STRUCTURE

FOUNDATION

Bu i l din g G r 0 u p
Housing 8r Development Board
Produced by
Build i ng Group
Hous i ng and Oeve I opment Board
HOB Hub 480
Lorong 6 Toa Payoh
Singapore 310480

E d i tor i a l Adv sors

Lau Joo Ming
Tan Kim Chwee

Editor
Shum Chee Hoong

Authors
Ng Kim Chua
Wong Swee Kh i an
Mok Yew Cheong
Yee Wa i Ean
Ang Loy J i n, Lionel

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

(02005 Housing &. Development Board

No part of this publication may
be reproduced in any form
electronic, mechanical , o r
otherwise. without the wr i tten
permission from the publ ishe r or
author .

The information conta i ned i n this

publication is current at the time
of printing . It i s subject to
change as may be required by the
relevant authorities and/or at the
sole discretion of HOB.

Note: This handbook is intended to serve as a guide and

to share HDB's experiences in the engineering design of
Pr i nted by Nat i onal Photo Engravers
new building structures. It is the duty and responsibility
of the designer to ensure that his/her design comply with
the requirements of the Bu i lding Control Act and
ISBN 981 - 05-2963-5 Regulations and relevant building code of practices.
 Contents

1 Structural Design
Building Structural System
Structural Layout
Design Considerations
1
1
2
Codes of Practice 2
Loading 2

2 Reinforced Concrete
Robustness
Concrete Cover
3
4
Concealed Wiring 5
Slabs 6
Beams 10
Columns 11
Walls & Household Shelter 13
Water Retaining Structures 15
Multi-Storey Carpark 17
Joints in Structures 19

Precast Concrete
Design Principles 21
Connections 23
Waterproofing System 25
Semi-Precast Building System 27
Floor System 30
External Walls 31
Load Bearing Elements 33
Special Prefabricated Components 35

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Steel Structures

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Design Requirements
Trusses
Stanchion Base
37
38
39
40
Galvanisation 40

5 Foundation
Site Investigations 41
Design Considerations 42
Other Design Considerations 43
Types of Foundation & Tests 44
Sub-Structures for Foundation 45
 STRUCTURAL

Structural Layout
The structural layout must enable the structure to effectively perform the functions for which it is
built for. An acceptable proposed structural layout should be:

Structurally sound and serviceable

Satisfactory for the functional requirements of buildings
Economical
Aesthetically pleasing

When planning for the layout of the structural framing system~ other factors to consider include
headroom requirements, the layout of the mechanical and electrical services and flexibility to
allow re-partitioning of the rooms.

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Example of framing structural system

1 I Structure t" FoundatIOn

Structura l Design , Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete ,Steel, Foundation

Building Structura System

The choice of the structural system depends largely on the floor layout,
storey height, mechanical and electrical services, and other architectural
requirements.

A good structura l system efficiently and safely transmits all forces to

the fou ndation . The structure is able to support all vertical , horizontal
and other forces acting on the building both locally and globally.

Design Considerations
The structural design and detailing conform with approved Codes of Practice, Building Control Act
and Regulations, Statutory and Local Authorities' requirements, and with good engineering practices.

The structural system meets structural requirements with sufficient safety and possess proper
response including stability, strength, acceptable human perception of motion, rigidity and ductility. At
the same time, the overall economy, aesthetic appeal and durability is considered.

The overall design is cost effective and meets minimum requirements in strength, quality, stability,
durability and serviceability.

Structural members are standardised and modularised to facilitate construction and prefabrication.

Codes of Practice Loading

Design calculations and drawings should satisfy
statutory requirements, HOB's specifications as
well as the latest approved Codes of Practice
such as, but not limited to, the following
SS : CP65 - Singapore Standard on Code of
Practice for Structural Use of
Concrete
BS 5950 - Structural Use of Steelwork in
Building
BS 8002 - Earth Retaining Structures
SS : CP4 - Foundations
BS 6399 - Design Loadings for Buildings
SS : CP? - The Structural Use of Timber
SS : CP?3 - Design of Concrete Structures
for Retaining Aqueous Liquid
Loading on structures include vertical forces
such as self-weight, superimposed dead load,
imposed load and lateral forces such as wind load.
At the ultimate limit state, the lateral forces
resisted at any level shall be the greater of:
- 1.50/0 of the characteristic dead load
- Wind load derived from BS6399, Part 2,
multiplied by the appropriate partial safety factor
- Results obtained from wind tunnel analysis,
where applicable
The provision for live load reduction for foundation
and column is not considered for residential
buildings that are less than 30 storeys high.
Additional loads to be considered include those
incurred during construction stage, architectural
finishes and subsequent maintenance works.

Structure Foundation I2
 REINFORCED

Robustness
For robustness, structural members must be effectively tied in the longitudinal,
transverse and vertical directions.

All the ground floor columns and walls are to be tied in two directions by ground
beams or slab.

The reinforcement designed shall be sufficient to act as:

- Peripheral Ties
- Internal Ties
- External Column or Wall Ties
- Vertical Ties

Full tension laps throughout are provided for reinforcement considered as part of the
ties .

For a two-column framing system, design to allow for the notional removal of one
column. Adequate reinforcement must be provided in the slabs to allow the development
of catenary action.

For precast or semi-precast construction system, special provisions are to be made

to eliminate the possibility of progressive collapse.

Alternatively, key element design can be adopted. There should be sufficient

redundancy and spare capacities in the key structural elements.

Special attention must be given to the connections to ensure an overall structural

stability and water tightness.

For buildings with staggered height,

- To consider stresses induced from differential settlement between lower and higher
building blocks at adjoining slabs and beams.

- Top and bottom reinforcement must have tension lap.

3 I Structure ;'31. Foundation

 R i nfor ced Co nc rete . P

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Reinforced concrete (RC) structures are designed to CP65
requirements. The design shall satisfy the codes of practice for
safety, stability, integrity, robustness and loading.

Minimum grade 40 concrete is used for the substructures and

superstructures of the building .

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Concrete Cover
The concrete cover provided must be sufficient for the stipulated fire-rating as well as
to prevent spalling concrete.

The nominal cover to main reinforcement should comply with CP65 requirements but
not less than the values specified below.

Minimum Concrete Cover To Reinforcement

Min concrete Remarks
Location
cover (mm)
Slab top 20
bottom 30
Slab (MSCP) top 30
bottom 30
Beam top 45 For beams in
bottom 60 transverse/frame direction
top 70 For beams in longitudinal
bottom 35 direction
sides 35
Beam (MSCP) top 55 For beams in
bottom 60 transverse/frame direction
top 80 For beams in longitudinal
bottom 35 direction
sides 35
sides 60 With plank
Column 60
Wall 35 To vertical bars
Household shelter wall 25 To horizontal bars
Water tank inner face in
40
contact with water
Pilecap (for bored top 50
& RC piles) bottom 75 from pile head
sides 75
Pilecap (for H-steel top 75
piles, micropiles & bottom 75 from pile head
jack-in piles) sides 50
FootinQ 75

Structure & Founda ion I4

 REINFORCED E
Concealed Wiring

Concealed wiring must be properly installed with sufficient cover"to protect it from damages.

Minimum slab thickness for slabs with concealed wiring is 150 mm thick for typical floor
slab and roof.

For semi-precast construction using precast planks, minimum thickness of concrete topping
is 80 mm in order to allow embedment of conduits for concealed wiring. Minimum concrete
cover must be provided to the conduits.

Where conduits are expected to cross over each other, minimum concrete cover must be
maintained by spacing out the crossing over points.

Column or wall

For concealed wiring inside the

household shelter slab, minimum slab
thickness is 175 mm.

Switch point
Minimum width of columns and walls
or power point
for concealed wiring is 300 mm and 200
mm respectively.

Wire casings on both faces of the

column or wall cannot be placed back
to back.

Positions for switch points or power paints

casings are to be offset

s i Structure oundation
Structural Desi g n. Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . Steei . Foundation

Slabs
Generally, slabs in a residential building are classified into three types,
namely ground floor, typical storey and roof.

The ground floor is the common area usually used for community
and social activities. Typical storeys are where the dwelling units are
located and are repeated with little or no variations in the layout
throughout the entire structure. The roof refers to the main roof
where the lift machine room and water tanks are located.

Ground Floor Slab

Ground floor slabs and beams are designed as non-integrated structures and are normally
cast separately in two operations.

Flat slabs may be adopted for ground floor slab design to improve constructability. Slab
must be adequately designed and strengthened accordingly at all floor openings for services.

Apron slab, apron drain, inspection chamber, grease interceptor and other sanitary system
are designed to be suspended .

Typical Storey Slab

Typical storey slabs are usually constructed using one-way spanning precast prestressed
planks with cast in-situ concrete topping.

Slab thickness at typical storeys for residential blocks is between 125 mm and 200 mm, in
steps of 25 mm .

.. In addition to any other floor loadings, a uniformly distributed superimposed dead load of
1.2 kN/m2 is to be included to allow for floor finishes. For partitions supported by slabs,
1.SkN/m2 is to be included .

Where a private balcony within a flat is provided with a drop from the adjacent room area,
of the flat shall be designed for concrete topping up of slab so as to flush with the floor finish
of adjacent room area.

If a link-bridge is designed at every floor as an access corridor, there will be stresses

induced from the lateral movement and differential settlement between two opposite side of
building structures. Top and bottom reinforcement with tension lap or anchorage should be
provided for the entire slab.

Structure & Foundation I6

 REINFORCED
Roof Slab
Roof slabs are usually constructed using one-
way spanning precast prestressed planks with
cast in-situ concrete topping.
For residential buildings, the minimum slab
thickness and beam layout at the main roof is
usually similar to the typical storey.
Soffit of the roof slab and beams are maintained
flat. Hence, the slabs will have varying thickness
and the beams will have varying depths.
The roof slabs are cast to fall so as to direct
rainwater to the desired discharge point. Floor
screed to form the fall is not allowed.
Finish to the concrete surface is power floated .
Precast ferrocement slab panels are used for secondary roofing system
71Structure & Foundation
o
Secondary Roof
The design loads at the main roof slab should
include the weight of the secondary roofing
system consisting of ferrocement slabs
supported by stumps.
Precast ferrocement roof slab panels are
supported by stumps and placed above the
main roof of the residential blocks.
An air void is thus created between the main
roof slab and this secondary roof to insulate the
main roof from hot weather.
The standard size roofing slab panels interlock
with one another to form a roofing system that
fall at a gradient similar to the main roof.
 Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . Steel. Foundation

Slab Reenforcemenf
The reinforcement of floor slab panels consist mainly of
prefabricated we lded wire fabric, or more common ly know
as wire meshes, to save labour in steel work.

Steel bars are used only when shapes of
reinforcement cannot be formed by mesh, or
for irregular-shaped slab panels whereby
reinforcement involves extensive cutting of the
mesh as the tying of loose reinforcement bars
are very labour-intensive.
Minimum reinforcement provided in either
directions should not be less than
- 0.13% for high yield steel
- 0.24% for mild steel
Where applicable, additional torsional
reinforcement is placed at the non-continuous
corner of the slab.
Where floor slabs are subjected to water
pressure,
- sufficient reinforcement is provided to
resist flotation
- slabs are held down at the supports by
links or bars that are properly anchored to
the beams
Nominal top reinforcement in non-spanning
direction of one-way slabs are placed
- minimum D7 at the gable end bay slabs
for shrinkage and crack control
- minimum A7 at other slabs

Minimum length of the top reinforcement is

114 of the sum of the lengths of the adjacent
spans plus the width of the beam rounded
off to the nearest multiple of 200 mm. The
length of the reinforcement must also cater
for hogging moments.

Maximum spacing of reinforcement bars is

the lesser of
- 3d or 300 mm for main bars
- 3d or 400 mm for secondary bars
where d is the effective depth of the slab
Slab reinforcement using prefabricated wire
meshes

Structure & Foundation I8

 REINFORCEDC
Additional Requirements
for End Bay & Roof Slabs

Typical floor slab at end bay of the building and

roof slabs are subjected to higher temperature
and shrinkage stresses. Hence, sufficient
reinforcement need to be provided for effective
crack control.

Minimum sum of top and bottom areas of

steel reinforcement is
- 0.25%) for high yield steel
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- 0.30% for mild steel

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end bay slab.

Placement of top mesh at gable end bay slab Roof Slab

Sufficient top and bottom steel reinforcement

must be provided for the entire roof slab.

Minimum 07 top reinforcement is provided

at the mid-span of the slabs.

9 !S ructure & oundation

Structural Design . Reinforced Concrete Precast Concrete . Steel. Foundation

Beams
Beams are normally designed as rectangular sections. Beam widths
and depths are of modular dimensions, in steps of 50 mm.

Beams for residential buildings are typically 200 mm or 300 mm

wide, while beam depths are within 500 mm or 600 mm, depending
on architectural and structural requirements.

As residential buildings do not usually have Beam Reinforcement

false ceilings, the soffits of the beams at the
dwelling units should be flushed at the same
horizontal level. The beams are usually laid
in line with the partition wall to achieve a clear
ceiling without exposed beams.
Transfer beams are not to be used.
Beams at the typical storey and roof are
usually cast together with the concrete
topping of the slab.
Minimum size of tension reinforcement bars
is T16.
If the overall depth of beam exceeds 750
mm, longitudinal bars are provided at spacing
not exceeding 250 mm along the side face
of beams for crack control.
Prefabricated Beam Cage
Reinforcement

Standardised beam cage reinforcement

Design Considerations for Ground
Beams
A space is usually provided between the
ground beams soffit and the top of pilecaps
for running of services.
can be utilised to achieve better design,
detailing and fabrication of RC beams.
Where possible, prefabricated beam cage
reinforcement shall be used and assembled
on site, thus improving site productivity and
efficiency.

Ground beams should not run across the

driveway as these beams may cause
obstruction in the laying of services.

For ground beams spanning between

columns, reinforcement bars are usually
provided with full tension laps to act as tie
members.

If the levels of the top of the earth on both

sides of a ground beam are different, the
beam must be designed to withstand lateral
earth pressure. Prefabricated beam cage reinforcement

Structure & Fo undation 110

 REINFORCED

Design Considerations
All columns are to be founded and designed
as short columns.
All columns must be braced in two orthogonal
axes.
Maximum height of unbraced columns cannot
exceed two storeys or 6.4 m.
Column Sizes
Column sizes are usually kept constant
throughout the building height unless reduction
of column sizes offers architectural advantages.
Column size reduction is normally done for
internal columns only at every 4 or 5 storeys.
This reduction is usually made such that at least
one face throughout the height of the column is
flushed.

For residential buildings integrated with multi-

storey carparks, the soft storey height for the
residential building is preferred to be 6 storeys
or less.
SlY flOOR LEVEL

Prefabricated Column Cage ,.-

Reinforcement (f)
et:
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Where possible, prefabricated column NI-
,...,.zs OLUMN MAIN BAR
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reinforcement shall be used. ON
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The conventional column links for various or-
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construction sites. This fabrication method is
unproductive, tedious and labour intensive
especially for the L-shaped and T-shaped
columns. l If
TYPICAL ELEVATION OF COLUMN
Prefabricated column link cages can be
produced from flat sheets of fabric mesh and DPEatrl": FROM "tOW
bent into a closed form. Using these link cages CLOSED UN I]
to replace individual links will greatly enhance I 900 I
construction productivity. SECTION a-a

Prefabricated column cage reinforcement details

11 1Structure & Foundation

Structural Design . Re i nforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . Steel . Foundation

Columns
Columns are preferably rectangular shaped, L-shaped
or T-shaped . Column dimens ions should be of
modular sizes, in steps of 50 mm. Columns widths
are usually 200 mm or 300 mm and are designed
to flush with the width of the beams .

Column Reinforcement
Maximum area of steel reinforcement in columns is 4.0% of the gross concrete section to
prevent congestion at the lapping area.

Column links of minimum 3 nos. of R10 or equivalent shall be provided at the column-
beam intersection areas at second storey. For multi-storey voids, the links shall be placed
up to the floor slab of the lowest dwelling unit.

The main reinforcement bars for columns at roof is terminated with a bend and with adequate
anchorage.

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Provision of 3R 10 column links at the column-beam intersection

Structure & Foundation 112

 REINFORCED

Walls

Minimum thickness of load bearing walls is

200 mm.

All load-bearing walls must be founded and

designed as short columns.

Area of Reinforcement

Minimum area of vertical reinforcement in

reinforced wall is 0.40/0 of the gross cross
section area of the concrete and shall be
equally spaced between the two faces of the
wall.

For plain walls, reinforcement required to

control cracking and shrinkage shall be at least
0.25% of the gross cross section area of
concrete.

Minimum horizontal reinforcement is

- 0.25% for high yield steel
Wall reinforcement - 0.30% for mild steel

Where possible, welded fabric of minimum

AB for 200 mm thick walls is used in place of
loose reinforcement bars.

13 1Structure & Foundation

Structural Desl;Jn . Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . Steel . Foundation

Walls
Household Shel er
Walls are usually of constant thickness in modular dimensions,
in steps of SO mm. All load bearing walls are to be founded
and designed as short columns.

Thickness for household shelter wa lls depends on building height

and structura l requirements.

Household Shelter

Household shelters are designed in

accordance with CP65.

The design must take into consideration the

requirements specified in the latest "Technical
Requirements for Household Shelters" jointly
issued by SCDF & BCA, or any other relevant
authority.

Precast volumetric household shelter with

hollow-core wall system is adopted in HOB
residential buildings.

Wall thickness is usually 250 mm or 300 mm.

Precast Household Shelter

Structure & Foundation 114

 REINFORCED E

Concrete water tanks are durable, corrosion-free and economical.

Use of cast in-situ water tank had been phased out and is not allowed.

The concrete tank is tested for water tightness after casting.

The internal surface of the concrete tank is coated with cementitious waterproofing coating
approved by the relevant authorities and tiled after completion of the watertightness test.

Design
Maximum crack width for concrete face in contact with water and away from water is 0.1
mm and 0.2 mm respectively.

Minimum percentage of main and distribution steel are in accordance with CP 65 and CP
73, and shall not be less than 0.35% and 0.64% of the gross cross-sectional area of walls
and slabs for high yield steel and mild steel respectively.

Layout
At ground floor,
- Suction tanks may be supported by the floor slab whereas large water tanks used for
fire-fighting purposes are to be supported by ground beams.
- There must be sufficient headroom between the tank and the slab or beam soffit above
for access to the water tank.
At main roof level,
- Water tanks rest on the supporting beams that are directly supported by columns or
walls.
- Sufficient clear headroom underneath the supporting beam of water tank must be
provided to facilitate maintenance works.
- The tanks must be strategically located and spaced apart above the main roof in order
not to cause any installation problem.
- Other design considerations include
a Space available on the roof
a Volume of fire fighting water and domestic water required

a Building height constraint

15 1Structure & Foundation

Structura Design . Reinforced Concrete . P ecast Concrete . Stee . Found .tio

Water Retaining Structures

Precast concrete water tanks located above main roof level
were introduced in HDB projects for better qua lity finishes
and higher construction productivity. The use was also
extended to water tanks at ground floor.

Reinforced Concrete Water Tanks

Precast Ring Water Tanks

Segmental precast ring water tanks are used

when the amount of water to be provided is high
and there is space constraint to use standard
precast concrete water tanks.

They are recommended for use in buildings

that are more than 20 storeys.

There are two types of components: the base

and the body segments. Several body
segments can be stacked on top of each other
to form the required height of the tank. A
maximum of four rings, excluding the base, is
allowed for the water tank.

Precast Ring Water Tank

Booster
pump
room

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Example of Precast Water Tank layout on main roof level

Structu e & oundation 116

 REINFORCED
Multi-Storey Car Park (MSCP)
All columns in the MSCP are to be designed
as short columns.
Columns are positioned such that there is no
obstruction to the motorist's' view and opening
of vehicle doors and at a minimum distance of
300 mm from the driveway.
Overhead beams spanning across vehicular
ramps should be avoided as they will create
headroom clearance problem, especially at
sloping ramp locations when the vehicle
reaches the bottom of the ramp.
Columns are located at end of carpark lot and peripheral parapet walls are at least 500
171Structure & Foundation
The structural layout for the typical and roof
decks are usually the same. Composite floor
slab system comprising of long-spanned
precast prestressed planks with cast in-situ
concrete topping is preferred.
Slabs in the MSCP are cast to fall at every
deck to prevent any ponding of water.
The parapet walls at the peripheral of the
MSCP are of minimum 500 mm height from the
floor level. They are designed to resist vehicular
impact load as stipulated in the building
regulations.
mm height
Structural Design , Reinforced Concrete . Precas ' Concrete . Steel . Foundation

Multi-Storey Car Park

Carparks are usua lly either standalone multi -storey
buildings or integrated with the residentia l blocks .

The preferred structural system for the mu lti storey

carpark is semi-precast.

No overhead beam here

2800 mm

2800 mm

Potential headroom clearance problem if there is an overhead beam across ramp

MSCP with long-span precast floor slabs

Structure & Foundation 118

 REINFORCED ETE

Movement Joints
There are two types of movement joints.

Control joints, also known as contraction joints

- These pre-determined planes of weakness of structural members allow cracking and
contraction due to shrinkage and thermal effect to occur.
- They divide large and thin slabs into small panels to absorb cracking and thermal effect.

Expansion Joints
- These require an initial gap, normally 25 mm, between the adjoining parts of a structure to
accommodate the expansion or contraction of the structures.
- If the building length is too long, excessive stresses will be induced due to temperature
effect. For such cases, expansion joints need to be introduced.
- The joints should be suitably located so that they are inconspicuous, functionally and
aestheti call y accepta ble.
- The joints must be properly detailed and waterproofed to prevent water seepage.

Suitable Locations of Expansion Joints

Joint

/ 7'
a) Joint for a long building b) Joint at junction between a high-rise c) Joint at major changes in plan
(Plan) and a low-rise building (Elevation) for a long building (Plan)

191Structure & Foundation

Structural DesIgn . Reinforced Concrete . P ecast Concret e _ Steel. Foundat i on

Joints in Structures
There are basically two types of joints in a structure, namely
movement joints and construction joints.

Movement joints are specially formed joints to accommodate

relative movement such as those due to therma l effects
between adjoining parts of a structure. Construction joints
are introduced for convenience of casting in different operations.

Construction Joints
Construction Joints
Construction joints are located where the T~~e of structure Panel Length
stresses are the least so as to minimise
the occurrence of cracks. (a) Unsuspended slab 5m to i0m
(b) Suspended apron slab i0m to i5m
Measures must be taken to achieve (c) Parapet wall i2mm at i5m interval
subsequent continuity at construction joints
so that there is no relative movement.
Control Joints
Where water-tightness is required! Type of Structural Element Location of Joints
suitable type of waterstops must be Wall & Column Top of floor slab
installed.
Footing Top of footing slab
Beam and Slab Middle third of span

Other Design Considerations

Columns and walls that are next to driveways must be designed for vehicular impact load.

No water pipes shall be cast inside the reinforced concrete slab, beam, column and wall.

The reinforced concrete structure and piles shall not be used as lightning conductors or
earth electrodes.

Lightning conductors shall not be embedded in the reinforced concrete components of the
building structure.

New Structures Adjacent to Existing Build ings

New structures must be supported on independent foundation to be located at a clear distance

from the existing foundation.

All existing foundation and columns cannot be hacked for the purpose of constructing new
structures.

Struct ure & Foundation 20

 PRECAST
HOB has used precast design since the mid-80s
and has since then successfu lly developed its
own prefabrication technology system.

This initiative has elevated construction

productivity to new heights, bringing about a
quantum leap in the buildability and quality of
public housing.

HOB Precast System

The following benefits are achieved when HOB adopted the precast approach in the construction
of its buildings:

Transfer work off-site Speed up construction cycle time

- Works are carried out under controlled
factory environment.
- A high level of mechanization can be
obtained hence better precision can be
achieved.
- Impact of common on-site problems such
as inclement weather and high reliance on
skilled labour is mitigated.
- Work is carried out simultaneously at
factory and at worksite.
Advocate modular and standardized design
- Improve constructability
- Costs saving through mass production
- Increase efficiency of factory production
and site erection crews.

Improve productivity on site Promote "greener" environment

- Highly repetitive but difficult, time consuming - Minimize the usage of timber formwork
and labour intensive components are - Less material wastages
designed as standard precast components - Cleaner worksites
for production off-site at the factory. - Lower noise level
Examples are staircases, refuse chute, - Healthier working environment
planks, gable-end walls and water tanks.

HDB's Precast Concrete Building Projects

21 1Structure & Foundation

 Structural Desi g n . Rein f orced Concrete Precast Concrete ,Steel . Foundation

Design Princp es
This section outlines the design considerations required in order
to achieve an econom ical design and an efficient precast concrete
bui lding system .

The team of architects and engineers must work closely and design
the bu ilding with precast intent during the initial planning stage.
This will avoid the abortive works due to subsequent changes and
rework in order to transform it into a workable precast system.

Types of Precast Elements

Precast elements are classified as either structural elements or non-structural elements.
Precast structural element
- Designed to support its self-weight and other imposed loads that are transferred from other
structures
- Direct all loads through the jOint connection to the supporting structural elements and
subsequently to the foundation system.
Examples of precast structural elements are staircases, floor planks, beams, columns,walls
and household shelters.

Non-structural precast elements

- Designed to support its self-weight and little or no imposed loads.
Examples of non-precast structural elements are architectural components such as precast
facade and gable-end walls, parapets, internal partitions.

Design Considerations
In precast concrete design, the following factors need to be considered:

Maximise Repetitions Component Shape, Dimension and Size

- Optimise mould usage by spreading out the
expensive mould costs
- Optimum number of repetitions depends on
complexity of the aesthetic finishes and the
mould design
- For an economical design, mould cost should
constitute less than 10% of the component
cost
Standardisation and Modular Coordination
- Minimise the number of components and
mould types required for a project
- Improve precast production and construction
site productivity
- Highly modulated design allows ease of mould
fabrication and mould sharing, leading to lower
construction costs
- Determine the method of production
[] 2-dimensional components that are flat and simple in
profiles are easily produced using horizontal flat moulds
o Volumetric shape components require vertical moulds
- Factors to consider when determining size
and shape of components include:
[] Sizes of available casting beds
[] Supporting structural system
[] Handling stresses and stability during production, storage,
transportation and installation
[] Transportation size, weight regulation and equipment
restrictions
[] Availability and capacity of the cranes at the plants and
work site
[] Site restrictions such as storage space, maneuverability
of transport equipment and cranes

Structure & Foundation 122

 PRECAST

Precast Connections
The jointing method to be adopted will depend on whether the precast components are structural
or non-structural.

The joints must be designed to withstand all possible stresses during the service life cycle of
the building.

Non-structural elements such as facade and gable end walls are not load bearing. As such,
small dowels or loop bars is usually sufficient for connection.

For external facade envelope, steel dowels and loop bars system with cast in-situ concrete
backing is the preferred vertical joint connection system. Such connection system does not
require highly skillfullabour and it offers an effective watertight jOint.

L !!O !!!!!!!!!!!

PRECAST GABLE PRECAST GABLE

END WALL END WALL

Typical joint details for gable end walls with Typical loop bar joint details for staircase
cast in-situ concrete backing

23 1Struct jre & Foundation

Str u ctural Design . Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . St el . Foun .tion

The jointing of the precast components is to transfer its

loads to the supporting structure . Connections are required
between precast components and include both vertica l and
horizontal jOints . The method of connect ion depends on
the type of components and whether the component is a
critical or non-critical element.

Structural load bearing elements need to transmit the forces effectively to the supporting
structures or foundation.

- Strong connectors should be used in order to achieve an effective continuity in dowel bar
connection.

- The types of joint connections used may be mechanical connectors such as splice sleeves
for vertical load bearing key elements such as precast columns and load bearing walls.

TYPICAL WATE RPROOrlNG DETAILS

n
I
-+- PRECAST COlu\lN
t--t--UPP[R PRECASl COlUI.IN
DOWER REINfORCEMENT
R E I NFORCE ~IEN l

PRECAST WALL (TYP) ~ - GROunNC OU TL(T TUS[

=
- ,--NMs SPLICE SlIEVl CROUlING
~'IlH SS I.iORTAR

S TOP?(R

TIE BAR =
rr= ~
REINFORCEMENT BARS ROUTING INLET IUSE

CAST IN -SITU CONCRETE (1'YP) GROUTSTRENGll-I NON_5H[~ . ~ TOP or (![AM

HIGH 8EDDtNG
.. u

REINFORCEMENT

; rn
''''
PRECAsr WALL (TYP) CAST IN-SIIU JOINT CONCRETE

lOWtR PRECAST COlUI.i~

DOWER REINfORCEMENT

[!tm~' m~
Typical joint details for wall Typical splice sleeve connection for precast columns

Structure & Foundation 124

 PRECAST

Waterproofing System
Waterproofing the joints of the external precast facade envelope is very important so as to
exclude any possible water ingress and seepage.

A two-stage waterproofing joint system is preferred as it ensures good long-term

performance.

The jOints of precast component is designed with the combination of jOint profile and
sealing with sealant material at the outer face in order to exclude the water from reaching
the inner face.

For vertical joints, providing additional wet bedding or concrete backing at inner face of
vertical jOints will enhance the water tightness of the jOints.

CAST IN - SITU COLuMN

OR STUMP NO - SHRINK GROUT

FLEX IBLE CE MENTlTOUS SELF-ADHESIVl COMPRESSIBLE

WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE WATERPROOFING STRIP

PRECAST COLUMN
CLADDING PRECAST GABLE END WALL/
- CAST IN-SITU BEAM PRECAST BEAM
PRECAST GABLE
END WALL

r=::::=!=l M FLEXIBLE MEMBRANE SHEET
~ ~~ WITH PRIMER
DEVELOPED PLAN

Isometric view of typical waterproofing details at joints Typical waterproofing details at horizontal joints

25 1Structure & Foundation

tructura! Design . Precast Concrete . Steel . tlon

Waterproofing System
It is imperative that the adjacent precast external wall panels are well
connected to each other and the waterproofing work is done we ll to
ensure that all the joints are watertight.

Water tightness tests can be carried out on site to assess the level of
workmanship achieved on site. The watertightness of the building
structures is highly dependent on the waterproofing system adopted.

Water and Weather Tightness Tests

Selection of the joints to subject to the water tightness tests can be done after the external
wall and the water proofing work has been completed. In general, the tests are sampled
and carried out in such a way as to maximize the numbers of joints tested.

The method of testing watertightness is by placing a nozzle at a distance of about 1.2 m

from the wall surface and spraying a continuous jet of water onto the jOint corresponding to
600 litres per hour from a water hose. The water jet from the nozzle has to be regulated at
a nozzle velocity of 2 m per second with a cone scatter of about 60 degrees.

Spray tests for all the vertical joints of the gable end walls can be done by placing the
water jets at the joint of the gable-end wall below roof level. By doing so, the downwards
flows of water from a single spay at a joint will expose more joints at the lower floors to the
water tests.

PRECAST CABLE
CAST IN-SITU COLuMN OR STUMP END WALL ...-1--- - 1-
I
BAC KER ROD
NON- SHRINK APPROVE D
CEMENT MORTAR SEALANT ' I - - - -_+_ NON- SHRINK
CEMENT MORTAR
BACKER ROD
I f ~----=--"-----+- FLEXIBLE MEMBRANE
TYPICAL STOREY :Or SH EET WITH PRIMER
FLOOR LEV.

I EXTERNALI

PRECAST GABLE
END WALL
PRECAST GABLE PRE CAsr GABLE CAST IN - SITU
END WALL END WALL COLUMN OR STUMP

Typical waterproofing details at vertical joints

Structure & Fou dati on 126

 Standard Precast Components
These are components that can be easily adopted to fit into any building design without imposing
any restriction to the aesthetic design of the building .

This is especially advantageous for those components that are highly repetitive but difficult to
construct using cast in-situ method as a good off-form finish may not be achieved consistently.
These components are usually standardised and used repetitively. Examples of such components
are refuse chutes, staircases, services ducts, water tanks and partition walls.

Precast Refuse Chute

The precast refuse chute is supported by concrete stump,

floor slab or beams on at least 3 sides and at every floor.

~.
__III!!!!JIII!!!!~ ~.''''
J____ In addition, the structural floor beam located at level directly
above the centralised refuse chamber is designed to carry
the entire load of the refuse chute from all floors.
Precast Refuse Chute
Loop or dowel bars are used to connect the component to
the supporting elements.

Precast Staircase

Precast staircases usually span between the landing slabs .

They are usually designed and detailed as a non-critical

element joining to the landing slabs by loop bars or cottering
bars.

Precast Staircase

27 1Structure I Foundation
Str ctural Design , Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . Stee . F

Semi-Precast Building System

The standard types of precast components in the semi-precast
system may consist of the following types of components:

Standard precast elements

External wa lls
Floor system
Load bearing elements

Precast Partition Wall

Precast partition panels are used for the internal

partition walls forming the rooms in the dwelling unit.

Brickwork or blockwork is not encouraged for

partition walls as it has low construction productivity.
It requires large amount of skilled labour on site wet
trades such as brick layers and plasterers.

The precast partition walls may be of normal weight

concrete or lightweight concrete partition panels.
Installation of Precast Partition
Wall
When lightweight partition panel wall is adopted,
special attention must be taken to design the joints
between the panels to ensure alignment and smooth
finishes.

Vertical joints between the partition walls are usually

strengthened, such as by using a layer of fibre fabric
mesh, to control the development of shrinkage cracks
along the joints.

Where tiling is to be carried out, the surface receiving

the tiles need to be roughened for better adhesion . A
layer of expanded metal mesh is to be placed over
the vertical joint before tiling.

Precast Partition Wall

Structure , Foundation 128

 PRECAST T
Semi-Precast
Building System

Standard Precast Components

Precast Water Retaining Structures

There are a few types of precast concrete water-

retaining structures being used. Precast hose-reel
tanks and precast suction tanks are used at the ground
floor. Single component and segmental ring precast
water tanks are used above main roof level.

Standard single component precast roof water tanks

are used for buildings not exceeding 20 storeys while
standard segmental precast ring tanks are usually used
for taller buildings.

The locations of the roof water tanks should ensure

that there is no obstruction to the crane hoisting so as
to minimise installation problems. Precast Water Tank

Precast ferrocement roof slab

These precast ferrocement roof slabs are placed

above the main roof of the building.

Their main purpose is to act as secondary roofing

for heat insulation.

The specially formed profile of the panels enable

them to be interlocked with one another to form a
roofing system that fall at a gradient similar to main
roof to enable rainwater to run off.

Precast ferrocement roofing system

29 1S ructure & Foundation

Structurai Design . Reinforced Concrete. Precast Concrete . S eel. Foundat i on

Floor System
In the building design, the precast floor system consists of
precast concrete floor beams and composite floor slabs.

The precast prestressed concrete floor planks w ith cast in-

situ concrete topping is designed as composite floor slab for
the typical storeys and roof. Precast concrete floor planks
may be prestressed or non-prestressed.

Precast Floor System

Precast Prestressed Planks

Minimum 50 mm thick concrete topping is required

for slabs without concealed wiring to ensure sufficient
concrete cover to reinforcement and concealed
services.

In the design of the precast prestressed plank,

allowance shall be made for the loss of prestress as a
result of cutting of a prestressing strand to facilitate
unforeseen relocation of sanitary opening.

Use of precast prestressed planks may not be suitable

at areas where multiple openings through the slab are Precast Prestressed Plank
required for sanitary services. For such cases, precast
non-prestressed slab system should be adopted. Mesh

For irregular shaped bay, pour strips may need to be

introduced to mitigate the effect of cambering between
long and short spans.

Typical joint details at support and between adjacent PS Plank

planks are as shown in the figures.
Typical plank joint details at support

Cast in -situ concrete topping Rei nforceme nt

Prestressing strand Mesh Precast prestressed plank

Typical plank joint details between planks

Structure & Foundation 130

 PRECAST

Precast Facade
The precast facade is designed to be
suspended by the floor beam and by the
columns or stump at the two sides.
Precast facade design shall be of simple
profile and of consistent cross section with
maximum repetitions.
Cast-in Window Frame
In precast facades with wi ndows, the
design must enable the aluminium window
frames to be precast together in one
operation.

Exposed aggregates or pebbles finish to the The necessary linking concrete elements
external face of the facade is not allowed as it must be provided all round to hold the
may pose production and maintenance aluminium window frame in place
problems.

Precast facade with tile finish is not preferred Sufficient rigidity and stiffness for handling
because of potential maintenance problems. and installation must be provided .
Where it is aesthetically necessary to maintain
the design theme of the precinct, homogeneous
modular clinker tiles with dovetail shape key For ease of production, concrete cill is
back pattern shall be used and precast together preferred over aluminium Gill.
with the facade.

PrecastAngular Facade Facade with window opening Facade with cast-in window frame

31 1Structure 8. Foundation
Structural Design . Reinforced Concrete. Precast Concrete . Stee . Foundation

External Walls
The external building envelop comprises of precast facade,
plain wa ll s, gable-end walls and parapet walls.

Precast components are preferred for external wa lls over

conventional method of construction. This is to achieve quality
finishes and construction productivity.

Precast Parapet
Design guidelines for precast facade are also
applicable to precast parapet walls.

The precast parapet can be designed as

cantilever structures to be supported by and
connected to the floor beams or slab by steel
dowels or loop bars with cast in-situ wet pour
connection .

The design of the precast parapet should be

standardised and with maximum repetitions in
order to optimise mould usage.

Cast-in base plates or preform slot holes are

normally provided for connection of railings.

Precast parapets with groove line or profiled patterns

St r ucture & Foundation 132

 PRECAST
Design Considerations
The weight for these precast components
are usually heavier. Hence, it is important that
weight is limited to the capacity of the
machineries available at the production
factory and on site so that it can be hoisted to
their designated location.
Where it is necessary to break up the
structural components into parts such as the
lift walls and multi-tier columns, the joints
connection between different parts must be
checked to ensure structural continuity and
adequacy. Any additional stresses due to
handling must also be considered.
Precast Columns
33 1Structure & Foundation
Precast Columns
The columns are usually designed as
multi-tier component, taking into
consideration the feasibility and weight limit
of the component. This will reduce the
need to have connection joints at every
floor.
The precast column components are
connected using splice sleeve system or
any other HOB's approved types of
connection system.
The design of the connection must be
cost-effective but it must also maintain the
structural integrity and comply with the
requirements of the Building Control Act
and Regulations and the relevant Codes
of Practice.
Each joint shall be designed to consist
of at least 4 connecting reinforcements
bars for 300 mm or wider columns,
preferably at the four corner of the joint, to
ensure that there is sufficient connectivity
and effective continuity to resist forces
induced at the jOint.
Design checks for handling stresses are
carried out at the intermediate joints of the
multi-tier precast columns to avoid bowing
or distortion during the handling and
installation process.
Structural Desl n . Reinforced Con r te Precast Concrete . Steel. Foundation

Load Bearing Elements

Mu lti-tier precast columns, shear walls, staircase wall, Ijft
wa lls and household shelte r are the key load -bearing
elements that transfer the building loads to the foundation .

Precast Wall
These are precast structural walls that transfer
the building loads to the foundation. It is also
designed as a lateral load resisting element to
improve structural strength of the building.

They include lift walls, staircase walls and

shear walls.

The connection system similar to the precast

column can be adopted.

In order to ensure that there is sufficient

connectivity and continuity between two adjacent
lower and upper precast wall, each horizontal
joint should consist of at least 2 connecting
reinforcement bars. Precast Lift Wall

Household Shelter
Generally, it is difficult to maintain a good off-
form finish using the conventional method of
construction for the household shelters.

Precast volumetric household shelter with

hollow core wall system offers solution to this
problem and are adopted in HOB projects.

The hollow core not only serve to reduce the

precast component weight but also allow the
placement of vertical continuity reinforcement
bars.

Precast Household Shelter

Structure Foundation 134

 PRECAST

Prefabricated Bathroom System

The conventional method of bathroom cum toilet
construction is very labour intensive. It requires
multiple visits by various tradesmen to complete
a typical unit. It also resulted in material
wastages.

Prefabricated bathroom replaces the

conventional method of constructing the toilets/
bathroom.

The prefabricated bathroom system is a fully

prefabricated cubicle complete with all the
sanitary fittings and other accessories.

The complete system is manufactured in the

factory environment and installed at site.
Features in a Prefabricated Bathroom Unit

Interior View of Prefabricated Bathroom Unit

35 1Structure & Foun ation

Structural Design . Reinforced Concrete. Precast Concrete Ste n

Special Prefabricated Components

The use of prefabrication technology is extended to the construction of
toi lets to improve the buildability, quality and productivity of bathroom
units. Prefabricated bathroom units can be custom-designed to allow
application according to building structures and architectural design.

The design features of a prefabricated

bathroom are :

Standardised to minimise number of types

of toilet layout to achieve economy of design.

The layout and location of the WC are

designed and positioned to avoid any pipes
penetration through the floor slab to minimise
seepage problems.

Shallow Floor Trap

Shallow floor trap system is adopted.

Pipes penetration through floor slabs are

located within the duct space where they are
to be connected to the main stack pipes.

The floor tray of the prefabricated toilet are

firm and solid in order to reduce the
hollowness feeling.

Removable access panels are provided at

the ceiling and walls to facilitate maintenance
access to the service pipes. Completed prefabricated bathroom
units ready for installation

Structure & Foundation / 36

 STEEL

Structural Steel Systems

The structural steel system is selected by considering the following:
- Stress and strength requirements
- Serviceability, durability and functional requirements
- Stability due to dead, live and wind loads
- Wind bracing system
- Construction methods and sequence to facilitate ease of construction
- Cost effectiveness
- Aesthetic and neatness

Metal roofing sheets should not be used for buildings that are more than 4 storeys high.

lip-channelS or other open steel sections are preferred as purlins or support so that the
roofing sheet and cladding can be bolted onto them directly.

Steel Structures

37 1Structure & Foundation

 Pre ncrete . Steel . Founda io

Steel Structures
Steel struct ures that are common ly constructed in HDB projects
include sports complexes, markets, food centres, commercial
complexes and precinct pavilions.

These long-spanning structures are characterised by the need

to provide large sheltered spaces under metal or t iled roofs.

When designing steel structures, due consideration must be

given to the durability and ease of maintenance.

Design Requirements
- Open steel sections is preferred, wherever Minimum Gauge Thickness
possible, to facilitate direct connection of for Steel Members
cladding, roofing sheet and other
architectural panels onto this steel section. Location Minimum Gauge
Thickness (mm)
-If steel hollow sections are used , the drilling
of openings for fixing the cladding or metal Purlins 3
roofing sheets to the purlins is not allowed
as it may lead to undetected internal Structural members for
structures less than 4 4
corrosion .
storeys high
- Where required, steel connecting plates Structural members for
or cleat angles are to be used for welding structures 4 storeys or 6
to secure the cladding, roofing sheet and higher
other metal panels.

Long-spanning steel roof structure

Structure & Foun ation 138

 Trusses
Steel hollow sections are preferred for
members of trusses due to its neatness,
greater torsional rigidity and ease of
construction .

Trusses are usually supported by steel

stanchions or concrete columns.

Top and bottom chord of truss is usually

divided into equal panel length with purlins
resting on panel joints.

Trusses shall be effectively and sufficiently

braced against buckling due to all possible
Steel Roof Truss
loads including uplift causing reversal of
stresses .

.. Welding is preferred for connection of truss
members. At the apex, the sections should
be directly butt welded together without
additional plate placed in between.
The main truss should preferably be welded
together before they are hoisted into position
during erection.
.. The secondary truss should also be weld-
jointed. After hoisting into position, they are
bolt-jointed to the main truss at height. Slot
holes are provided at these bolt joints to
facilitate construction tolerance.
Splicing points of long truss are preferably
staggered and located at points of low axial
stress.

39 1Structure & F undatio

Structural Design . Re' c ed Co ncre te . S teel , Fo I

It is essential that the design of connectio n be given full considera tion

of all stresses induced in the jOints. Members must be effectively
connected to each ot her in such a manner that all forces can be
effectively transferred between the adj oining steel members so that
the des ign intent can be achieved.

Only bolting and welding can be used for steel connections. Steel
sections must be protected to prevent corrosion or deterioration.

Stanchion Base
Hold Down Bolts

Hold down bolts for stanchion base are

designed and placed to resist the worst
combination of wind, dead and live load
including uplift and horizontal thrust.

Hold down bolts must be of sufficient length

and effectively anchored into the concrete
COLUMN ---+-<oil
foundation. REINFORCEMENT Iio----fIo---+lt-tt-- t - HOLD DOWN BOl T5

COLUMN -

Bent bars with threaded ends may be used

for the hold down bolts.
Typical details of hold down bolts

Galvanisation
Galvanised steel shall be used for key structural elements. It is also required for structural
elements that are exposed to weather or at locations that are difficult to access for
maintenance. Example of such steel elements are steel purlins, including angle cleats, sag
rods and plates for fixing purlins.

Hold down bolts, anchor bolts, nuts and washers for buildings that are 4 storeys or higher
should be hot-dipped galvanised or electroplated.

Structure & Foundation 140

 FOUNDATION
The foundation of a building is that part
of the bui lding in direct contact with the
soil and which transmits the load of the
building to the soil at an appropriate depth
beneath the ground level.

Site Investigations
Extent and Depth of Site Investigations

Site investigations are carried out to establish the

soil and ground water conditions below the ground
so as to determine the most suitable type of
foundation to be used. The information obtained
from the site investigation is necessary for the
design of the foundation.

Boreholes should be located so that a general

geological view of the whole site can be determined
with adequate details of engineering properties of
the soil and/or rock and of the ground water
conditions. Drilling of site investigation borehole

More detailed information should be obtained at

positions of important structures, at points of
special engineering difficulty or importance and
where ground conditions are complicated.

The extent and depths of boreholes to be carried

out should be sufficient to establish significant soil
strata as well as ground variations and should be
in accordance with the recommendations and
requirements of the relevant authorities.
Rock core samples obtained from
site investigation

41 1Structure & FoundatIon

St ncr te . Steel. Foundation

The different types of foundation to support structures in HOB

developments can be divided into 2 broad categories, namely footing
foundations and piled foundations .

In the design of foundations, an adequate factor of safety must be adopted

to prevent the failure of the foundation and/or the supporting soil. The
settlement of the foundation must also be kept within permissible limits .
The design must also comply with the relevant design codes/codes of
practice and other requirements of all relevant authorities.

Design Considerations
Adequate Factors of Safety

In general, a factor of safety of at least 2.5 should be adopted for all foundation designs
unless the specific site conditions justify the adoption of a lower value.

The adoption of a lower factor of safety should be justified by sufficient loading tests.

The factor of safety to be chosen should take the following into consideration:
- nature of the soil
- variability over the site
- reliability of the method by which the ultimate bearing capacity has been determined

A higher factor of safety should be used when there is less certainty of the ultimate bearing
capacity.

For the design of driven and jacked-in piles, the factor of safety to be adopted should also
take into consideration the stresses arising during handling and installation.

Settlement of Foundations

For footing foundations, the settlement requirements are:

- the settlement shall not exceed 25 mm (at 2 times the working load)
- the differential settlement between adjacent footings shall also be kept low, in the order
of 6 mm

For piled foundations, the settlement requirements are:

- the settlement shall not exceed 25 mm (at 2 times the working load) in general
- the maximum angle of distortion due to differential settlement shall be limited to 1 in
500

Structure & Fou dation 142

 FOUNDATION
Footing foundations are those where the
depth of base of the foundation (i.e.
f oundation depth) is shallow . For such
foundations, the depth at which the footing
is founded is less than or equal to its width.
Examples of footing foundations include
pad and strip footings.

Other Design Considerations

The use of more than one type of foundation system to support the same structure should
be avoided.

Allowance should be made for the additional weight of the pile cap in the design of the
foundation.

Piled foundations should not be designed or constructed to carry the loads by frictional
resistance only.

Where piled foundations are subjected to a latera\\oading (e.g . during excavation with piles
within cut slope, etc) , it is necessary to check that the moments and deflections induced by
the horizontal force are within acceptable limits.

In the design of bored piles, the following should be adopted:

- the design compressive strength should not exceed 7.5 N/mm 2
- the design shaft friction should be limited to 120 kN/m 2
- in the absence of data from sufficient instrumented test piles, the deSign end bearing
should be limited to 9 M N/m2

Consideration of Negative Skin Friction

The effects of negative skin friction need to be considered for soils undergoing consolidation
caused by dewatering or the placement of fills, etc.

Where piles are expected to experience negative skin friction, such piles should be designed
to carry lower loads.

4 3 1Structurp & Foundation

Structural Design . Reinforced Concrete. Precast oncrete . Steel . Foundation

Types of Foundation & Tests

Piled foundations are deep foundations (more than 4 metres) consisting of
vertica l bearing pi les used to support the structures. Examples of piled
foundations include bored piles, driven piles, jacked-in piles and micropiles.

Foundation tests need to be carried out to confirm foundation design

assumptions and as proof of adequacy of the design of the working
foundations. The information obtained from such tests enable the designer
to adjust and refine the design of the foundation.

Pile Foundation
Pile Groups

For the design of pile groups, the minimum spacing of piles to limit heave and lateral
displacement of the soil which will affect the piles need to be considered .

Due to pile group interaction and group action effects the following also need to be considered
in pile group design :
- the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile group
- the settlement of the pile group
- the additional load per pile resulting from negative skin friction in the pile group
- the distribution of vertical loads in each pile due to eccentric loading in the pile group

Load Testing for Foundation Design

Plate load tests should be conducted for footing
foundations to determine and verify the bearing
capacities and settlement characteristics of the
soil for use in the design of the footings.

Instrumented static pile load tests should be

carried out for piled foundations to determine and
verify the design parameters and assumptions
used for the foundation design.

Instrumented Static Pile Load Test

Structu e & Foundati n 144

 FOUNDATION

Sub-Structures for Foundation

The common types of substructures are footings and pilecaps. Raft foundation is
also sometimes used.

Footing

All footings must be supported on undisturbed soil.

The soil bearing capacity for design of footing at different depth below ground
level is based on the soil borelog result of corresponding depth.

The foundation for light structures such as linkways using footings should be
designed independently from the main structure so as to prevent cracks due to
differential settlement.

The footing base should be at least 1.5 m below ground level.

The minimum reinforcement to be provided is 0.130/0 of the gross cross sectional

area in both directions.

The most common types of footings used in the HOB projects are:

Isolated pad footing

- This is usually used as foundation for light structures such as linkways

Combined strip footing

- They are used to spread two or more column load in a row when isolated
pad footings cannot be used due to limited space available
- A deep wall beam is design to span between columns and to spread the
load to the soil

45 1Strl!rture Cl.. Foundation

Structural Design . Reinforced Concrete. Precast Concrete . Steel. Foundation

Sub-Structures for Foundation

The type and choice of foundations to be designed to support the structures
depend on the co lumn loads to be supported, soil properties, groundwater
conditions, site constra ints, effects on nearby structures and properties
as well as other factors such as the cost and speed of construction.

The type of foundation chosen to support the structures should be both

efficient and cost-effective.

Pilecap

Where piled foundations are used in the design, reinforced concrete pilecaps are
used to transmit and spread the column or wall loads onto the supporting pile group.
Generally, design of the pilecaps is based on pile capacity.

Minimum embedment of the piles in the pilecap is 100 mm for reinforced concrete
piles and 150 mm for steel piles and bored piles.

Pilecaps are designed for a pile eccentricity of 100 mm.

Minimum distance between the edge of piles and edge of pilecap shall be 250 mm
to take into account of pile eccentricity of 100 mm without enlargement of pilecap.

All the piles within a pilecap should preferably be of the same type and grade. If this
cannot be achieved, a maximum of 2 grades difference in the piles is allowed within a
pilecap. Otherwise, a check must be carried out on the smaller piles to ensure that
they are not overstressed.

Use minimum reinforcement of 0.13% of the gross cross-sectional area in both

directions.

Avoid reinforcement congestion by maintaining minimum 100 mm reinforcement

spacing.

Where possible, prefabricated pilecap reinforcement meshes are to be used.

Raft foundation

Raft foundation is designed to spread several column or walls load to the soil in the
form of a mat.

Structure & Foundation 146

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