4 Model Results for Crude Oil Distillation Plant under Normal Operating Conditions
_ ph;in (kW)
SEx 549311 460180 211396 233428 632531
_ ph;out (kW)
S Ex 444036 201557 201436 124561 149806
Iph (kW) 105275 341129 9960 151841 608204
_ in (kW)
SEx 589496 500365 223817 248621 672716
_ out (kW)
SEx 484221 216749 213858 124560.5 149806
I_ (kW) 105275 366121 9960 167033 648389
overall system. To determine the contribution of chem- fact that the main separation takes place in the ADU. These
ical exergy to the total exergy loss, the calculations for losses are composed of physical and chemical exergy los-
exergy are made twice: (1) with the chemical exergy ses. The chemical exergy losses are 6.8% of the total exergy
term and (2) without the chemical exergy loss inherent to losses. The irreversibility losses in the VDU are significant
the separation process. The results are shown in Table at 26% of the total exergy consumption, but lower than
16.4. those of the ADU. This is because less separation is
The energy efficiency of the ADU is 49.7% and of the involved. The chemical exergy losses represent 9.1% of the
energy efficiency of the VDU is 57.9%. The ADU energy total VDU exergy losses. The exergy consumption is 16%
efficiency is lower because the main separation occurs of the total for Heater 1 and 2% for Heater 2. This is
there. The energy efficiency of the overall system is 51.9%. because most of the heating load is carried in Heater 1. In
The energy efficiencies of the heaters are not included as Heater 2, the flow is almost half of that in Heater 1 and the
we assume adiabatic heat transfer in the process. The temperature rise is less. Only physical exergy losses are
greatest exergy consumption occurs in the ADU, with 56% present here as there are no separation processes in the
of the total exergy consumption. This is again due to the heater.
0.4
efficiency; :, ADU energy efficiency; n, ADU
exergy efficiency; overall exergy efficiency. 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
PA03 flow rate (kg/s)
Chapter | 16 Exergy Analysis of Crude Oil Distillation Systems 343
The components with the greatest irreversibilities have and exergy efficiencies of the ADU and the overall system.
the lowest exergy efficiencies. The exergy efficiencies are For the ADU, the operating condition, which is the middle
43.3% for ADU, 50.1% for VDU, 82.1% for Heater 1, point on each trend line, is the optimum condition. The
95.6% for Heater 2, and 23.3% for the overall system. The energy efficiency at this point is 4%e9% higher than at
overall exergy efficiency is lower than the component adjacent points, the exergy efficiency is 6%e10% higher than
efficiencies. When more components are added to the at adjacent points, and the irreversibility rate is 3%e12%
system, the overall exergy efficiency typically decreases lower than at adjacent points. As the operating condition
further (unless high-efficiency measures are taken). This is departs from the optimum, more inputs are required by the
because losses accumulate for each additional component overhead condenser for the same product yield. For the
added. overall system, there is no significant variation in energy and
exergy efficiencies with variations in PA03 mass flow rate.
16.6.3 Impact of Operating Parameter However, the irreversibility rate follows the same trend as for
the ADU, and minimum irreversibilities are 5%e10% lower
Variations than at adjacent operating condition points.
It is often useful to investigate the influence on system The VDU has three pump-around circuits: PA04, PA05,
performance of varying operating conditions, particularly and PA06. Figure 16.3 illustrates the effects of varying the
the temperature and pressure profiles of the distillation mass flow rate of PA04, as a representative case, on the
column. The temperature profile is controlled by the pump- energy and exergy efficiencies of the VDU and the overall
around circuits. The key operating parameters are the system. For the VDU, the energy efficiency varies by less
pump-around flow rate and return temperature. The effect than 2% and the exergy efficiency by less than 5%; hence,
of varying these parameters on energy and exergy effi- the irreversibility rate varies by less than 2%. The variations
ciencies of both distillation columns and the overall system for the overall system of energy and exergy efficiencies and
are illustrated in this section. irreversibility rate are all less than 2%. This is because heat
The ADU has three pump-around circuits: PA01, PA02, duty on the VDU overhead condenser is negligible and
and PA03. Figure 16.2 illustrates the effects of changing the most of the heat duty is carried by the pump-around
mass flow rate of PA03, as a representative case, on the energy circuits.
0.2
0.1
0
160 180 200 220 240 260 280
PA03 return temperature ( C)
344 Exergy
Efficiency
ciency;A, overall energy efficiency; n, VDU exergy
0.4
efficiency; , overall exergy efficiency.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
50 60 70 80 90 100
PA04 return temperature ( C)
Figure 16.4 shows the effect of varying the PA03 return 2%. The variations for the overall system are within 1%.
temperature on the energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, and This is because heat duty on the VDU overhead condenser
irreversibility rate of the ADU and the overall system. The is negligible and most of the heat duty is carried by the
operating condition is again the approximate optimum pump-around circuits.
condition. The energy efficiency at this point is 4%e11% Another significant operating parameter is the distilla-
higher than at adjacent points, the exergy efficiency is tion pressure. The pressure profile of the distillation column
5%e14% higher than at adjacent points, and the irrevers- is controlled through the overhead pressure of the column.
ibility rate is 8%e14% lower than at adjacent points. This The vapor flow to the condenser can be restricted to
result occurs because, as the operating condition departs increase the pressure. As the column overhead pressure
from the optimum, additional input is required by the increases, the yield of heavy hydrocarbons increases and
overhead condenser for the same product yield. For the the yield of light hydrocarbons decreases. The effect of
overall system, there is no significant change in energy and varying ADU and VDU overhead pressures on the energy
exergy efficiencies with PA03 return temperature. How- and exergy efficiencies of both distillation columns and the
ever, the irreversibility rate follows the same trend as the overall system is illustrated in Figures 16.6 and 16.7. The
ADU, with minimum irreversibilities at the operating operating overhead pressure is the approximate optimum
condition, where the irreversibility rate is 4%e9% lower pressure. The energy efficiency at this pressure is 4%e13%
than at adjacent points. higher than at adjacent points, the exergy efficiency is
Figure 16.5 illustrates the effect of varying the return 6%e16% higher than at adjacent points, and the irrevers-
temperature of PA04 on the energy and exergy efficiencies ibility rate is 5%e21% lower than at adjacent points.
and the irreversibility rate of the VDU and the overall Departures from the optimum operating condition require
system. Varying the return temperatures of PA04, PA05, more input to the overhead condenser for the same product
and PA06 has no significant effect on the energy and exergy yield. For the overall system, there is no significant change
efficiencies and irreversibility rate of the VDU and the in energy and exergy efficiencies with column overhead
overall system. As for the VDU, the energy and exergy pressure. However, the irreversibility rate follows the same
efficiencies and the irreversibility rate variations are within trend as for the ADU, with minimum irreversibilities
0.2
0.1
0
140 160 180 200 220 240 260
ADU overhead pressure (kPa)
Chapter | 16 Exergy Analysis of Crude Oil Distillation Systems 345
occurring at the operating condition, where the irrevers- varying operating conditions (e.g., temperature and pres-
ibility rate is 4%e13% lower than at adjacent points. As sure profiles of the columns) on energy and exergy effi-
shown in Figure 16.7, the VDU overhead pressure has little ciencies and irreversibility rates of the individual
effect on the energy and exergy efficiencies and the irre- components and the overall system. The temperature and
versibility rate of the VDU and the overall system. For the pressure profiles of the ADU at the normal operating
VDU, the energy and exergy efficiencies and the irrevers- condition are observed to provide the approximate
ibility rate variations are within 5%. These variations for optimum energy efficiencies, exergy efficiencies, and
the overall system are within 2%. This result is attributable irreversibility rates. Changing the temperature profile and
to the fact that heat duty for the VDU overhead condenser is pressure profile of the VDU does not lead to significant
negligible and most of the heat duty is carried by the pump- changes in the energy and exergy efficiencies and irre-
around circuits. versibility rates.
provided in the article, perform a detailed exergy 16.10 Obtain actual operating data from an oil distillation
analysis of the plant and compare your results to plant and perform a detailed exergy analysis.
those in the original article. Also, investigate the Discuss the results and provide recommendations
effect of varying important operating parameters on based on the exergy results for improving the
the system exergetic performance. efficiency.