(680 An involution taped ad netonmental evar spatial dsibton fsbsurieeatures.Inemroamental appa toe rata, ie sal changer ava forcon of tite ae inreatngl important Where appropri, CSAMT along With vier EM aod esc methods en vide alae notion oseetettly and witht ny ernment deine fat Figure 1170 CSANT dept Fels ste conde tones re Soon hereto ‘0 ete From Zonge and Hughes (1900; permasion Chapter 12 Ground penetrating radar Tntoduetion 2 Principles of operation 3. Propagation of adiowaves Theory Hortonal an vertical eoation Dielectric properties of sth meteials ‘Modes of dat aquisition IDS Radar reflection profiling 1232. Wideangle reflection an ejraction (WARR) sounding Data processing 1261 Daring dar acquistion 1262. Wideansle reflection and rfaction (WARK) sounding 1263. Postrecordng dat processing Inverpretation teenies 1291 Grophialinergrtoion 1272 Quanttreeenyis, 1273 Inerpretationa pills Applications and cae histories IDR” Sedimentary sequences 1282. Mydrogeogy and groundwater contamination ea ass i286 1287 Forenlouses of GPR I288 Wite-operr radar mapping and migration processing 1289 Borehole rade\ OOH HHHHF09HFHHHHHHETTH8848EHHET8 (682 Anitralacion pid and encvonmera geophyice 121 INTRODUCTION Since the mid-1980s, ground penerating radar (GPR) has become enormously popular, aricularly within the engineering and archae ‘logical communities. However, radar has boen used for geological pplication since the 1960, especialy in connection withthe deve- rent of radio echosounding of polar ice shwte Claciolopcal applications ofradar are now vey well developed Despite the reat ‘opsurgeininterestin the method, general experience in data process: ing and interpretation within the engineering community in parti- ‘ular has ot kept pace with advances in technology or compatet ‘apsbities Ther is enormous sope forthe application of eround petetatingradaranditisexcemely exiting toaatipate what might Eeachieed inthe nen fare ‘GPR applications ca be divided into two vitally dieete class= featons based on the main antenna feguencies. For geological pplication, where depth penetration teads to be more important than very fae resolution, antennae with frequencies less than of qual 19 SOOMIe are usd. For engincering of non-destructive testing (NDT) applications, antennae with frequencies of SOO ME land preter are wed typically az high a 900 MH or I GHA it of the cinge of applications of GPR i given ia Table 12.1 "The fst use of electromagnetic (EM) signals to Iocate reriote buried objets satebuted to Hulsteyerina German patent in 1904, but the fst published desertion of such investigations was by Leimbach and Lewy (1910), also in German patents The systems ted in thes investigations employed continuous wave (CW) tans investigate the nature of buried features Poalsed techniques were developed substantially over the fllow~ ing five decades, Its early civilian development was in radio chosounding of polar ice sheets (Coo 1960, Evans 1985 Swithn bank 1968). The frst use of impulse adar for slacilogcal purposes was in the ealy 1970s (Wats ea. 1975). There is much pioneering ‘eerarcb work being out out in the asclogial Bld ornare, ‘papers by Wright eal (1990, Hasumond and Spreake(1991)and [Narod and Clarke (1994). A uefa review hat Been published Bogorodskye al (1985, Thre has bon wideaceeptancethe ada? rmethod in certain areas of cil engineering, such as rad pavement analysisand void detection beind tunnel linings There asso been fan expanding role forthe method in geological applications, paet- ily in the rapid wssament of supericat daposte loeaion of swallow holes. ct:Inarchacolgicl studies, too, GPR has been wed ‘on many sites to iently potential excavation areas. ‘Many uses of ground penetrating radi have been described in the Iteratue. These inluds the determination of permafrost thickness (Annan and Davis 1976; the detection of facures in rock sal ! | | round penetrating rider $83 ‘Table 124 Range platons of rod penetrating radar Deteton of atu eve abd fuse Stbnidnes ping Mappg sued boy pometey Mapping of sepertcal cps. Saltrateanty soning Giac pesionialvestenons Mineral exploration ad our: evaluation Prmafestievetgitioc ee {semtion fie wees Feactre mapying ok salt Location fat, decal east Geologie seuctie mapas ‘Eittad vem sence mapping Ensranmena Contamina’ ame maping ‘Mapping and montoigpltnts within grounder ond sesigtons ean of bu tanks and oi dure ocation greats Groundestesteatons Glace Fees oping Detrmioton ofa ac strates Ieemovenent der, Daten af cond eae nd basal ic cronies ‘Mapping water conduit ice tration of ks ant fx and ake ce Stow spay mupring ari nono au Jen Locton of eforcment rebar) ia onset Lato af pbc ules per cable) ‘en tei fang ac Archery: ‘eto bui trctaen Dateton and mpg of Roman Rosé, ecto af porto ce Prestenaton supe aceon ovo epic) Costner Foren iene: [ection of bate args eg bodes ad balon)(684 Aninrodaton toppled nomena gopher (Thievbach 1974; Unterborge 1978 Nickel tal. 1983; Olson ea. 19835 and archteologicel investigation (Bevan end Kenyon 1975; Ima etal. 1987; Bevan 1990, Examplss of evil engineering and of bother gelopies apieabons nave wn esse by Draco at {Lake (1981), Leggo (1982), Uriksen (192), Lepzo and Leech (1983), Davis nd Annas (1989) Moorman ol(199), Doolitle (1993) and Huggonbergr ea (199), among oes. Cross hole radar systems for use in erptline rock have Been desebed by Nilsson (1983), ‘Wright and Watt 1982) and Olsson (1990) GPR has also been sed in police investigations to help lose buried boiz, such a in adobe monger inquiry om Jrsey,Chanpal sland, 19805 and ing grutromescareh or uman emanaat two houses in Glowcster in 1994 Inthe ate, radar was estrumeatal in detecting where the ‘ogpeesof 0 murders women ad ben hidden itn thik conerete inside the buildings. and in locating the remains oftwo other viens buried ina nearby field. For regional and large-scale investigation, radar measurements nave ben ne inccanngy Kat at satelite Sul ee sensing techniques ae beyond the sope of tis chapter Nevertsos, forsufsurfce mapping in arid regions for hydrogeological purposes, forexample stelltradarimagery hasbeen wed tolocate important features that mold otherwise be exremeydicult to leat using round-basol survey. An example ofthis he ientction of a cent ver drainage system now bused beneath desert sands in Alia ‘and wien wa ner proven tobe a important sour porble water ‘Ground radar was developed further bythe US Acmy doting the Vietnam War, ystems were constructed ode to locate labytinths of tunnels excavated and used bythe Viet Cong. At the end ofthe ‘Vietnam Wa, the potential of GPR oreviian purposes was dents et by Geophysical Survey Systems foc. (GSSI), who are still the largest ground radar manufacture nterationaly. Ta recent years PulseEKKO (Sensors & Software Ltd, Canada) and a range of systems produced by ERA Technologies Lt, UK. Other compaaies fare developing antennae toad on toenisting radar eye, such at Radacteam AB (Swesen) Following the Falklands confict in 1982, ‘radar sytem was developed with the sim of locating plastic mines that had been sowa iniserminatly rom he st 122. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ‘Aradarsystem compris a signal generator, tansmitng ind ceciv- ing antennae, anda receive that may of ay not have cecording facitesor hardcopy graphical output Some vanced ystems sve 4 oubaid omputer Ui flit Una proves both wie Acquiring data ia the el, and port rconting ae? } “The base constitvens ofa radar system are shown in Figue 12. ‘The radar system causes the tansmiter antenna (Tx 1 generate a velrsin of raiowaves which propagate away in «broad beam, ‘vodiowavestestl a igh spmede (ne 300000 1 OSs 1) comPonenrsoF © wrenpneren, round prcrating radar 685 Figure124_Simplied digram of (aie constuens cf dar sem IRE (8 he ereted con 1) ‘Butler of (1991) and Daniel eral (335) Seonen Tate (©) mabancrse reer bana onc Saar Cos iewwwww se eww weer vw www ww www wow (685 Aninodetion 1 apll ond encnmentalgophcs thetraveltimeofs raiowave from instant of transmission through to dts subsequent return othe evening antenna (Rx) is ofthe onder of few tens to several thousand nanoseconds (ns; 10" seconds). This instant precely enough for te final accuracy ofthe ster tbe reasonable with respect to the teavel times in question The antennae fe wed in either a monosttic or bstatie mode. Monostaze modes when one antenna device used as both transite and reeive, Whereas bitte moe is when two separate antennae are wed with fone serving ae a tanemiter andthe other asa raciver Thre are fect cases ch sn wae unglerelecion unl refactor WARR) tmeasurements) when the bstate mode is advantageous over the rmonortatie mode, The PulseEKKO system uses only bisaic an teapse, For the majority ofthis chapter it can be assumed that any “antennae are deployed in monostale mode unless adcated othet- “The transmitter generates pule of radiowaves a a fequency ‘repettion rte of eypcally 50000 times pr second. The receiver i Set to sean at a fied rate, normally up to 32 scans per second, depending upon the sysem being Used. Fach san lasts 25 long ste total two-way trav! tine range, which can be set rm afew tens to several thousand nanoseconds Each sean i diplayed on tither& video seeen ora graphic reorder ofboth AS the antenna 8 function of thee twoeway travel time, ie the tine taken from instant of transmission co time of detection by the receiver, inthe form of a radargram. This display is anslogous to wesc Section (seismosram) The pulse length of the transmitted radiowave shouldbe short, nough (ypiealy <20, depending upon antenna Irequency and the sbape and characteristics ofthe tanemited radiowave are both ‘eterminabieand highly repeatable. The significance ofthis point will be lscussed below (ee Section 125) The manner in which the recorded sianalsaredplayod on graphic recorder for example ae determined by the operator, a simplifed output is dustated in Figure 122 Signals with amplitudes greater tan the set treshold se rite dash dhe ra seston a lane In sme ee, ‘may bemost suitable to print both postive and negative or when ust, Postve or just negative. Display can also be ouput in tems of triable arcu wiggle oF wigale trace only Gust asin seismic data Alspays) Commonly the more sophisticated diptal cording sy tems display theamplitudes ofthe signals aceording oa prey sal or «lour meno; for example, the strongest efections can be picked out bythe brightest eotours ‘Shot aa Ground ner radar 687 Trensine sauce ps i ceed autace tT PEWS REMECTON(688 Aninrodaton to ppl nd esronnenta geophpes [Note that the source pulse consis of more than one wivlength and that may havea complex waveshaps. Ground coupling fess the shape and duration of the downgoing wavelet and thus the traveenape of any relestiow eyualy women, but wih pul trowdened duration du to atenuation of th Bigher frequency ‘components of the signal. Th eetecton cvent consists of several Sravelets not just one, nd its imperative that this be borve in nnd ‘ring the interpecation of radar data, “Themeasurementystem should havesufiient dynamicrange and seastty tobe able todstext th low signalstrengthr associated with the returning radar pulses should also besblewoproduepristos bith adaquate canis for interpretation ‘While the mansfacturers specifestons may indiate the measure ‘ment accuracy ofthe ming within the instrument gto +15, this Should not be interpreted as being equivalent to the resolution apabiityof interpretation. Vertial and horizontal resolution are Siscussed in Section 125. 123 PROPAGATION OF RADIOWAVES, At Theory “The elestromagnctic properties of materials are lated to their ompostonsind water conten, uk of whi art ais ental over the speed of radiowave propagation and the attensation of levtromagnetic waves in material “The spend of radiowaves in any medium is dependent upon the speed of light in free space (e= 03 m/n9 the relative electric Constant (andthe rlative magnetic permeability (1 for pon ‘agntic mete) (se Box 12.1 The sucees ofthe ground ada Inethod ttes on the variably the ground to allow the eam ‘mission of adiowaves Some material suchas poate are virtually ttansparent to radionves Other materials suchas water-saturated ‘lay and seawater either absorb of reflect the adiowaves to such an texto that they are virally opaque to radiowaves Itis the contrast {a elatvedsactrc constant beeen aljacent ayers that gives Fie to reflection of incident eletromagntic radiation. The greater the “The proportion of energy rfestod given by the reflection coficlen (R) is determined by the const in radiowave velocies, and, more fundamental, by the tootas in the elative dielectric con ‘tants of adjacent madi ee Box 122) I al cases the mageitude of Bliesin the range 1. The proportion of energy transmitted isequal tol -R. Theequsiions given in Box 12.2 apply fe normal incidence mplitade ofa signal, The power reflection coetilent sequal (oR Figure 122 rps) Schematics Epsolthotancotonahe recived ‘teeorm fone arom fo rnb ‘ox 21 Speed of radiowaves [Frew fiona Vi even by Vem tea 21+ P+ 1D)! Inbere cis the speed of light in free spice, i the relative Aisettc constant, and ys the relative magne permeabliy {=H for non-magnetic material) Ps the las factor, such that "zajat, end a is the conductivity, o=2nf where fi the Frege ise pent alo the pormevy fee space (6854 10" Fm) In lowless materials, PO, andthe speed of radiowaves, che m3 /5, Ie should always be remembered when dealing with ground FF decid by Maras equations with th secs (2) com porest orthogonal to the magnetic (H) component (igure 123) 4h apeiie shape and sie of the dietvy patter lobes are fonctions of the det constant) af the ost sedi. There ist dang in making the comparison of cadagrams to smo ‘sams thatthe vector ature of radar may be overlooked, s that rwetacermptinns sre mae shat hry the ees be ‘ive eologie media While sic date procesing an be ed Gervelyin most cass, te clesronapnet polar characters soft adiownvs are more anslgadsto seismic Saves than to Ponaves Box 122. Amplitude reteetion coefliient “The ampltode reflection coticient i= mar Oe) where Vy end V, ae the raiowave veloc in layers 1 and 2Deespectvely and 2 also" ve-ve | Rea Where rand ey ae the respective elaive diet constanis (@)oflajers 1 aid 2 spplcuble fr incidence at rightangles to plane elector. Typical creases wit pth, round pening rer Oo ss690 An invodustion tapped end enconment geoph es 008 _ 180° e249 1232 nergy loss and attenuation Factors that result in a derease in signal strength as radiwaves, propagate through sub-surfce media are iusteated schematically in Fgh 124, Energy lor occurs os a consequence of election rn imison tosses sbovt each interface and oor exe tine the radiowaves passthrough & boundary. Furthermore, i there are ‘objets with dimensions ofthe same order as the wavelength ofthe radar signa these objects wil eau seatering of enray ina random ‘manner, Tisis known as Miescartring and cases ‘ltter nose on the radar seton Its analogous othe noise seen on marine radar screens caused bythe backscter fom seamavesin rough weather, In avon ro reetion transmission torres merase ey lostby absorption (turning theeleciromagneticeneay into heat) This is best pictured by analogy with a microwave oven which uses high-power radowaves to cook food. A farther los of encray is cased by the peomecal spreading of tener. Tae rede signal's transite in a beam witha cone angle of 90 As the radi signals ‘rave away from theteansmiter, thy spread out causing seduction reveled —_22-cm dipole Gravel, two-way igre 123. Thao Band Pine rads dusty pattems for Em retvetylosed dpa Site over a madi ih c= 43 From Asone “etal (395) by rowed pentaig rer 694 == ‘og [SSL ‘Tecan nth prtenace oct eorton roma pong Dialectic Fttection and J Atlan cf eu fey tation vhs Powe 4. Paes kad 2 compe son ofthe desi ance proper of the Peston este Sap india tough which the adsl staeling. The atest factor(s depenent upon th elatiteh magnet and diets (properties ot there though which the signa propueting sas the egoency ofthe unl tae) Te ul ebro ‘sll termed yh oresonng pa rogers abundances. ® ses properons ‘Aswith other elezomagnetiwates he ph by which the signal besarte inamitudeto thao $75] ae Known a the sin depth (3) ani versely propertonl (0 the sent factor Ge 8-1) Mathematal deo hea {enon tor tsi depth ate nin Box 123 Using the a tet: isk epi antag eval ore Sane sen ht thesia depth sexvaeboly fem ena or watae (02 An imrodution oped and econmetal goss itis only 03m, Where fiesh dry rock is encountered the onductivity term decreases substantially and hance the skin depth mene ae tl reser eps poeleauuin el. The vito in skin depth ie shown in Figure 125 as a funchon of ground resistivity at the extemes of expected i lu lative dilecti com> stants(MeCann ef 1588). Box 23 Tribe peak ete el strength on anomision Why, andar 4 dstanoe + aay it has edad (©, thecatio ofthe two Amplitudes is gven by Fol, =exp(—8) shore is the attention coe olla) TP where o=2/ where fs the requeney (Ha) nis the magnetic petmeabily (82% 10~" Hm os the bulk conductivity at the given frequen (Sin), and es the dsktrepermiity where £6 885% 10-7 F/m and, is the bulk relative elec constant. "The formula is valid for non-magnetic raters ol “Thetern (c/a aboveisequivalentiothelosator(P.such that jJoe=tn D. Also, skin depth (6)= a. Whea tanDecl, 3=Qjena"® Numeral (631/50, where w isin mS). tis important to remember that the simple version of skin depths valid oly when the os factor is considerably ls than one. In order to determine when such conditions are valid the graph sla Figute 126sluuld tv usd. The figure shows the deoretieal ‘oduct values (in m/s) whee te los fet is equal to one. “Thus the observed conductivity forthe conten of being much ess than unity to apply shouldbe ofthe order of 005 ofthe cheoretisl ‘conductivity. For example if the observed tru conductivity 5 "St, then the los actor needs tobe considered nis al foe allcass other than when 900 MHz antennas ein used, es longa Ac rcative Sicksttcconaaut nea an ote fo Hf the fall {orm ofthe attenuation factor ist used under these teumstaness, ‘th derived value of skin depth wil be overestimated. Sn ahs should be noted that the skin depth does not equate to tedepth of penettation of the ground radar, To deirmine radar range, actors also need (0 be taken into consideration in ose elated to the sub-surface target and 1 the media through which the radiowaves vel The toa pth fs forgive ‘stance fe made up of five terms antenna loess transmission losses between the ar and the ground: loses caused by the geometical spreading of tho radar beam, attenuation within the pround as {fuetion of the material properties, and loses de to seatering of the adarsgnl from the target ite. The eadar range equation snd Afintionofarada system pertormance(Q)aregiven inBox 124.and the components acting vadated sa tetuin joer ae astute Sehematiealiy in Figure 127 ‘The sssem performance of modern radar equipments between 10 and 160d enabling thee fold improvement indepth penetra tion under the same ambient conditions over tha of «ra system with Q'=80dB, The variation of radar signal range & shoven in Figure 128 as a fonction of both attenuation and radar stent performance (Qh ‘Within Box 124 ae listed thre ype of target smooth and rough plane refetorsanda point target Of particular importance tbe gF rou ponetraig rater 93 igre 125_Varation of sin deh (Ghts hcion ate re, 8 pinion cm mmm eee eee eee eee694 Antnroduton appl and msironmetalpophscs 2858 8 88 8 a tac th faa uation iu Bon 12.4,-Ths pont dees the pomer teatered bythe target andalso directed bac to therocrver Theterm ithe backscatter gain ofthe target and F is the targst satering ‘ronsectionl aes. Fr a smooth plane refer, the incident signal retard appears to bean image of the source, albt reduced in power bythe power teflon coeicient R (=P, where ris the 8 oath) of the interface sinting ups eon it way asthe Boundary. The theory Behind hs isthe sare asin simple opis fora plane refistor, ryuet26 Cun these fcor aed) 1 Box 124 Radar range eqaton, and deiition of O (Annan and Davis 977) The srius terms are defined n Figure 127. Als: Qe 100g Pal?) here Pais the minimum desta signal power, and, is the source power Inlowlossmaterastherange zis approximately 10D,. a igh Lss materia the ange approximately Dy/D,y where 0108) V+ 1008, +(B,~2Hlon f) =108, Gy Oyl6he? where B, By and B, areas ised in the table blow. Typeottaet oF a Smooth plane 2K Ton) retesor Regie AGP SHANK loge) 1 Rayleah point Giea'/HR—gloatatst") 0 For a rough, specular rector, there is dificult in deinng the osssetinal area ofthe target Cook (1975) suggested that it equates tothe area of the ist Frese one (ee Figure 125}, Conse vents, where the wavelength of the roughness ofthe surace is testes ibeu edition Fred cone, tiecroseseetonat fea, and hence the gf” product, can be estimated, Where the ‘wavelength ofthe surface coughs see than the Gamer of the frst Fresnel zone andespcialy when the sept ofthe rovshaess is peste than one-qurter wavelength the acualerosesetionel target area i dificult to cazulat. The power refeton coefiiet would bereduced ab a consequence of the greater sate arising rom such # surface roughness The sgncane ofthe ft este! one in terms of interpretation and resolution ie discos further in Sesion 125 round peneting radar 695686 Aniratuction applied and ensrormetalgophyses Aer, Em = omy attanemmercene aterm Ono tarsi tin dicane chet ans het ran clracoer wiz (e Vie) fein or! For & poin target the characteris of the returned eneray is sesribed by the Rayleigh Law of seating in which the gF product is ery strongly dependent upon fequency (othe fourth power) Its sine for he expresion in Hox 124 fora pont source, that the ‘as of hag) mich sal than the wath of the example, or whore the geologieal units ate eevrey distorted over distances shorterthan the wavelength of the inedent nergy. hea the 2 dar sjstem Ait Anon 28d 1° © 1 Leg ateusion (tn) nr sd tow vey fv kay ober econ even Sewcbed ihc tee Tugcbrceiccamn el eed inlet dig inp ng gon och ata hat ben show (we Hon 123) that atenstn Is ety proprio! fequny, Tighe ie oq he eater Ekeemosntofadention iia sida int he alk eve (oat air atemacen sentaly, Exh of hse epee & ‘ty the cmon he ala th etal be Sour andre fonda ach costae Te ns for (anon ox 03) dest proportional conduct snd tively proportional fhe lhe dre conan and fe aust. Par nse ganas wedi, te oda tnd te Serene nas The bak ve dist ont) staugy ego petit coy (and one diese ontanor th idg Teettins tat te mor conde th strange geste proportion of as pret ‘iaconeapondngy igh ealedieticcontaat mene ior watered the gue wil be ie soon Say te “tenuate inporac fay tht ipa bound ac iin sis sac ly al to pra {ii propria roth phscoctemal scare ‘also ch are teyon hop i cn For toh gel an epveing mats he tial and diene penpals of uns ar al Seah ater larg enknows Te sl and dete propre malin ae doen Sesion 12 Grown pera radar 697 gare 128 Radar range for radars {oie apt tena peemuson CORO EEOEREEETTEEEEEEEEEEE EE ECCLES698 Aninnodurto to cpl and emronmentl geophysics, 1 i rohan? 1233. Horizootal and vertical resolution Vertical resolutions measure of he ability to differentiate between two signals adjacent to each other in time. Simplistic, vetcl ‘eseltion sa fencion of fequency, Fach radar antennas dsigned to operate over a range of frequencies (bandwidth where the peak poser oesurs atthe centre frequency ofthe antenna Tei the eemte ‘has centelrequency of $00 Miz, for instance, The entre frequency Ssalsoinversely proportional tothe ple period in nanoseconds). The Figue 129 Refstonffom aud, ‘peso teres he urge cose etopatare equate othe ares ‘libel ema Zone ae Ronan Sh Dain (977 y pesision Ground penetraing radar 69 ‘Tble122 Theo vera rslaton for 0 olga mies a sequences ‘Arsen ogeasy ‘hain mS ow Sa Wavsengibfem) 238 ' Reoiuion(en! 186352 Bada Wareeogbem 92 2 : Resisioaten! 25 Ss ‘00 Mits antenna, therefore asa pulse peiod of 1/S00MHz= 205, tnd for 3 Mil the pulse periods /38 x 10" or 286 ns. The equiva ‘otlengh Games tepules the product ofthe pulse period end the mdiovave velocity fr the appropriate material. In» wet si (¥-=006 ms) and witha 1OOMEEeantena (pls ptiod = 1023), ‘hepa (avejenathis 0063 10m.0r 04m, Reston un be taken 8 one-quarter ofthe wavelength (of incident raion; h= Vf. ee Vstheradionave velocity ad fisitsfequenc.Inthelas eas, ifthe wavelength is Dem, the theoretical vertical resolution is Sem. xamplst of theoretical minimum resolutions fortwo diferent ‘materials at thee separate egueaces are Ite in Table 122. The ‘rst example the tale sfora peal sl with ¥ = 007Sm/ns and the scond, a massive rock such 85 Kinestone with V'=0110m/n, ‘The vertical resolutions given are the very best that could be achieved theoreti ta ely, tb esoltion es than these gores owing tothecomplenatucofthe source waveform and he ground espns, Am anton paced direty on the ground sil produce ‘ground couple’ signal That the ansmited waveform in ait will not be reproduced when being ansmited ito the ground, The materi allets the shape, form and amplitude (power) of the dawngoing source wavetrain and eficively ers it The source pulse length decreases with erasing Frequency, bul describes the mainpalse obs fonly, With ground coupling. aod depending upon the teansmitter ‘ciency the downasing wavetrsin ts unvally sonra tines Tonge {ha the pulse length described inthe manulactrer estore for ‘ten antenea. This compleny of source naveshape has serous Consequence fo interpretation, TT the downgoing radar wave bas, fot instance, three cycles with otal period of 251s thismeans that a reflection fom any interface ‘nll hae equal not preatercompleny of shape and longer perio, thin the signal as higher fequencis are attenuated preferentially ‘ith respect to lower frequencies,700 Animredtion 0 apple and ensommentalgophses wo interfaces are separated by only afew tens ofcetimetes for example, and the radiwave velocity ofthe material in enveen is Sch thatthe te infer beeen ceeton from the first (upper ‘most interface ad one from the second issborter than te period of thesouree waveean tbe onset ofthe second election wll emasked by the ta ofthe Sit, and hus may not be resolved. Another complenity i that the downgoing signal travels from the transmitter in a cove of radation wth a fiaitesized footprint. The fist Fresnel zone deseibes the minimam area in which atures with smaller dimensions wil 0: be iniged.The radius ofthe fist Fresel zones indiaed in Figure 129. The finite sie of ths footprint lets both te vertical resolution (when interfaces ate seply dipring of have high-amplitne surface roughness relative tothe wavelength of the incident rediowaves and the horizontal resolution. The larger the first Fresel zone, te lower will be the horizontal eselution i lscriminating between adjoeent targets Furthermore, spatial reso! ‘tion is also acted by the conical beam width ofthe downgoing ‘adiowaves (se Figure 1210}, the narrower the beam width, the {rete il beth spatial resolution Horizontal solution sinters [y proportional oy, whece isthe attenuation coeicient (Danis ra 1988) Conequenty the horizontal esoltionisaccualy better ‘vera hgh-oxs material than over a low-loss medium. Where adat ‘tems peti hortzonial stacking of adjacent seansto improve the Sgpal-to-nose aio, horizontal resolution i reduced asthe amount ‘ftorzatalstacking i inereased, Theresa practical compromiseto Fig 1240. Hosea ston (Gio beam wid + Hemet aeten + Lewepstarcoton ‘eceched between optimising return signal strengths by horizontal ‘Hacking and reducing horzontal resolution. ‘When sytieti aperture radar (SAR) i wed, measurements are mage by 3 single atenna ata number ot teen! postion an the ‘resus combined fo simulate a narrower ram than would have been stove by using jon an slated antenna at opelocation, Deal of the SAR or holographic radar are beyond th scope ofthis chapter 124_ DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF EARTH MATERIALS “The dicletic behaviour ofa material i described in terms ofits complex permit cand complex condutiiy(e*) which are fmtrtlated (se Box 125). The high-roqueny permiciy (6) 5 taken asthe lowest el pemitiy when thelmaginay peemitviy (eis aero (se Figure 1210). The ea permit () icreases 26 Frequency deerases When the material i a nonconducto, the feequency-permitivty bebwion i described by a smite the ‘entre of whichis loeated on the real peestvity as hall-way between te high-frequency and state ermitivities end, respective) ‘The imaginary permaltviy (2) Sndicates the absorption or energy toss within the dolectcc material and this in turn contributes othe absoeption of radiowaveswitin the ground. Box 125 Complex permitvty and condctvity ‘Complex pemitvty &* ofa woa-conductve naeialis ven by ees. When is plotted a a fonction of the resent graph a semicircle, The plot is known a8 « Cole-Cole plot ale is ‘originators, Cole and Col (1947. I the materi has a conductvyo hen: ae +H +20) chaps sthestaticor BC conductivity nd tthe permite: ityoffice space. Atlow equensias the DC torn dominates and ovduees a characteristic low-frequency tll ee Figre 121). The & term isthe requeney-dependeat los related tthe relaxation response phenomena associated With water mole- ales King wo Seth 1983), ‘The complen conductivity o* is given by: ead He ma Ground peerating oar TOL102 Aninnodutoetepld and msrommetal geoph. Ground pentating radar 703 “ . Flee 1G enm ale V = usive mins Radowave velocity (ns) 7 es tol aes ae materia conductive, hen an appropriate adalat erm tas tobe included within the definition ofthe complex permitvity (Box 125) Conductivity also contributes tothe loss within the materi The relative dielectric constant (varies fom | inairthroughto81 in water. For most geoopical matecals, «les in the range 3-30, ‘Consequent,the range ofradiowaveveloctissslarge(sceBox 12.1), frou atouid 006 co O17Suniy (Figuie 1212}. The speed of radiowaves nats 2998 mm/s. I trying to enimatedephe to any sven target itis essential to have detailed knowledge of the Dicleetric constant (9) radiowave velocities through the sub-surface materials present This Figure 1212. Radiowave aoc ‘yes ofradat intespilaon wll deat wilsin Ssow 126, 22-8 Metin of eave Se ‘Ais ofthe relative dilee constants and associated radiowave SH ‘oct fora variety of geological and manmade materials i given a ees\ 704 Ants pl olen pes Grant pnaraingratr 705 ‘ “Table 123 Table of te dice commas aed exowave 4 ‘ ‘aie oro range of ele nd acme ter j ‘ “Material a Yama) 4 ae me : t wa 3 ‘ Porto ean medium ¢ Pobre is Tempestke is . t Pre is E Frc ee 1% ‘ = ae g So i Coastal ad ty) 9 8 & ~~ _Branite ‘ a Seaaiag 36 ay 2 ~ an) 0 Fee 3 2 | ea it 3 3 r ‘ aye Sa» Sue ] Gays) 2 i 2 a U{limestone ect land 5 n a E Se ‘ ' Peronlnd 8 8 8 10 ~ schist Acne HH 3 g 2 ‘ Craie ss 106-129 \XN Bolom a els \best cout Bowed : 106 oO ‘ Slee ; i Eisele ‘ 2B ‘ a rs = \fcoal-clay 38 aan 1 SO: seta NON ‘ 3 Be ~ } asin eal ee a \SWxzshales an fam Jk a (A Neca wa (FL Morey OP NE Roti . gouge . | 1 10 100 1000 in Table 123.Rshoud te emphsd hat he ale bth eave frequency f, MHz sie Sgues The ac of range for some sterile do the pavelyofmesriementsmadetn ot meat o imply tht ere fo vanation within the matte The rans een ar so not inet oer the rqueney sans from 1 10 S00 Mie. Clay Fe 1213 Proting dane 2 inet or eemes As more rel re pbs the ranges sted imate have mich short probing distances thas more masrive_ 3s of agen for ict | Imay need obs extended a th ae varity both paraiters Tooke sucha rae and exons feces neta Fn becomes mare widely else. ‘Most mates wheter geologic or man-made, ar 4 con 7 conan a igus 1213) Inset of componsns oth of wath tr iety te have dient sow th ely probing distanssahiovable for dierent slag Shs and sr propesticn Grains an even grain shape706 An imvotution tapped and enthonmetl eps canaffc bk electrical and detribehaviour- Most rocks contain 8 degree of moisture, eiber ab Tee’ uid contained within pore paces or bound win theminerallaticeas Withnany Ypesof ey mineral Since the rave delectc constant of water i igh 81) {eltiveto that of dry ook evena small amount of watermay increase the bute permitivty of the rook, An example ofthe eect of soil roistare content of & vaiety of rocks on the relative dielectric ‘constants shown in Figure 113 Furtbermot, he amount of water ‘resent within a rock wil slo fet the speed of propagation of Padhwavse The dar solty thigh fae i 8 0? mie {GO33mjes) whereas tis 12% 10"m’s (012m) ough & low porosity sandstone (MeCann et al 198), “The reative diletic constant of fyered material has been demonstrited to be related tporoiy (6) by considering the propor tion of constituents present nd thir rexpetive raative dielectric constants The relationships between constituent and bulk relative Insenng tet o in a ‘sy Figwe1216 (A) WARR sounding BE) Cb wounds wth tna movers ang (D) the coe sround surface simultancunly, with the measuced tevel times to reflectors being displayed onthe vertical axis while the distance tena hastavelid shown onthe horizontal ax This mode ‘of surveying i anlogous to continuous sisi retin profiling (ee Chapter 6) Tithe radiowave veloctes have bon messute indspeadsaty ce neat section) o election correlated with changes round cree ternics observed from borehole data, then depths to the restore canbe determined, See Seton £2 7far moredetulso interpretation techniques 1282 Whe-angle rection ad refraction (ARR) sounding ‘The WARR antenna configurations shown ia Figure 216A. The transmitter is kept at 2 fed location and thereover is toed saya inerensing ofits. The oeation ofa WARR Sounding should be over an area where te prinipal rectors ure planar and elder horizontal or dipping only at very shallow angles. Its lso assumed that the material properties are uniform and that the rector characteristics are the sume over he sub-surface area over which the WARR sounding is undertaken, This assumption may not be true in allcases To avoid basing to make this las assumption, an alterative snd preferable deployment forthe same analysis she common muiipint (CMP) sounding Ta this case, both the transite and receiver are rowed aay from each others thatthe mipoiat between temas ata Bxed location ue Figue 12168} Inthe CMP case, the point of Teflection on each subsuraerefestorisused at each fad thes farel comistency at dep is ot 2 requirement. The equivalent pealtions between the WARR and CMP soundingsare given (0) pd (i) in Figure 1216 1283. Transllminationo a tomography ‘The ransilumination mode of deployment is where the transmitter and receive are on oppoitesides ofthe medium unde nvesigation (GFgure 12.17). The method is wed underground within mines, for txample, whee the transmitter i located in one gilery and the reociver i either in gallery to one side ofthe usnsmiter, oF in 4 gallery above of blow. Alternatively, the radar antennae can be located down boreholes and the radar signals are then propagated ftom one through the medium inbetween, to the ober “The trasilumination mode i alo common in non-destructive tssling (NDT) investigations of man-nade strctures, particle ‘sing very bighfraqueny and hence small antennas (eg 900 MHz aency) Examples inclode testing concrete ceorans and ‘masonry plas round pertring radar TUL112 Animrodcion to apted and enciommetl eonhsie “ Lite LiLLahla Tena © Fine 1217 ‘Transiluminaon and ‘Eich nda ude of at coe ‘on: (A) bate aes nas, {ioeweca brett or olesuace, {na (6 throug a concrete pila To ‘ass the ace dane between fexosater (Ta) and reser (RN) htm eKrown Modes shows (and) are abo Kaowo svar, temograrhy Asthe eltive potions ofthe antennae se known at alts, and scan radiowave velocity ofthe appropriate raypath If the signal plitude also measured in edition to travel times, then atten ‘tion can be determined. More details of thi method bie been given by Annan and Davis (1977, Sophintnted data-procesng roatnce ‘exis inorder to produce tomogram that are analogous o seismic ‘equivalents see Chapter 6) 126 DATA PROCESSING 1261 Daring data acquisition Allground adarsystems provide amearsof fering the data ding scgutton Ie is uouelly posble to oct both Bighpa= aed Lowpase fiters to shazpn the signal waveform atthe te of the survey. AS With seismic fering during aquisition, thereisasignifiant element ofqualitaive esto choosing appropri fltersetings More sophis- tiated digital systemsallow vertical andhoczontal ering aswellas ‘mote powerful pinstting options with which 0 optimise the data ual. Asa ruleof thumb it isadvaable to keep the ite stings as rondband as powsible 20 that potently valuable data are not ‘cluded during the acguisiion phase. It Tar cheaper to fer beoudband data afer the fsld work has been completed than to reali thatthe data quality has boon compromised bythe use fier Setings which ate too harsh, thereby necesieing a repeat of the Sekdvockl Digial systems have the fonction of stacking a ited numberof ‘works won areas whete the structore i largely paral o¢ sub parla tothe ground sriace. When steper struts ae resent, horizontal stacking over too many adjacent scans can produce ater smearing and a dlocusng ofthe radar image. 1202, Wideangle reecton and tom WARY sounding Ittwo separate antennae ate sed, one a transite andthe ther asa eccrine me, is possible to determine the vertical ‘aration in radiowane wos (and hence ative dle con San) 1 ooly one antenna i avallbl ib monosaie mode tis no posible to underake WARR sounding and hence velosty deer Togs, target at know depis of burl or by gcsomor th at is ‘hemostcommonly employed and may giv depth estimate accurate wt20% Greand penetrating rater 713,4 Amino to pli and encionmentalgophses Tneach ofthe WARR of CMP configurations thee types of waves say be dente «# theairwang,travelingttom the transmitter ote esiver throug the ai atthe speed ofradhowavesn ai (03/5 1 thedirct nave traveling direst fom the raster through the frarsurface ground tothe receiver atthe speed af radiowaves in the nearsurtace medion (7. 1 the reflected wave, traveling fom the transite tothe interface ftom which its related to the receiver, als0 atthe speed of ragiwaves in he st ayer (Y) “The travel times for both the sirwave and the direct wave plot as strighelie segments on the T—X graph, but those for the reflected snare pot on a curved (hyperbole) ne The dirence in travel me etweam zara fet and finite ofits the normal moceout (NMO) tine (Figure 12160), However, when these travelime data are Plotted on a 7"-X" graph all he segments appear astral ines (Figure 12.16D) The inverse gradens of each line are equal tothe respective radiowave velocity squared. Further details of the velocity Sounding techniques have been given by Arcone (1984, "The radiowave velocity determined for layer Lisa time-averaged value ove the interval rom zero ime top ands hencearoot-mean- squared eloity (Vyyg) Where tavebtime data are obtained for (leper rection Ue oats determined from te ebove analyse foreach ayerarealso RMS values, To determine a geologically more ‘meaning! velocity fora particular layer, ite then necessary 10 use the Dix Formula fo drive the ‘interval velocity. This an crac the stme at for soimie reaction data and moze complete ‘eta are given ia Chapter 1263, Postrecording data processing Only digital date can be proceed postxecordng. The degree of processing often determined by fa) the budget avalable the time Bvallable,() data quality (8) the available procesing capability (software and hardware (he requirement hat the inal interpela- tion jsties further analy and() he structural det on the ea ‘cord menting detaled quantitative data processing “Theft step it ile the data in order to focus the image. For many applications this is sufficient in order to locate sub-surface features For more detiled analysis, a wide range of processes are avalable, up to and including the same as for mutfolé seismic Feflestion data, including tbat analy, deta of which ae gven fn Chapter 6 Ine radar system produced by Geophyscat Survey Systems Ine basa suite of data-processing packages available called RADAN™ (Radar Data Analyse) The formato dats recorded on to magnetic media typically 250byte magnetic tape oF magneto-optical disk, an be converted fom SEG 2 t0 SEG Y format in order to be ompantle with smc indusry standard workstations A program to conver from SEG 2 t0 SEG V has boon publshed by Bennett, (990), Data fonmas for radar dats bave been spied by the SEG Enginering and Groundwater Geophie Commies (Pullan 1990) Similarly, Seniors de Sofware Lid have a range of compute software designed for ase with their PuleEKKO syste, which Products aba fat compatible with acne te procesing OF particular significance is the abiliy to restore correct sub- surface geometrical relationships through the process of migration Difracton hyperbole canbe migrated back to the ape from which thediraction originated. Dipping plana surfaces can be corrected to thei cortet poston relative o ground locations. Otherwise, sign cant eros canbe made by believing thatthe loation ofa pevtclet Sub-surace acre ona aw eadargrm fs exact, whereas it on 8 virtual image and may be displaced rom ite actual postion by Signfeant horizontal and vertical distances. The principles of migra ‘om ate discussed more uly in Chapter 6 ‘thee methods of quasiatine analysis ae avalable through ‘mage only Rather than operateon te waveform ofthe dat, the radargram nseanned for analysts of ends For example, reds such 45 relsctions aipping in * parole cirecuon ean be pcked oul Sutisialysigifeant uends can be identifed from’ the entre radaegram aad displayed automaticaly 38, Subsequent manual al 127 INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES 127. Graphic interpretation From both analogue and digital rar data, ardeopy rdargrams canbe analysedin terns ofideniing rections and difractons and ‘measuring the tvo-way travel Sine 0 ch identifiable evens By assuming, or having measured, a value forthe appropri relative “elect cnstant=and ene obaiod are radiowave vle- city—thetwornaytaveltimes to speieevene canbe translated into ‘depths. Where aardatahave been acquied overaregula gi, and reflections identified over signicant areas, it it then porble to produce posted two-way tavel tine maps, or bopackyte maps, indicating the depth to, or thickness ofa parGcular layer, given 2 realise measure ofthe radiowave veloc. ‘Ths approach spartculaly peste in oad pavement analysis, where the number of discrete layers usually well consrned with round pontrating rodar ns6 Anintrotaction to aplidan encase yophses Ground penevting odor 117 up to four paral to subparalel ayers (bound layer of bitumen or onerets,pranular layer, oper and fer sub-arades). The tavel times to interpreted ntrfces case dgtsed off paper radargram records and using an appropriate radiowave velocity for each ofthe Aliscetlayers the depths to each interface can be determined There ‘would ned to be earful consideration of the accuracy of picking the ‘nse ofthe various efletion onthe radarrams a well as thee} felaiity ofthe radiowave velocities usd to derive depths. Local ‘arab in radiowave veloitiss can occur within concretes (et Sesion 24 diferent mixs,cven though ll wihin specication) or dve to changes im mosstare content (Ge Section 124), Tnvidual horizons, such asthe sub-bake, may have bea prepared inlayes.and these may be detected. In some eases the boundary betwen ser may be farzy "so where does the radar refetion come from Ist always fom the same relative position between layers? Thas are questions ‘that need to be answered in road pavement work pit to te produc ‘onof nal drawings Inalleases astatemeotasto tbeerorsanlinits lofmeasurementshould bemade These is no such thing asan absolute ‘measur of depth using remote methods, particularly radar “The interpreted datacan be dsplayedina wide range of waysusing modern computer-aided design (CAD) ystems and. 3D graphics ‘software packages While the nal outpatmay bexresely colourful 4nd fancy, it should be remembered tha the base data analysis may bean ehat~basie! While the inal drawings ma indicate miele accuracy, i this justied? At present, the uncertaintis and local ‘ariabity inthe delete properties of materials und the subject ature of defining the onset posion of teections tend to make aims of such accuracy unjustified. As the eletrial and divlectric properties ofmateial sedi oad pavements become better know, ccacies and reliabilities wl improve Tadditon ro interface mapping, ts posible ous the variations in character dxplayed on the radargrata as an indication of sub- Stufece conditions. For example, ureas of high atenuaton may reveal ones with elevated conductivities which may be asvocited with pollution o lay pockets Subssurface cavities may be evident by the fesonance within the void space, indicated on the Fadargcam as a eres of large-amplitude pulses which are laterally very retcted ‘ones of eobbes or severely distorted sata tay be evident bythe loss coherency f primary refzction events. Delamination of oad pavernentsmay aso be indicated by diagnostic character changes on {adarrams delamination als evident when imaged wsingintered ‘thermography under appropriate conditions. 1272 Quanteatne anaes Basic depth determination depends upon an adequate knowledge of the radiowave velocity and its vertical and Iaterl variation within 2 given survey aren Where WARR/CMP data have been acquired, then a detailed picture ofthe velocity Bld can be obained. Conse Avent, peologialy diagnos values ofthe adiowave selon, or ‘more particularly ofthe elativeditectriccoastan canted oud Intepeeation ‘Where detailed quantiativeattbute analysis has been under taken of the recorded radiowave datasuch as amplitude analysis, reflection coeficent determination ae wel s variations ing —then {much more comprehensive understanding ofa ite canbe gained, Tadeed, given adequate date quality, cartel procesing may yield ote valusbe information about the petrophytes ofa given geal al or engineering regime than would otherwise have been posible, High-level processing ond analysis are becoming mach mor impo ant where detailed discrimination ogre, such asin hydrocarbon exploration and reservoir enginering, and in contaminated land Investiations. The ue of ground rade in both cases likey 10 Aeveop considerably over the nox fw yous, 127.3 Inerpectatioal pital ‘Thetwo commonest pitflsin the interpretation fdas dat are(a) not beng ble o identify the ground surface, and () misdentying ‘ach black bandon a black and whit radargram as being caused by Adiseret horizon Theeasist way to idontly ground evel especially With antennae with centre trequenies > SOOM i 1 raise and Tower the antenna above the ground surface. A distnstive ep appeaeson the radargram and clearly indiates where the ground Teel is eprescate, “The overidentifcaton of the number of layers highlights «real