Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Barckhoff Welding Management System and the Barckhoff Method are both copyrighted (1980) and later service
marked by Jack R. Barckhoff. Copyright law protects any references to Systems and Methods used in this manual. The
use of the Management System or The System refers to the Barckhoff Welding Management System. The use of The
Method refers to the Barckhoff Method.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publisher.
NOTE: Although care was taken in choosing and presenting the data in this guide, AWS cannot guarantee that it is
error free. Further, this guide is not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of the topic and therefore may not include all
available information, including with respect to safety and health issues. By publishing this guide, AWS does not insure
anyone using the information it contains against any liability or injury to property or persons arising from that use.
Photocopy Rights
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online: http://www.copyright.com.
Several years ago on the Gulf Coast, a group of dedicated men in the shipbuilding industry were
concerned about the lack of well-trained welding supervisors. If welding supervisors did not have
the appropriate knowledge and skill levels, how then could the welders being supervised achieve
improved quality and productivity levels? To this end, those dedicated men became the catalyst that
advanced the Certified Welding Supervisor Program to where it is today. Most likely, this manual
would not have become a reality when it did without their support, their initial efforts as a Beta Test
Site, and their feedback during program development. For that reason, this manual is dedicated to
Ron Pierce of Welding Engineering Services Company and Tom Bender, Jackie Morris, and Lavon
Mills of Bender Shipbuilding & Repair Company.
iii
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Introduction..................................................................................................................................1
No SystemSystem ......................................................................................................................3
Lean Manufacturing.....................................................................................................................3
Total Quality Management (TQM)..............................................................................................7
Total Welding Management (TWM) .........................................................................................10
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................18
References..................................................................................................................................18
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................19
Answers .....................................................................................................................................21
Introduction................................................................................................................................23
Requirements for a Fillet Weld..................................................................................................23
Objectives ..................................................................................................................................25
Weld Terminology .....................................................................................................................25
Weld Failure ..............................................................................................................................27
Weld Size ...................................................................................................................................27
Weld Length ..............................................................................................................................36
Appearance and Weld Profile ....................................................................................................37
Weld Soundness.........................................................................................................................38
Mechanical Properties................................................................................................................44
Corrosion Resistance .................................................................................................................46
Achieving the Correct Requirements of a Weld ........................................................................47
Welding Procedures ...................................................................................................................47
References..................................................................................................................................50
Guides and Exercises .................................................................................................................50
Answers .....................................................................................................................................52
Introduction................................................................................................................................53
Chapter Objectives.....................................................................................................................53
Process Fundamentals................................................................................................................53
SMAW Electrodes .....................................................................................................................56
Features and Applications of SMAW Electrodes ......................................................................59
Recommended SMAW Equipment ...........................................................................................62
SMAW Essential Welding Variables ........................................................................................66
SMAW Procedures and Techniques ..........................................................................................76
Identify and Correct SMAW Defects ........................................................................................80
Reference ...................................................................................................................................81
Guides and Exercises .................................................................................................................81
Answers .....................................................................................................................................86
Introduction................................................................................................................................87
Chapter Objectives.....................................................................................................................87
What is Gas Metal Arc Welding? ..............................................................................................87
Modes of Metal Transfer in GMAW .........................................................................................94
Applications ...............................................................................................................................97
Wire and Base Metal Melting ....................................................................................................99
Wire Burnoff and Arc Length..................................................................................................104
GMAW Essential Welding Variables......................................................................................105
Summary of the Eight Essential Welding Variables ...............................................................130
Equipment for GMAW ............................................................................................................130
Find Out More .........................................................................................................................132
Reference .................................................................................................................................132
Exercises ..................................................................................................................................132
Answers ...................................................................................................................................136
Introduction..............................................................................................................................137
Chapter Objectives...................................................................................................................137
What is Flux Cored Arc Welding? ..........................................................................................137
Process Fundamentals .............................................................................................................. 145
Objectives ................................................................................................................................145
Manufacture of FCAW Wires..................................................................................................145
Classification of Filler Metals for FCAW of Mild Steel ......................................................... 147
Electrode Size ..........................................................................................................................148
Effect of Shielding Gases ........................................................................................................150
Electrode and Base Metal Melting...........................................................................................153
FCAW Essential Welding Variables .......................................................................................157
Summary of the Seven Essential Welding Variables ..............................................................175
FCAW Equipment ...................................................................................................................175
Welding Techniques ................................................................................................................177
Reference .................................................................................................................................180
Exercises ..................................................................................................................................180
Answers ...................................................................................................................................184
Introduction..............................................................................................................................185
Advantages of SAW ................................................................................................................185
Joint Tracking Methods ...........................................................................................................187
Evolution of the Welded Joint .................................................................................................189
Applications .............................................................................................................................191
SAW Fluxes .............................................................................................................................191
SAW Essential Welding Variables for Single Wire Applications...........................................195
Effect and Control of SAW Essential Welding Variables .......................................................196
Effect of Other Variables in SAW ...........................................................................................199
vi
Reference .................................................................................................................................201
Guides and Exercises ...............................................................................................................201
Answers ...................................................................................................................................203
Introduction..............................................................................................................................205
Steelmaking .............................................................................................................................205
Chemical Reactions in Steelmaking ........................................................................................206
Important Elements in Plain Carbon Steels .............................................................................207
Carbon in Iron ..........................................................................................................................208
Strengthening Methods ............................................................................................................210
Alloying ...................................................................................................................................212
Carbides ...................................................................................................................................212
Effects of Manganese and Sulfur.............................................................................................214
Effects of Aluminum ...............................................................................................................214
Strengthening by Solid Solution ..............................................................................................214
Strengthening by Precipitation Hardening...............................................................................216
Grain Size Strengthening .........................................................................................................217
Normalizing .............................................................................................................................218
Fine-Grained Microalloyed Steels ...........................................................................................219
Strengthening by Heat Treating ...............................................................................................221
Effect of Alloy Additions ........................................................................................................221
Mechanical Testing of Base Metals.........................................................................................226
Weld Testing............................................................................................................................228
Welding Metallurgy of Steels ..................................................................................................232
Mechanical Properties of Welds ..............................................................................................232
Hydrogen Cracking..................................................................................................................241
Controlling the Hydrogen Content in the Weld.......................................................................243
Preheating ................................................................................................................................245
Postheating...............................................................................................................................247
Controlling the Hardness of the Weld Zone ............................................................................248
Weld Metal Cracking...............................................................................................................252
Solidification Cracking ............................................................................................................252
Find Out More .........................................................................................................................257
Reference .................................................................................................................................257
Exercises ..................................................................................................................................257
Answers ...................................................................................................................................262
Introduction..............................................................................................................................263
Objectives ................................................................................................................................264
Types of Joints and Types of Welds ........................................................................................264
Components of a Welding Symbol ..........................................................................................267
Weld Symbols and Supplementary Symbols...........................................................................270
Groove Welds ..........................................................................................................................271
vii
Introduction..............................................................................................................................293
Quality Metric..........................................................................................................................293
Cost Metric ..............................................................................................................................295
Throughput Metric ...................................................................................................................295
Safety Metric............................................................................................................................296
Welding Procedures .................................................................................................................296
Welder Qualification Test Record ...........................................................................................304
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................306
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................307
Answers ...................................................................................................................................308
Introduction..............................................................................................................................309
Welding Productivity ...............................................................................................................310
Dos Goal 1: Reduce Weld Metal Volume ..............................................................................311
Dos Goal 2: Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment .......................................................................323
Dos Goal 3: Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap ..................................................................328
Dos Goal 4: Reduce Work Effort ...........................................................................................333
Dos Goal 5: Reduce Motion and Delay Time ........................................................................336
Method for Computing Operating Factor ................................................................................340
Putting It All together ..............................................................................................................342
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................347
Summary of Key Concepts ......................................................................................................348
Reference .................................................................................................................................349
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................349
Answers ...................................................................................................................................354
Introduction..............................................................................................................................355
Widely Used Standards and Codes ..........................................................................................355
Qualification of Welding Procedures ......................................................................................359
Qualification of Welders..........................................................................................................359
Comparison of Common Standards .........................................................................................359
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................362
viii
Welding Inspection ..................................................................................................................365
Acceptance Criteria..................................................................................................................366
Visual Discontinuities..............................................................................................................367
Visual Inspection Method ........................................................................................................373
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) .................................................................................................379
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) ..............................................................................................381
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)...........................................................................................................385
Radiographic Testing ...............................................................................................................389
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................392
References................................................................................................................................393
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................393
Answers ...................................................................................................................................396
Creating a Safe Workplace ......................................................................................................397
The Importance of Training .....................................................................................................397
Important References ...............................................................................................................398
Hazards in the Shop and Construction.....................................................................................398
Electrical Safety .......................................................................................................................399
Arc Radiation ...........................................................................................................................404
Burns and Fire..........................................................................................................................404
Fumes and Gases .....................................................................................................................407
Gases Produced During Welding.............................................................................................413
Working with Oxygen and Other Gases ..................................................................................413
Cylinders ..................................................................................................................................415
Working in Confined Space.....................................................................................................418
Welding on Containers that Have Held Hazardous Materials .................................................419
Reference .................................................................................................................................419
Guides and Exercises ...............................................................................................................420
Answers ...................................................................................................................................424
Introduction..............................................................................................................................425
Quality Metric..........................................................................................................................426
Cost Metric ..............................................................................................................................426
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................432
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................432
Answers ...................................................................................................................................434
ix
In 2000, the American Welding Society (AWS) initiated the establishment of a Certification
Program for Welding Supervisors. First, an AWS committee drafted the B5.9:2000, Specification
for the Qualification of Welding Supervisors, which was followed by the AWS QC-13, AWS
Standard for the Certification of Welding Supervisors. This groundwork was done by AWS, which
recognized that the position of welding supervisor was one of the most under-trained positions in all
of manufacturing, construction, and fabricationparticularly in the area of optimizing the quality
and productivity of personnel under the supervisors direction. AWS saw an industry need and
responded.
Welding supervisors are found in every industry that uses welding as a core process in the manu-
facture, construction, or fabrication of their products. The role they play is often one of organizing
production paperwork and ensuring that parts are available to the welders. In many cases, welding
supervisors have little or no welding experience, knowledge of welding science, or training in how
to support their welders. This situation has resulted in years of missed opportunities in many com-
panies to improve welding quality while also increasing productivity.
Significant improvements can be made through the efforts of a well-trained welding supervisor, who
knows what factors influence welding quality, and how monitoring welders can achieve that quality.
At the same time, through training, a welding supervisor can understand all of the complimentary
factors in welding operations that lead to maximized productivity.
This manual takes a comprehensive approach to present the welding supervisor, planner, engineer,
or other management personnel with the most useful technical welding information combined
with the most effective management principles, concepts, and techniques to apply this welding
knowledge.
Sample questions are included in each section of this manual to help students gauge their under-
standing and confidence level. When this program is completed, the welding supervisor will have
the working knowledge to direct, support, and instruct welders to improve both quality for the
customer and productivity for the company.
This manual has been developed by AWS to support welding supervisors in one of the most
challenging and rewarding careers in industry. Those candidates who successfully complete this
program will be prepared to take the AWS Certification Test. More importantly, they will be better
prepared to make one of the most important contributions that any employee can offerhelping
their company to be more competitive in the global marketplace by improving manufacturing
performance. This is a challenge that all companies now face.
xi
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The material for this Certified Welding Supervisors Manual for Productivity and Quality Improve-
ment was developed for AWS by Barckhoff Welding Management Corporation, a thirty-year-old
welding management consulting firm.
This manual has been copyrighted by the American Welding Society (AWS), and Barckhoff
Welding Management holds and retains prior copyrights for much of its material.
The authors of this manual include:
Jack R, Barckhoff, P.E. is the founder and CEO of Barckhoff Welding Management and a member
of the 2004 Class of Counselors of the American Welding Society. Jack is a management consultant
whose career spans over half a century. He has devoted his lifes work to helping companies apply
his philosophy of Total Welding Management to become more competitive and profitable through
effective management of their entire welding operations. Jack is an industry recognized expert on
welding management. He is the author of Total Welding Management, which was published by
AWS in 2005, has published many articles, and lectured to thousands over his long career on the
management of welding. He is a member of the Board of Trustees for the AWS Foundation, estab-
lished the Jack R Barckhoff Welding Management Scholarship, which is awarded to college
students pursing a career in Welding Engineering, has received the AWS District Meritorious
Award; served as AWS Section Chair, and is a lifetime member of AWS. Jack studied Mechanical
Engineering and Business Administration at The Ohio State University.
Don L. Lynn, P.E. has over thirty years of diversified experience in all aspects of welding. His tech-
nical welding experience spans shipbuilding, nuclear, sheet metal, pressure vessel, piping, and power
generation in a variety of roles from engineering design and supervision to quality assurance. He
holds a B.S. Degree in Welding Engineering from The Ohio State University as well as a Masters
Degree in Business Administration from Northern Kentucky University. Don is an AWS Certified
Welding Engineer and a Certified Welding Inspector, and also holds a diploma in International
Welding Engineering. He is an active member of AWS, serving on several committees, and is also a
member of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers and the American Society of Metals. He has
written technical welding articles, has contributed to the AWS Welding Handbook Chapter Commit-
tees, and has served as a technical welding expert in litigation regarding welding issues. For the past
14 years Don has worked as a consultant and project manager for Barckhoff Welding Management.
Kenneth M. Kerluke, P. Eng. has over thirty years of broad welding industry experience in
manufacturing, fabrication, and quality assurance. Ken holds a Bachelors Degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the University of British Columbia as well as a Masters Degree in Welding Engi-
neering from the Cranfield Institute of Technology in the United Kingdom. Ken is a welding process
specialist with experience in all arc welding processes. He is an active member of AWS and the
Canadian Standards Association, and served on the technical committee for the CSA W59 Welded
Steel Construction. He has also served as Director of Technology Outreach Services for the Weld-
ing Institute of Canada, which was a national technology center in Canada, where he was responsi-
ble for the transfer of welding technology to Canadian companies. Ken has also provided training
and education services to the welding industry, conducted welding failure investigations, developed
welding procedures, provided technical consulting services, and presented expert reports in welding
related litigation. For the past 11 years Ken has served as a technical consultant and trainer for
Barckhoff Welding Management.
xiii
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Most companies have supervisors. They may be called team leaders or manag-
ers, but their role is the same. A supervisor provides workers their assignments,
makes sure they have the tools, materials, and training to do their work, pro-
vides support, and monitors them throughout their work shift. The result of
effective supervision is each worker is efficient and produces only quality
work. With effective supervision, production workers achieve higher levels of
productivity and quality.
Any training course for welding supervisors should address a welding super-
visors need both for technical and managerial training to develop the skills to
perform his job in the most professional manner. This leads to improved results
in both quality and productivity. This Certified Welding Supervisor Manual for
Quality and Productivity Improvement recognizes that the welding supervisor
has an important role in the operations of any company that does welding.
To fully understand and appreciate his role, the supervisor must first under-
stand some of the different management systems currently used by manufac-
turing companies.
1
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those systems that are most widely used and have the most impact on welding
operations.
1. Total Welding Management and Total Welding Management System are both copyrighted
(2005) by Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E. In this chapter and throughout this manual, the use of Total
Welding Management or TWM, and Total Welding Management System or TWMS refers to
copyrighted Total Welding Management System. Copyright laws protect any reference to this
system. Total Welding Management is also the title of a book written by Jack R. Barckhoff,
P.E., copyrighted and published by the American Welding Society (AWS). In this book, all of
the principles and concepts of Total Welding Management (TWM) are detailed.
2. The Barckhoff Welding Management System and the Barckhoff Method are both copy-
righted (1980) and have been Service marked by Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E. In this chapter and
throughout this manual, the use of Systems or The System refers to the Barckhoff Welding
Management System. The Method refers to the Barckhoff Method. Copyright law protects
any reference to Systems and Methods used.
2
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When it comes to training new personnel, the veterans conduct on the job
training that consists of both useful practices as well as the transfer of bad
habits. This training can perpetuate a pattern of performance that is similar to
the performance the company experienced in the past. With this management
system, it is difficult to make improvements, as most of the learning comes
from correcting mistakes of the past.
approach emphasize the need to be productive and to get out the shipments.
This can lead to a belief among manufacturing personnel that productivity and
output are more important than quality. Even if this is not true, the lack of a
management approach and supporting system that defines the needs of both
quality and productivity leaves the impression that getting out shipments is the
foremost concern of management.
Companies with this type of management system pose a challenge along with a
level of frustration to a new manufacturing supervisor. The challenge starts
when a new supervisor begins his duties. In most cases the supervisor he is
replacing or the manager he will be working for usually trains the new super-
visor. New supervisors, not exposed to a quality/productivity approach, learn
to focus primarily on making sure that parts are always available to meet
production schedules. New supervisors receive little formal training on how to
technically support their welders. As a result, many end up as glorified
expediters, spending the bulk of their time making sure that production is not
interrupted. They have very little day-to-day contact with their employees and
therefore have little impact on either the quality of the welds made or on
increasing the productivity of the welders.
3
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and design through production. When applied to welding, Lean would review
each welding operation with the goal of eliminating the steps that do not
contribute to making quality parts efficiently. Lean is a continuous improve-
ment process that never ends. After more than twenty years of dedicated effort,
Toyota acknowledges that they have only achieved about 1015% of their total
potential improvement.
4. Muda. Muda is the Japanese word for waste. In Lean Manufacturing, the
elimination of Muda is considered the highest principle. All activities,
training, analysis tools, controls, and management systems in Lean are
used to focus on improving everyones ability to eliminate waste. Waste in
Lean is defined as any non-value added step or process. In a Lean organiza-
4
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5. Pull. In Lean Manufacturing plant layouts, process flows and systems are
designed around the concept of pulling materials through the factory rather
than the traditional approach of pushing materials through based on a pro-
duction schedule. In traditional systems, detailed schedules for each
department and supplier are developed to support the production schedule.
With Pull, schedules for supporting departments are determined by the
demand of the final operation. Parts are replenished by both internal
departments and outside suppliers. Kanban, JIT, and other tools are used to
accomplish this. The Pull system supports the Lean concept of elimination
of waste, as nothing is produced until it is needed by the customer.
Single Piece FlowThis is the system that allows a company to cost effec-
tively build only parts when needed. It requires a great deal of focus on
manufacturing throughput, where quick change set ups will allow for eco-
nomical production runs of as little as one part. The focus is on eliminating
the waste of inventory and having production resources making parts that
are needed now.
5
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For welding supervisors there are several positive things that result from the
implementation of a Lean Manufacturing system. They include:
3. A welder inspecting his own work and not allowing defective parts to
move on helps define many of the inputs and outputs to and from the weld-
ing workstation.
6
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4. Scheduleset up a schedule to see that the first 3Ss sort, straighten, and
sweep are continued and do not become just one time events.
The result of the 5S approach is a neater, better organized, and more attractive
work area. This helps set the environment that leads to better productivity. The
5S approach to layout represents a series of steps that are applied to each spe-
cific area, such as a welding workstation. How the 5S principles are applied by
the welding supervisor with the welders depends on the knowledge and experi-
ence of both in building the best environment for the welder.
One of the drawbacks to using the 5Ss and other Lean principles in welding
operations is that many company and supervisory personnel have little techni-
cal training either in welding or in the Lean principles to effectively implement
them. Without specific training, attempts at Lean Manufacturing are likely to
fail. Lean is a general company-wide system for managing and improving all
processes. It does not specifically focus on any one manufacturing technology
such as welding.
The system of TQM grew out of the need to ensure quality in day-to-day man-
ufacturing. As pointed out in the No SystemSystem, quality is often ignored
in the day-to-day push to get product out the door.
TQM traces its origins to the 1960s when Japanese companies desired to
improve quality in order to compete in world markets. The Japanese started
their journey to quality by listening to W. Edwards Deming, an American
trained statistician and quality teacher. Deming was a pioneer in the field of
applying statistical approaches to measuring quality and designing techniques
for controlling processes and predicting when deviations were leading to out of
control conditions. These techniques are practiced today by many companies
in the U.S. as Statistical Process Control.
TQM begins with an understanding of what the customer wants, and then cre-
ates a quality system that will ensure that the customer receives the product
that fulfills his requirements. TQM does this by focusing on three goals:
7
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2. Quality of Conformance. Takes the design and any standards that are
needed, and puts in place the measurements and controls to ensure that the
specifications are met.
TQM achieves these goals through the quality assurance function in a com-
pany. They develop and implement the quality system to ensure the quality of
design, conformance, and performance. As part of the TQM system, reports of
the quality measures go to the Quality Department. This data provides facts for
the correction of deficiencies that occur during various production processes.
This feedback provides the opportunity for continuous improvement of
processes and quality.
In some companies, there is not a strong link between TQM and productivity.
This is often due to the perception that there are few opportunities to improve
both quality and productivity. This has been disproved, especially in welding.
As an example, the reduction in welding defects results in a marked savings in
welders time to make repairs. That time can then be used to make more pro-
duction welds, thus increasing productivity.
1. Marketing
2. Management
3. Product Design
4. Process Control
5. Production
6. Training
7. Quality Assurance
8
-- -
Use of incentives, such a gain sharing or other profit sharing, to reward all
employees for improved results.
The welding supervisor sees that a company that follows the TQM system
shows a definite focus on quality. A TQM company has the support of man-
agement and the rest of the organization to achieve and sustain the quality of
not only welding, but also of all the materials and parts that are used in welded
assemblies. The drawback of TQM for the welding supervisor is that it is not
welding specific. It only identifies the need to put in place measures, proce-
dures, and methods that will improve quality but does not provide the technical
detail required to achieve welding quality.
TQM does not include the technical specifics of the science of welding and
welding processing required to define what form the procedures and methods
should take or how specific values are determined. The supervisor also does
not see in TQM what training is necessary to raise the level of knowledge and
skill of the welders to meet the quality needs of the TQM system. Although
improved quality does help improve productivity, the TQM system itself does
not specifically address productivity in any meaningful way to aid the super-
visor in trying to increase productivity while improving quality. For companies
doing welding, TQM needs to be supplemented by a system, which is focused
on improving total welding operations so that higher levels of quality and pro-
ductivity can be achieved.
9
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The control system within TWM is designed to assure that all welding related
activities are carried out in a correct, safe, timely, and efficient manner, and
results in the production of cost effective quality products every time.
1. It combines the art, science, and technology of welding with tested and
proven management principles and includes the four critical organizational
functions, which impact welding (Four Critical Functions).
1. Total Welding Management and Total Welding Management System are both copyrighted
(2005) by Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E. In this chapter and throughout this manual, the use of Total
Welding Management or TWM, and Total Welding Management System or TWMS refers to
copyrighted Total Welding Management System. Copyright laws protect any reference to this
system. Total Welding Management is also the title of a book written by Jack R. Barckhoff,
P.E., copyrighted and published by the American Welding Society (AWS). In this book, all of
the principles and concepts of Total Welding Management (TWM) are detailed.
10
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1. Design Engineering
2. Manufacturing Engineering
4. Quality Assurance
2. Material Input
3. Equipment Performance
11
-- -
These Key Results Areas of Manufacturing Operations affect and are affected
by welding supervisors more than any others. The other Critical Functions also
have Key Results Areas related to achieving the Five Welding Dos.
3. Training
6. Reporting
These six managerial steps are used both to implement TWM and provide the
framework for the management system.
The Six Managerial Steps and the Five Welding Dos are used to evaluate
each of the Five Key Results Areas within each of the Four Critical Func-
tions to find opportunities for improving productivity and quality.
12
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- -
These Dos represent the five major goals that any welding company needs
to focus on to gain significant improvement in both welding quality and
productivity.
1. Reduce Weld Metal Volume. The intent of this goal is to eliminate waste
by reducing the volume of weld metal to the minimum necessary to be
consistent with the joint application and specification requirements.
Designers should minimize the volume of weld metal required and avoid
over-specifying weld sizes. Welders should not deposit welds larger than
required by the design specifications. Although this goal directly affects
arc time, it is considered separate from arc time because it is distinct from
weld process deposition rate.
2. Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment. This goal centers on the deposition rate
capabilities of the welding process and the welding technique used. The
specified volume of weld metal should be deposited in the least amount of
arc time.
5. Reduce Motion and Delay Time. This goal includes all time elements
associated with a welding operation except for arc time. The focus of this
goal is to minimize or eliminate all characteristics of work habits, methods,
environment, equipment, tooling, and the workplace, that tend to increase
time, produce excess motion or repeat time, or cause the welder delay time.
- -- -
13
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Key Results Areas make up the major portion of a Critical Functions responsi-
bility as related to welding. They are defined as follows:
Design Engineering
2. Weld Size Determination. Determining the proper size of weld for a spe-
cific type of joint and specific application.
3. Weld Joint Selection. Selecting and applying the appropriate type and
geometry of weld consistent with welding economics and quality.
Manufacturing Engineering
14
-- -
Manufacturing Operations
5. Work Center Control. Auditing and monitoring the welder, work meth-
ods, procedures, materials, equipment, and tooling in accordance to plan
and correcting variances.
Quality Assurance
15
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Step 1Information Gathering and Analysis. This step is used for col-
lecting, recording, and analyzing facts and information necessary to build
the foundation for the project. This step also provides the basis for evaluat-
ing the projects performance after its implementation. Personnel working
in this step must be knowledgeable in the operations surveyed and with the
resultant data.
Step 2Planning and Goal Setting. In this step, the total project is devel-
oped and the goals are established. Assignments are made and schedules
are determined. All necessary methods for insuring the development and
implementation of the program are established. The necessary control
methods for insuring maintenance of the implemented project and mea-
surement of project performance are also developed.
Step 3Training. In this step, all personnel who will control, use, or work
on the project are trained in the detail of their functional responsibility,
how the overall program works, what the goals are, and when the project is
to start.
Step 5Measurement and Control. This is the step that audits, monitors,
and collects data regarding project performance. Essential data must be
reported to insure the continuing success of the project.
Step 6Reporting. In this step, all measurements are analyzed for com-
parison to goals and the results reported to management and others respon-
sible for taking corrective actions. Timely feedback of critical information
is essential to reverse undesirable trends and avoid unwanted change.
Six Sigma. Six Sigma is a methodology and set of tools used to evaluate
processes for the purpose of reducing variation to reduce costs and improve
quality. The tools used by Six Sigma can be quite analytical and involved
and require specialized training.
16
-- -
Six Sigma tools can be used in both TQM and TWM systems to support
improvement programs. These tools can also be used with the No System
System but without a formal structure, results would be limited.
Table 1 will help highlight some of the strengths and weaknesses of the man-
agement systems reviewed. The characteristics included in the comparison
show how each system supports quality improvement, productivity improve-
ment, continuous improvement, and whether each system provides generalized
or detailed welding specific information for improvement.
- - -
- - -
- - - -
17
-- -
- A welding supervisor could work for a company using any one of the above
management systems. Only one has been found to provide the detailed techni-
cal and managerial information required to achieve lasting welding quality and
productivity improvement. For this reason, this manual is written using the
Total Welding Management System to prepare welding supervisors for their
very important role in manufacturing.
This does not mean that a welding supervisor who has learned the concepts and
principals of TWM will not be able to apply them in other environments. He
will find that this detailed technical and managerial knowledge will fit very
neatly with and enhance other systems of management. It will definitely
enhance the quality and productivity where there is no company manufacturing
system at all.
The most important knowledge that a welding supervisor should come away
with after having studied this manual is their new found ability to:
look at the situation that exists in their department and evaluate whether it
is the most appropriate way to perform the welding tasks, based on this
manual; if not to understand what actions need to occur to correct the
situation.
then take those things that should and can be changed, and have the confi-
dence and knowledge to effect change without fear or doubt.
evaluate the changes that have been made through monitoring of those
improvements to verify that they have achieved the desired result, and then
to continue to refine and improve upon the result.
In this manual, it will become clear that supervisors play a very important role
in any management system. This is true, especially in the Critical Function of
Manufacturing Operations and the Key Results Areas of Personnel Training
and Qualification, Material Input, Equipment Performance, Method and Proce-
dure Application and Work Center Control. Throughout the remainder of this
manual the welding supervisors role will be detailed along with the technical
information required to fulfill his important role in the quality and productivity
of his welding operations.
- The Lean Company, Making the Right Choices, James A. Jordon, Jr. and
Frederick J. Michel. 2001. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn,
Michigan.
18
-- -
4. In the workstation approach using 5S, which of the following are part of
that system?
A. Sort
B. Straighten
C. Schedule
D. Sustain
E. All of the above
5. The TQM System approach relies on which of the following to achieve the
goals of this system approach?
A. Quality of Effectiveness
B. Quality of Efficiency
19
-- -
C. Quality of Repair
D. Quality of Performance
E. Quality of Training
A. Use of incentives
B. Kanban
C. Improving customer satisfaction
D. A and C
E. Takt time
7. The TWM System approach which of the following is not one of the
5 Welding Dos Goals?
A. Reduce Nonconformance
B. Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment
C. Reduce Work Effort
D. Reduce Weld Metal Volume
E. Reduce Motion and Delay Time
8. For a welding supervisor which of the Key Results Areas are most
important?
20
-- -
-- 1. C
2. B
3. E
4. E
5. D
6. D
7. A
8. B
9. C
21
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-
___________________________________________________________________________________
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22
-
- These requirements need to be well thought out and properly documented for
shop use. Formulating these requirements into a welding workmanship stan-
dard along with weld sample boards and mock-ups is best way of doing this.
Quality cannot be a matter of opinion but should be defined by requirements
that mean the same to all those involved in welding operations. The quality
requirements should be both observable and measurable, and need to be effec-
tively communicated to the shop floor.
23
-
Weld mock-ups
Sample boards on the other hand, represent acceptable and unacceptable welds
from a visual inspection perspective. Company expectations in terms of weld
quality are effectively communicated with weld sample boards (see Figure
2.3). In essence, mock-ups and sample boards are the visual representations of
the welding workmanship standard.
Size
Length
Weld soundness
24
-
Mechanical properties
Leak tightness
25
-
Weld size and throat for flat, convex, and concave profile fillet welds are
shown in Figures 2.62.8.
26
-
How do welds fail? To understand how welds are sized we first need to know
how welds fail when overstressed. Which is the most likely failure plane for
the simple T-joint shown in Figure 2.10? Make a note of your answer. The
most likely plane of failure will become evident as you read the next few
pages.
The requirements of a weld are shown in Figure 2.11. Weld size determines the
strength of a weld. When a plate is loaded in tension as shown in Figure 2.12,
the load is transferred from one part to the next by the connecting welds.
Before the designer can correctly design the weld, he or she must first under-
stand how the joint will fail. Both the base metal and weld metal must be
designed to carry the intended loads.
27
-
-
---
-
--
28
-
- - -
For a fillet weld, failure will occur through the weld throat, which is the short-
est distance from the root of the weld to the weld face. The weld throat is, in
fact, the weakest part of the weld (see Figure 2.13). Hence, the answer to the
question posed for Figure 2.10 is the # 3 failure plane.
29
-
- -
- - -
30
-
When designing a fillet weld, the engineer works with weld throat but speci-
fies leg size in accordance with our standards. Similarly, when the shop deter-
mines the size of a weld by its leg size, it is really trying to ensure that the
weld throat is adequate. Caution must be exercised when measuring the size
of concave weld because the leg will not be representative of the throat (see
Figure 2.14).
- - -
A typical gage for measuring the size of a fillet weld is shown in Figure 2.15.
- -
Proper use of a fillet gage to measure the size of a weld is shown in Figures
2.16 and 2.17. Examples of the proper use of a weld gage are shown in Figure
2.18.
31
-
-
- -
- -
-
32
-
- -
-- - --
- --
- -
- - -
- -
- -- - --
--
- - - -
- -
33
-
Gaps between the base metals in a fillet welded connection present a special
problem. As shown in Figure 2.19, a gap can reduce the weld throat. This
reduction of weld throat lessens the load carrying capacity of the fillet weld.
- -
-
- - -
When the gap is 1/16 in. or greater the weld size must be increased by the
amount of gap (see Figure 2.20).
34
-
-
-
Excessive convexity can also lead to unnecessary extra costs. Welding posi-
tion, shielding gas, and other essential welding variables can affect the amount
of convexity (see Figure 2.23).
35
-
- -
- --
-- -- --
Continuous welds run from one end of a joint to the other end. Craters must be
filled to ensure that the weld throat is continuous for this length. Similarly for
an intermittent weld (or stitch weld, which is a nonstandard term), craters need
to be filled within the required weld length (see Figure 2.24).
36
-
The shape or profile of a weld is also important. Welds with sharp edges or
sharp changes in direction cause a concentration of stress at these points. Stress
concentrations will produce higher stresses, which can be undesirable (see
Figure 2.25).
- ---
--
---
--
37
-
-- --
Incomplete fusion is generally not acceptable (see Figures 2.32 and 2.33).
38
-
- -
--
- -
--
- -
- -
-- - -
- -
-- -
39
-
- -
40
-
Unless it is highly excessive, porosity usually has little effect on weld strength
(see the fractured tensile specimen shown in Figure 2.35). Because porosity
can obscure and hide other more serious defects on a radiograph, there is usu-
ally some limit on the amount allowed. Excessive porosity can also be an indi-
cation of something wrong with the welding process (lack of shielding) or that
the welding was performed on dirty materials.
41
-
- -
Cracks are never acceptable. They present a plane of separation with a sharp
stress concentration at the leading edge of the crack. Under stress the crack can
extend in length (see Figures 2.362.38). Refer to Chapter 7, Steel Metallurgy,
for more information on this subject.
- -
Arc strikes can leave small hard spots or even cracks on the surface of base
metals. Avoid arc strikes as much as possible (see Figures 2.42 and 2.43).
42
-
--
--
43
-
--
A work return (ground) clamp with inadequate clamping force can also leave
hard spots on the base metal surface due to arcing between the clamp and base
metal (see Figure 2.44).
To carry the required loads, the weld should be as strong and ductile as the
- base metal (see Figures 2.46 and 2.47).
For some materials such as aluminum the welding wire is selected to avoid
cracking.
44
-
- -
45
-
- -
- -
- --
- When materials such as stainless steels are used, corrosion resistance is usually
-- an important factor. Ensure that the weld is as good, if not better than, the base
metals. The correct filler metal needs to be specified to achieve this result.
46
-
Our previous discussion described many of the requirements that a weld may
have to meetbut how are these requirements actually achieved? Getting the
- job done right the first time and every time is not a simple matter. As you
review this program, it becomes evident that there are many facets to a man-
agement system which can achieve these kinds of results on a consistent basis.
Just a few of the important considerations are as follows:
Proper supervision
They provide the essential information (or recipe) to make a weld that
meets the productivity and quality requirements.
They list the seven essential welding variables that determine the produc-
tivity and quality of a deposited weld (see Figure 2.47).
-- -
-- -
47
-
They can be prequalified or be based on actual tests that prove whether the
productivity and quality requirements have been met. This information is
then documented in a Procedure Qualification Record (PQR).
Welds will be consistent when all welders follow the same procedure
(recipe).
-
- --
- - -
- -
48
-
---
- -
-- - -
- -
-
--
-
p -
-- p --
-- -
-
- -
-- - -
- -
o -- p -
49
-
- To obtain maximum benefit from this program it is recommended that you fol-
-- low this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises are
designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material pre-
sented. If you answer a question incorrectly, go back and read that section again.
3. True or False?
For a concave fillet weld you only need to measure the leg to determine
the weld size. True False
4. A T-joint has a 1/4 in. fillet weld called for on the print. If there is a gap of
1/8 in., what should the final weld size be?
A. 1/4 in.
B. 5/16 in.
C. 3/8 in.
D. 1/2 in.
5. If a 1/4 in. fillet weld is overwelded by 1/16 in. on both the horizontal and
vertical legs, by how much is the weld volume increased?
__________________________________________________________
50
-
6. If a welder deposits a 3/16 in. specified fillet weld with a 3/16 in. vertical
leg and a 1/4 in. horizontal leg, by how much is the weld volume and
arcing time increased?
__________________________________________________________
9. True or False?
10. Which of the following explains why a crack type defect can be more
dangerous than a slag type defect?
Arc strikes are so small they never have any effect on weld quality.
True False
51
-
-- 1. F
2. Size, length, profile and appearance, weld soundness, mechanical proper-
ties, leak tightness
3. False
4. C
5. 56%
6. 33%
7.
-
-
-
-
8. C
9. False
10. D
11. False
52
The numerous advantages of the SMAW process make it the preferred choice
for many welding applications. SMAW can deposit high quality welds with
relatively simple equipment. Successful application of SMAW requires that
the supervisor have a good understanding of the process variations and the
controlling essential variables. The focus of this chapter is SMAW applied to
mild steel.
Know how the essential variables affect bead shape, penetration, and
spatter
Set the essential variables for different electrodes and welding applications
-
-
-
--
53
The core of the electrode is a solid metal rod that conducts the electric current
to the arc and provides filler metal for the joint. The flux coating decomposes
to provide ingredients that stabilize the arc and gases that shield the molten
weld metal from the atmosphere. The flux coating may also contain additional
weld metal additives such as iron powder.
A typical electric circuit for the SMAW process is shown in Figure 3.2. Weld-
ing current flows when an electric arc is struck between the end of the elec-
trode and the work. Current then flows from the power source to the arc
through the welding lead or cable and back to the power source through the
work return lead.
--
SMAW is one of the most widely used processes, particularly for maintenance
and repair work and in field construction. Compared with other welding
processes, SMAW has the following advantages:
Less sensitive to wind and drafts than gas shielded processes, and therefore
is ideal for outdoor applications
54
--
Welding travel speeds and productivity are much lower (see Figure 3.3).
- -
55
- -
- Electrodes for the SMAW process have a solid metal core rod with a flux
coating (see Figure 3.5). These electrodes are available in sizes ranging from
3/32 in. (2.5 mm) to 1/4 in. (6.0 mm) or larger (see Figure 3.6).
- -
1. The flux is broken down by the heat of the arc to produce shielding gases
that protect the molten weld metal from contamination.
2. Melted flux forms a slag that chemically reacts with the molten weld metal.
This reaction helps to purify the weld metal by reducing the oxygen
content as well as minimizing the effect of contaminates from the base
metal surface.
56
-
--
--
- - -
4. The flux coating may contain additional weld metal additives, such as iron
powder, which increases the deposition rate of the electrode.
Size
Mechanical properties
Chemical composition
Type of coating
Welding position
57
- -
--
-
-
-
-
-
--
--
- -
- -- -
The flux thickness depends on the type of electrode coating (see Figure 3.9).
--
58
- - -
-
- EX0X0
EX0X1
Because the hydrogen produced by these electrodes can cause cracking, cellu-
losic electrodes should not be used for any applications that require thicker car-
bon steels or alloy steels of any thickness.
- -
- -
-
--
--
-
--
-
EX0X2
EX0X3
EX0X4
Rutile electrodes have either a 2, 3, or 4 as the last digit. The rutile coating
produces a heavy, fast-freezing slag that makes this electrode easy to use in all
positions. The E6013 electrode is useful for sheet material because of its low
penetration characteristics. The E7014 electrode version has a higher iron
powder content for faster welding.
59
- -
--
--
-
--
-
EX0X5
EX0X6
EX0X8
Low hydrogen, or basic, electrodes have either a 5, 6, or 8 as the last digit. The
coating of these electrodes contains a large amount of lime or calcium carbon-
ate. When properly stored, this type of coating gives off relatively little hydro-
gen and is therefore resistant to hydrogen cracking. Low hydrogen electrodes
are not as penetrating as the cellulosic electrodes, and produce less carbon
dioxide to shield the weld pool. As a result, they must be used with a short arc
length to avoid porosity.
- -
--
--
-
--
NOTE: Because low hydrogen electrodes can absorb water, they are
packed in moisture resistant containers. Once removed from the container
they should be stored in a heated oven (250F min) or used within 4 hours
(see Figure 3.10).
60
-
EX024
EX027
EX028
The coating of these electrodes is a high iron powder version of rutile, mineral,
and low hydrogen type coatings. The iron powder content of the coating is
about 50% of the weight and provides a high deposition rate for fast welding
speeds. The number 2 as the second to last digit indicates that iron powder
electrodes are used for flat groove and horizontal fillet welds only. AC polarity
provides the highest travel speeds and best operating characteristics, particu-
larly on larger diameter electrodes.
- -
-- - -
--
-
-- - -
A comparison of the AWS system with other classification systems that use
metric units is shown in Table 3.1.
61
--
- --
-- --
The welding power source is typically either a transformer-rectifier or an
engine-driven generator (see Figure 3.11). Engine-driven generators use either
a gasoline or diesel engine.
-
- -
62
The polarity and welding amperage are set at the welding power source. A
typical control panel of a welding power source is shown in Figure 3.12.
Electrode holders are available in a range of sizes and capacities, and should be
selected for the maximum amperage to be used. This equipment should be
properly maintained and used only for its intended application.
Welding cables are available in a variety of sizes to suit the amperage and
cable length (see Figure 3.14).
63
Cable connectors are used to connect the cables to the power source or to
connect lengths of welding lead together (see Figure 3.15). Ensure that all con-
nectors are clean and correctly sized for the cables that they connect.
64
- -
65
--
-- -
Know how the essential variables affect bead shape, penetration, and spatter
Be able to set the essential variables for different electrodes and welding
applications.
66
- -
- - - - -
-
Current type and polarity for different electrodes are shown in Table 3.4.
- -- -
--
o
o
o
o
67
Correct amperage settings are critical to the welder who wants to make sound
welds. Arc starting, penetration, bead appearance, and spatter are all affected
- -
- - -
The effect of incorrect amperage settings are shown in Figure 3.19. Too low an
amperage setting produces a narrow, cold-looking weld. Too high an amperage
setting produces excessive spatter.
- - -
68
The correct amperage range depends on the electrode size and type of coating
(see Table 3.5).
- - -
Arc length determines the voltage across the arc (see Figure 3.20).
-
-
- -
- --
Too long an arc can cause spatter, undercut, and porosity. Electrodes such as
E7018 are designed to operate with a short arc length; E6010 electrodes are
designed to operate with a longer arc. Generally, arc length should be less than
the diameter of the electrode.
69
Travel speed affects the amount of filler metal deposited per inch of weld. A
speed that is too slow deposits excessive weld metal; a speed that is too fast
deposits too small a bead (see Figure 3.22).
--
- -
Although the bead-on-plate results in Figure 3.23 show that slower travel
speeds result in greater penetration, this is not the case when the weld pool is
allowed to build in depth. Using too slow a travel speed when making a groove
weld or a fillet weld typically results in undercut and lack of penetration (see
Figure 3.24).
70
- -
- -
- -- -
-
- - --
--
71
The electrode forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane that is parallel to
the direction of travel. This angle is called the travel angle, which can be a
push or drag angle (see Figure 3.25).
With the SMAW process, use a drag angle to keep the slag back from running
in front of the weld pool (see Figure 3.26).
- pp
72
--
- --
The position of the electrode in the joint is an important factor that determines
the quality of the weld. Examine the edges of the weld pool and position the
electrode so that the weld is centered on the joint (see Figure 3.28).
73
- -
- --
- - -
- - --
- - -
- -
-
- - -
-- --- -
- -- -
-
- -- - -
-
- - --
- -
- - -
--- -
- - - -
-
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-- - -
Remember the seven essential welding variables. They are the key to making
quality welds with the SMAW process (refer to Figure 3.29).
74
--
-
-- -
-- -
Once the equipment is properly set up and the correct polarity is selected, the
welder should adjust the amperage control and make the initial settings for:
type of electrode, size of electrode, and position of welding (see Figure 3.30).
Once the arc is struck, additional adjustments may be necessary to obtain optimum
conditions. Do not set up on the work. Use scrap material to test the arc conditions.
75
-
-
NOTE: Do not set up on the work. Use scrap material first to test the arc
conditions.
Since an air gap will not conduct electricity, the arc is formed by quickly strik-
ing the work and pulling the electrode back about 1/8 in. This action creates
enough heat to get the arc started (see Figure 3.30).
Once the arc is struck, additional amperage control adjustments may be neces-
sary to obtain optimum conditions. Typical amperage ranges were listed previ-
ously (see Table 3.5)
The coating of E7018 type electrodes burns back at a slower rate than the metal
core, which forms a cup at the end of the electrode (see Figure 3.31). Because
this type of electrode has a thicker coating, it is more difficult to reignite after the
first start. As a result, these electrodes must be scratched or tapped fairly hard.
76
Once the arc is struck, do not move the electrode over the work. Hold the elec-
trode at the starting point until the weld pool begins to form. When the weld
pool reaches the correct size (approximately 1.5 times the diameter of the elec-
trode), move the electrode at a uniform speed. Control the travel speed by com-
paring the weld size with the electrode diameter (see Figure 3.32).
pp
77
-- -
For each electrode size there is a maximum fillet size that can be deposited (see
Table 3.7). As the weld size increases, higher amperage is needed to ensure
fusion to the root, therefore, a larger electrode size is required. Making too
large a weld with a given electrode size results in the welding arc staying on
top of the pool, rather than penetrating to the root.
--
--
-
If a weld cools too quickly it can crack. For a given plate thickness a small
weld cools faster than a large weld (see Figure 3.34).
It is good practice to deposit a minimum fillet size in a single pass. Table 3.8
gives the requirements used in structural welding codes.
To avoid trapping slag in the weld, always remove the slag between welding
passes. Slag must also be removed after the last pass to allow proper inspection
of the completed weld (see Figure 3.35).
78
--
- --
--
--
79
Solution
Use a larger electrode
Increase amperage
Use a slower travel speed
Problem
Amperage too high
Arc length too long
Erratic travel speed or electrode manipulation
Travel speed too slow
Solution
Reduce amperage
Shorten arc length
Keep travel speed and electrode manipulation smooth
Increase travel speed
Problem
Amperage too high
Arc length too long
Solution
Reduce amperage
Shorten arc length
Problem
Contaminated base metal
Improper shielding from excessive arc length
Solution
Clean base metal of rust, oils or grease
Shorten arc length
Keep travel speed smooth
80
Problem
Electrode size too small for size of weld
Amperage too low
Travel speed too slow; arc is not at the front of the weld pool
Solution
Use a larger diameter electrode
Increase amperage
Increase travel speed
- To obtain maximum benefit from this program, it is recommended that you fol-
-- low this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises
are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material
presented. If you get a question wrong go back and read that section again.
81
10. What is the maximum length of time E7018 electrodes should be left out
of the rod oven once the packaging container is opened?
A. 1 hour
B. 2 hours
C. 4 hours
D. 8 hours
E. 6 hours
82
13. Which of the following electrodes would make the fastest 1/4 in. fillet
weld?
A. E7018
B. E6010
C. E7014
D. E7028
14. Which of the following electrodes has the greatest resistance to hydrogen
cracking?
A. E7018
B. E6010
C. E7014
D. E6013
17. For a 400 amp power source, what size welding cables should be used for
250 ft of cable?
A. 3
B. 1/0
C. 4/0
D. 1
83
20. List the seven essential welding variables for the SMAW process:
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
21. Which three of the above variables have the greatest effect on weld
penetration?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
22. What is the amperage range for a 1/8 diameter E7018 electrode?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
84
24. What is the largest fillet weld that can be deposited with a 1/8 in. E7018
electrode in one pass in the horizontal position?
A. 3/16 in.
B. 1/4 in.
C. 5/16 in.
D. 3/8 in.
25. What are the effects of setting the amperage too high?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
26. What are the effects of setting the amperage too low?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
85
86
- -
The Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process has numerous advantages
that make it the preferred choice for many welding applications. GMAW
can deposit welds with high productivity and good quality. However, it is one
of the more challenging processes to apply, because it has four different
process variations that must be correctly selected and set up for the job in
hand. Successful application of GMAW demands on a relatively high level
of knowledge from those who utilize it. The GMAW welder must have a
good understanding of the process variations and the controlling essential
variables.
After successfully completing this chapter the supervisor should be able to:
-
List the advantages and limitations of the GMAW process
Understand the four modes of metal transfer and how each is applied
Know the difference between base metal melting and wire melting, and
how each is controlled
Understand the relationship between wire feed speed, voltage, and arc
length
Use the eight essential welding variables to control weld productivity and
quality
- - GMAW is a welding process that uses an electric arc to generate the heat
for welding. The electric arc is maintained between a consumable wire
electrode and the work. The wire electrode is fed continuously into the weld
pool and becomes the weld deposit as the wire is burned off. The welding
power source provides arc stability so that the rate of burnoff matches the
rate of wire feed. A gaseous shield provided by a stream of gas delivered
through the welding gun protects the electrode and molten weld pool (see
Figure 4.1).
87
- -
--
Advantages of GMAW
88
- -
--
- -
89
- -
- - ---
- -
-
- -- --
-
---
90
- -
Disadvantages of GMAW
Requires more control of the essential welding variables than other weld-
ing processesGMAW typically has a narrower range of parameters that
deposit acceptable welds than FCAW (see Figure 4.7).
Has potential for lack of fusion when the process is not properly applied
(see Figure 4.8).
-
-
-
-
- -
91
- -
The use of a shielding gas, which can be blown away by drafts (see
Figure 4.11)
92
- -
-
-
- - - ---
93
- -
- The GMAW process supports four different modes of metal transfer: short-
- circuiting, globular, spray, and dip-spray when utilizing a shielding gas with a
high percentage of argon. Dip-spray is a nonstandard term and is used in this
program to explain a mode that is above the transition wire feed speed (WFS)
but has insufficient voltage to be in a true spray mode. With 100% CO2 shield-
ing gas only the short-circuiting and globular modes are possible. The voltage
and WFS determine the mode of metal transfer as shown in Figures 4.13 and
4.14.
- -
- -
94
- -
Metal transfer occurs only when the electrode touches or dips in to the
weld poola short circuit occurs (no arc) and the current goes to a high
value to pinch off the molten droplet
95
- -
Occurs in the low WFS, high-voltage range with high argon shielding
gases
Occur at higher WFSs with high CO2 content in the shielding gas (does not
spray with >20% CO2 )
Metal transfer occurs with large droplets (typically larger than the wire
diameter) and can be seen visually
Characterized by a stream of fine droplets (not visible) that are smaller than
the wire diameter
Spatter is minimal
96
- -
Metal transfer occurs with smaller droplets, but the short arc length
allows some short circuiting, which results in higher spatter levels than
with spray
The change from short circuiting to spray or dip spray occurs over a
small range of welding current, or transition current. This value is important,
because it allows the welder to quickly set the mode of metal transfer (see
Figure 4.21).
- Each mode of metal transfer has characteristics that make it ideal for particular
applications. Short-circuiting provides the lowest level of heat, which makes it
ideal for thin materials. On the other hand, spray transfer is very hot and works
best on thicker materials (see Figure 4.22).
97
- -
- -
98
- -
Typical applications for each mode of transfer are shown in Figure 4.23.
--
- - -
99
- -
-
-
An important characteristic of the GMAW process is that arc heating is not the
only type of heating that occurs. Because a high current flows through the elec-
trode extension, the electrode becomes very hot due to resistance heating
effects. This electrode extension is sometimes referred to as the electrical
stickout (ESO) (see Figures 4.26 and 4.27). For practical welding applications
the contact tube to work distance (CTTWD) is most often stipulated, because it
is an easier dimension to measure.
Total heating and melting of the wire results from both resistance heating and
arc heating (see Figure 4.28).
100
- -
--
- -
-
-
- -
- -
-
- -
--
101
- -
As shown in Figure 4.29, the levels of resistance heating and arc heating are
determined from experimental analysis. In many GMAW situations, resistance
heating actually melts more of the wire than arc heating.
--
- -
--
Longer CTTWDs will reduce the welding amperage since resistance heating
effects are increased. If the WFS is set to a particular value, the resulting
amperage depends on the electrode CTTWD as shown in Figure 4.30.
Compared to large diameter wires, small diameter wires provide a higher resis-
tance heating component, which results in a lower welding amperage. Figure
4.31 shows that for the same deposit area, a larger diameter electrode produces
a greater fused area.
102
- -
- -
103
- -
When a welder sets the wire feed speed, the welding power source provides a
specific amperage to burn off the wire. For a stable arc, the wire burnoff rate
must match the wire feed speed (see Figure 4.32).
-
-
A constant voltage (CV) power source provides this stability, because the
amperage automatically adjusts to give a stable arc (see Figure 4.33).
--
-
The arc length is determined by the WFS set at the wire feeder and the voltage
set at the power source (see Figure 4.34).
104
- -
-- The GMAW process is controlled by eight essential welding variables that are
- set by the welder (see Figure 4.36). The GMAW essential welding variables
control welding speed, bead appearance, penetration, and spatter. Knowledge
and control of these variables are important to consistently achieve high
productivity rates and quality welds.
105
- -
--
-- -
Understand how the essential welding variables affect the mode of metal
transfer
Know how to set the essential welding variables for different welding
applications
Understand how the essential welding variables affect bead shape, pene-
tration, and spatter
106
- -
As discussed earlier in this chapter, wire feed speed (WFS) and voltage are
used to set the transfer mode. The transfer mode is set either above or below
the transition WFS. Thicker materials require a spray type metal transfer and
thinner materials require a short circuiting type transfer. Globular transfer is
not often used because of high spatter levels (see Figure 4.37).
- -
Typical transition WFSs are shown in Table 4.1. The importance of increasing
wire diameter with material thickness is also demonstrated here. When in spray
transfer, the larger wire ensures a higher current level.
- -
- - -
- -
Two types of heating that occur in GMAW are arc heating and resistance heat-
ing, both of which depend on the welding current. Welding current provides
heat to melt both the wire and the base metal (see Figure 4.38).
107
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-- -
-
-
-
--
- -
- -
-
- -
108
- -
- -
-
109
- -
- -
--
Increasing WFS increases penetration (arc heating) and fill as shown in Figure
4.43.
- -
- -
110
- -
WFS has a primary effect on travel speed, and travel speed significantly affects
welding productivity; therefore, selecting and maintaining the WFS is impor-
tant to the GMAW process. Figure 4.44 shows the effect of increasing the
WFS for a 1/4 in. (6 mm) fillet weld. The travel speed increase is proportional
to the wire feed speed increase.
111
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-
-- -
-- - -- -
-
- - -
- - --
--
The voltage at the power source, or machine voltage, is the voltage that the
welder reads and sets. The voltage at the arc, or arc voltage, is less depending
on the voltage drop between the power source and arc. Although cable size and
length have some effect, these voltages go up and down proportionately; there-
fore, for this discussion the effect of voltage is the same.
Voltage controls arc length. Increasing the voltage increases the arc length and
arc width (see Figure 4.45).
- --
112
- -
Voltage determines the amount of radiated heat, which in turn, provides a sur-
face heating effect (see Figure 4.46). Bead width and arc length also increases,
caused by an increasing voltage (see Figure 4.47).
-
- -
-
-
Voltage has a major effect on heat input to the plate surface. Voltage also
affects the amount of radiated heat, therefore, longer arcs seem much hotter to
the welder. Voltage also has a significant effect on shape and undercut (see
Figure 4.48).
113
- -
NOTE: A longer arc is also wider, which makes it more likely to cause
undercut in a fillet weld.
114
- -
Once the correct arc length is set for a given weld, it should be kept constant
even when the WFS is increased or decreased. As shown in Figure 4.50, it
is necessary to change voltage along with WFS to maintain a constant arc
length.
-
- -
- -
-
Voltage plays a major role on the amount of spatter produced. The effect of
voltage on short-circuiting conditions is shown in Figure 4.51. To low a volt-
age causes stubbing and too high a voltage puts the metal transfer in globular
mode. Both situations cause excessive spatter. At the optimum voltage, spatter
is minimal and the arc has a distinctive frying bacon sound that results from
the high short circuit frequency. Short circuit frequency is the number of short
circuits that occur per second.
115
- -
-
-
For spray arc welding, voltage determines whether we are working in the
true spray or dip-spray region. Associated spatter levels are shown in Figure
4.52.
- -
-
--
-
116
- -
Figure 4.53 shows that voltage plays a major role in controlling spatter levels
for all types of metal transfer. However, to control bead shape or undercut,
spatter may be unavoidable in some situations.
-
- -
- -
Travel speed has a major effect on welding productivity. The faster the
speed, the less time it takes to make a weld. Most welders never measure
their travel speeds, because they generally have a good feel for how slow
or fast the travel speed is. It is difficult to manually travel above 30 ipm in
the horizontal position. Examples of travel speed ranges are shown in Figure
4.54.
117
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-
- -
- - - - -
-- -- - -
More filler metal is applied per inch, which results in a larger weld
--
- -
- -
Bead-on-plate welds are generally not made, and when the puddle is allowed to
build up in a groove or fillet weld, penetration can be significantly decreased
when welding speed is too slow (see Figure 4.56).
Avoid weaving with the GMAW process. A good rule of thumb is to never
make a bead in a groove weld larger than that of an equivalent 5/16 in. (8 mm)
fillet weld for 0.045 in. (1.2 mm) diameter wire (see Figure 4.57).
118
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- - -
- -
- -- -
--
- - - --
--
119
- -
NOTE: Stringer beads are preferred over weaving beads because they
require less skill and promote a higher travel speed. With weaving, the
potential to get lack of fusion is much higher and with the slower travel
speed there is a tendency to get more oversized welds. Refer to the wire
position later in this chapter.
Throughout most of the welding circuit, heavy copper cables are used to carry
the welding current, which can be as high as 500 amps in GMAW. However,
once past the contact tube, the current is forced to flow through a small steel
wire, which is a poor conductor of electricity. This extension of the wire elec-
trode becomes very hot and, in effect, becomes preheated before it reaches the
arc. The extension of the wire past the contact tip is the electrical stickout (see
Figure 4.58). The CTTWD is the electrical stickout plus the arc length (see
Figure 4.59).
When a WFS setting is made, the melting heat is a combination of both arc
heating and resistance heating: wire melting = melting from resistance heating
+ melting from arc heating (see Figure 4.60).
120
- -
- -
--
--
When the CTTWD is changed, the ratio of arc heating to resistance heating is
also changed. With small diameter wires and long CTTWD, high resistance
heating of the electrode extension can cause burnoff of the wire, even when the
amperage is relatively low.
121
- -
-
-
-
- --
As the wire CTTWD is increased, less current is needed to melt the wire,
because there is more preheat from the electrode extension. Less current
means less heat into the work and, therefore, less penetration. The opposite
occurs when the CTTWD is reduced in length. It is important to keep the
CTTWD constant at the correct value. Some typical settings are shown in
Table 4.3.
The setting of the contact tube relative to the shielding gas cup has an effect on
the electrical stickout and should be set according to the mode of metal transfer
and welding parameters used (see Figure 4.62).
122
- -
o
- -
The wire forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane parallel to the direction
of travel, which is the travel angle. The travel angle has a significant effect on
the weld bead, in terms of a push or a drag. The effect of travel angle on
bead shape and penetration is shown in Figure 4.63.
123
- -
- -
--
--
With the GMAW process, a slight push angle is used to provide a flatter bead
shape as shown in Figure 4.65. On heavier materials, a drag angle is used to
enhance penetration.
An excessive push angle reduces penetration and increases spatter (see Figure
4.66).
--
The wire forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane perpendicular to the to
the direction of travel, which is the transverse angle. This angle affects bead
shape, penetration, and undercut (see Figure 4.67).
124
- -
- - -
-
-- -
-
pp
--
125
- -
The position of the wire in the joint is an important factor in making a quality
weld. Even if all the other operating variables are correctly set, incorrect wire
position in the joint results in poor quality welds (see Figure 4.68).
- -
-
-
With manual and semiautomatic applications, the welder positions the wire so
that the weld pool is in the right location and the exact position of the wire is
not a concern (see Figure 4.69).
With mechanized or automated welding, the welder must position the wire in
the correct location before starting. For a horizontal fillet weld, a slight offset
is often used to obtain an equal leg fillet weld (see Figure 4.70).
126
- -
-
--
For circumferential joints under rotation, the position of the wire relative to top
dead center has a major effect on bead shape (see Figure 4.71).
-
-
-
- -
127
- -
- -
- - - -
- - --
-
-
-
- - -
-
-
-
-
-
- - -
- --
- -
- -
-
The inductance setting controls spatter and bead appearance in the short-
circuiting mode of metal transfer. In this type of metal transfer, the arc cycles
on and off for specific periods of time as shown in Figure 4.72. The inductance
setting is an electrical feature of the equipment that can change the shape of
this current vs. time curve.
128
- -
-- --
-
-
- -
129
- -
current and spatter when the arc reignites. Increasing the inductance also
increases the arc-on time which tends to give a smoother bead. Note that not all
GMAW equipment has an inductance control but most GMAW power sources
can be operated in the short-circuiting mode of metal transfer.
Remember the eight essential welding variables. They are the key to productiv-
-- ity and quality in GMAW (see Figure 4.74).
-
--
-
-
-- -
130
- -
- -
--
-
131
- -
Comment: This is one of the most authoritative works available on the short-
circuiting mode of metal transfer.
3. Control of Melting Rate and Metal Transfer in Gas Shielded Arc Welding,
Part I and Part II. A. Lesnewich. AWS Welding Journal, August and
September, 1958
Comment: These two papers are considered classics in the field of welding
research. These papers provide the first real understanding of how the pro-
cess works in a highly quantitative approach. They are a treasure of infor-
mation on the GMAW process.
-- To obtain maximum benefit from this program it is recommended that you fol-
low this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises
are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material
presented. If you get a question wrong go back and read that section again.
132
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4. Which of the following produces the highest heat input and penetration?
A. Spray transfer
B. Dip-spray transfer
C. Globular transfer
D. Short-circuiting transfer
E. High voltages and low wire feed speed
7. True or False?
A larger diameter wire will generally produce better penetration charac-
teristics than a smaller diameter wire. True False
8. What are the main problems when using GMAW on hot rolled steel?
__________________________________________________________
(1) ________________________________________________________
(2) ________________________________________________________
(3) ________________________________________________________
133
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(4) ________________________________________________________
(5) ________________________________________________________
(6) ________________________________________________________
(7) ________________________________________________________
(8) ________________________________________________________
10. For a given wire diameter, which of the following determines the welding
amperage in GMAW?
A. Type of wire
B. Shielding gas
C. Wire feed speed (WFS)
D. Travel angle
E. Wire feed speed and contact tip to work distance
13. Which of the following should change if your Wire Feed Speed (WFS) is
too low and your arc is too long?
A. Increase voltage setting
B. Lower WFS only
C. Increase WFS and lower voltage
D. Lower WFS and increase voltage
E. Increase CTTWD
134
- -
14. In the semiautomatic mode of GMAW, if you want to obtain spray trans-
fer with an Argon-CO2 shielding gas mixture, what should be the maxi-
mum CO2 content?
A. 8%
B. 15%
C. 20%
D. 25%
E. 30%
You can maximize your current when welding by increasing the contact
tip-to-work distance. True False
16. How you would adjust the voltage for reducing excessive spatter in each
of the following cases?
17. When welding with GMAW, you should adjust your travel speed so that:
18. Give three reasons for undercut occurring in a weld on cold rolled steel.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
19. If you are making a fillet weld and you want to increase the travel speed
by 30%, which welding variables do you need to adjust and how do you
need to adjust them?
135
- -
-- 1. C
2. E
3. C
4. A
5. A
6. D
7. True
8. Spatter, poor bead shape, possible porosity
9. (1) WFS
(2) Voltage
(3) Travel Speed
(4) Contact tip to work distance
(5) Travel angle
(6) Transverse angle
(7) Wire position
(8) Inductance
10. E
11. E
12. E
13. C
14. C
15. False
16. Short-circuitingturn down; Sprayturn up
17. D
18. Voltage too high, travel speed too slow, travel speed erratic
19. Turn WFS up 30% and turn voltage up to maintain same arc length
136
-
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) has numerous advantages that make it the
preferred welding process for many applications. In the past, utilization of the
process was impeded by consumables that deposited welds with properties that
were inferior to other welding processes. However, in recent years consumable
manufacturers have made significant improvements in both weld metal and
diffusible hydrogen propertiesto the point that FCAW is now considered
equivalent in these respects to other welding processes.
To obtain the benefits of FCAW, welders must understand the process and its
correct application. The FCAW welder must have a good understanding of the
process variables and how to control them. Therefore, the main purpose of this
training program is to enhance the welding skills of those who use the process.
Both the gas-shielded and self-shielded versions are included in this chapter.
After successfully completing this chapter the supervisor should be able to:
-
List the advantages and limitations of the FCAW process
Use the seven essential welding variables to control weld productivity and
quality
Understand the relationship between wire feed speed, voltage, and arc
length
- FCAW is a welding process that uses an electric arc to generate the heat for
welding. The electric arc is maintained between a consumable wire electrode
and the work. The electrode is a tubular wire filled with a powdered flux. The
wire electrode is fed continuously into the weld pool and becomes the weld
deposit as the wire is burned off. The welding power source provides arc
137
-
stability so that the rate of burn-off matches the rate of wire feed. The process
can be used with or without external gas shielding.
- -
-
-
- --
138
-
-
-
--
FCAW has high productivity compared to the SMAW process. FCAW has
similar welding productivity to GMAW and as shown in Figures 5.3 and
5.4 has a much higher deposition rate than SMAW.
- -
-- ---
- - -
139
-
- -
With gas shielding, FCAW is less sensitive to changes in the operating vari-
ables than other welding processes. FCAW typically has a broader range of
parameters that deposit acceptable welds than with GMAW. Lack of fusion
is a problem that can occur with GMAW when the process is not properly
applied. Because FCAW does not change the mode of metal transfer over
a large current range, it is less sensitive to this problem. The process also
provides a broader penetration profile than GMAW, which enhances the
penetration characteristics of FCAW. Refer to Figures 5.55.7.
FCAW has good deposition efficiency. For example, 85% or more of each
pound of wire becomes deposited weld metal as opposed to SMAW, where
only about 60% is deposited (see Figure 5.9).
FCAW handles mill scale much better than GMAW. The slag formed dur-
ing FCAW helps to form a smooth bead with minimal spatter, even with
heavier mill scale. This makes the process ideal for thicker materials (see
Figure 5.10).
140
-
-
- - -
-
-
141
-
NOTE: With FCAW, the metal transfer occurs from the periphery of the
wire, which provides a broader penetration profile than GMAW.
- -
142
-
--
143
-
- -
- -
-
---
144
-
Air drafts can disturb the shielding gas and cause porosity when using the
gas- shielded version of FCAW (see Figure 5.14).
Understand how the process melts the base metal and wire differently.
The FCAW process uses a continuous tubular electrode of mild steel and a flux
- core mixture of various powdered ingredients (see Figure 5.15).
145
-
-
-
--
-
- -
-
--
- -
- -
Different methods are used for joining the tube edges. The butt, overlap, and
folded seams are shown in Figure 5.17. A macrosection of five different types
of 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) diameter wires commonly used in industry is shown in
Figure 5.18.
146
-
- - -
-
-
- - -
-- Filler metals for FCAW of carbon steels are classified according to their
- operating characteristics and mechanical properties (see Figure 5.19).
- -
--
- --
147
-
In the U.S., AWS A5.20, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux
Cored Arc Welding, covers FCAW filler metals. The classification system is
shown in Figure 5.20.
- --
-
- - -
-
--
--
- - -
--
- -
- -
-- -
Typically, electrode diameters for the gas-shielded process are classified as all-
position wires for diameters 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and less (see Figure 5.21).
148
-
--
- --
- -
The practical result is that the wire diameter used should increase with the
material thickness as shown in Figure 5.23.
149
-
--
- --
-
- --
A variety of shielding gases are available for the FCAW process, therefore, it
-- is important to make the correct gas selection for a particular application.
The most important function of the shielding gas is to protect the transferred
molten droplets and weld pool from contamination with air (see Figure 5.24).
150
-
- - -
One method commonly used with self-shielded wires is to add aluminum to the
weld pool (see Figure 5.26). Aluminum reacts preferentially with contaminants
to eliminate porosity. The amount of aluminum transferred across the arc
depends on the voltage. Too high a voltage burns off most of the aluminum
before it reaches the weld pool.
-
- -
For gas-shielded FCAW, the carbon dioxide (CO2) content of the shielding gas
has a major effect on penetration and fusion characteristics. As shown in
Figure 5.27, 100% CO2 provides a better penetration profile than an Ar-CO2
mixture, which ensures better side-wall fusion.
151
-
- -
- -
-
-
The CO2 content also has an effect on the amount of fume. Shielding gases
higher in argon content produce less fume (see Figure 5.28).
-
-
-
-- --
152
-
- -
- -
- -
-- -
- -
An electric light bulb circuit is much like a welding circuit, because electricity
- from a battery or power source is used to generate heat and light (see Figure
5.30).
153
-
- - -
An important characteristic of the FCAW process is that arc heating is not the
only type of heating that occurs. A high current flows through the electrode
extension, which becomes very hot due to resistance heating effects (see
Figures 5.32 and 5.33).
--
- -
-
-
-- -
154
-
- -
Total heating and melting of the electrode results from both resistance heating
and arc heating (see Figure 5.34).
- -
-
- -
--
Increasing amperage
With gas-shielded FCAW, the deposition rate (wire melting) does not depend
significantly on the electrode type or manufacturer for the commonly used
E7XT-1 and E7XT-9 classifications. However, for self-shielding FCAW,
the electrode type has a major impact on the deposition rate. Even electrodes
of the same classification can have different deposition rate characteristics.
Therefore, careful selection of these types of electrodes is necessary to ensure
optimum welding productivity (see Figure 5.36).
155
-
--
-
- - -
-
156
-
-- The FCAW process is controlled by seven essential welding variables that are
- set by the welder (see Figure 5.37).
--
-- -
The FCAW essential welding variables control welding speed, bead appear-
ance, penetration, and spatter. These essential variables are the key settings
that make a weld what it is. A welders knowledge and control of these vari-
ables are important to consistently achieve high productivity rates and quality
welds.
157
-
Understand how the essential welding variables affect weld quality and
productivity
Know how to set the essential welding variables for different welding
applications
Understand how the essential welding variables affect bead shape, penetra-
tion and spatter
Welding current provides heat to melt the electrode and base metal. Increasing
welding current increases both arc heating and resistance heating (see Figure
5.39).
Increasing WFS increases penetration (arc heating) and fill (electrode melting)
as shown in Figure 5.40. A minimum WFS is required to obtain adequate
penetration depending on the thickness of the material. Essentially, a given
material thickness requires a minimum amperage to achieve adequate pene-
tration in a T-joint (see Figure 5.41).
158
-
- --
-
--
-
-
-
- --
--
159
-
- -
- --
- -
--
-- -
160
-
-
-
The effect of WFS on travel speed for different fillet sizes is shown in Figure
5.43 for a 1/16 in. E71T-9 electrode.
NOTE: WFS has a major impact on both quality (fusion and penetration)
and productivity.
Note that the polarity for self-shielding FCAW electrodes depends on the
electrode classification being used. Some electrodes (e.g., E70T-4) operate on
electrode positive (DCEP) and others (e.g., E70T-8) operate on electrode nega-
tive (DCEN). Ensure that you have the correct polarity for the electrode being
used.
161
-
Voltage controls arc length (see Figure 5.44). Increasing the voltage increases
the arc length and arc width. Bead width also increases as arc length increases
(see Figure 5.45).
The voltage at the power source, or the machine voltage, is the voltage that the
welder reads and sets. The voltage at the arc, or arc voltage, is less dependent
on the voltage drop between the power source and arc. The difference depends
on cable size and length as well as welding amperage, but these voltages go up
and down proportionately; therefore, for this discussion the effect of voltage is
the same.
162
-
- --
-
-
-- - --
Once the correct arc length is set for a given weld, it should be kept constant
even when WFS is increased or decreased. As shown in Figure 5.46, it is
necessary to change voltage along with WFS to maintain a constant arc length.
Voltage has a major effect on heat input to the plate surface. Voltage also
affects the amount of radiated heat, therefore, longer arcs seem much hotter to
the welder. As a result of this surface heating effect, the voltage also has a
significant impact on bead shape and undercut (see Figure 5.47). In multipass
welds, undercut or poor bead shape can trap slag, leading to slag inclusions in
the complete weld.
Because a longer arc is also wider, it is more likely to cause undercut in a fillet
weld (see Figure 5.48).
163
-
-
- -
- -
-
-- - -- -
164
-
Travel speed has a major effect on welding productivity. The faster the speed,
the less time it takes to make a weld. Most welders never measure their travel
speeds, because they generally have a good feel for how slow or fast the travel
165
-
speed is. It is difficult to manually travel above 30 ipm in the horizontal position.
Examples of travel speed ranges are shown in Figure 5.50 for fillet welding.
-
- -
More filler metal is applied per inch and consequently, the weld is larger
--
- -
- -
Bead-on-plate welds are generally not made, and when the puddle is allowed to
build up in a groove or fillet weld, penetration decreases if the welding speed is
too slow (see Figure 5.52).
166
-
- - -
- -
- -- -
--
- - - --
--
-
-
Throughout most of the welding circuit, heavy copper cables carry the welding
current, which can be as high as 500 amps in FCAW. However, once past the
contact tube, the current is forced to flow through a small steel wire, which is a
poor conductor of electricity (see Figure 5.53). This extension of the wire elec-
trode is very hot and, in effect, becomes preheated before it reaches the arc.
The length of the wire past the contact tip is called the electrical stickout (see
Figure 5.54). The CTTWD is the electrical stickout plus the arc length.
167
-
-
-
When a wire feed speed setting is made, the heat needed to melt the wire off is
a combination of both arc heating and resistance heating (see Figure 5.55).
When the CTTWD is changed, the ratio of arc heating to resistance heating is
also changed. With small diameter wires and long CTTWDs, high resistance
heating of the electrode extension can cause burnoff of the wireeven when
the amperage is relatively low.
168
-
--
--
As the wire CTTWD is increased, less current is needed to melt the wire,
because there is more preheat in the electrode extension. Less current means
less heat into the work, and therefore, less penetration. The opposite occurs
when the CTTWD is reduced in length. The CTTWD is important and should
be held constant at the correct value.
Some typical settings are shown in Table 5.1. The CTTWD is typically greater
with larger diameter wires. Some self-shielding FCAW wires are designed for
very long CTTWDs.
169
-
-
-
-
- --
--
--
--
-
-
The wire forms an angle in a plane parallel to the direction of travel, which is
the travel angle. In terms of a push or drag, the travel angle has a sig-
nificant effect on the weld bead. The effect of travel angle on bead shape and
penetration is shown in Figure 5.57.
With the FCAW process, a drag angle typically is used to avoid pushing slag
ahead of the arc. Slag can be trapped between passes and is a particular
problem at slower travel speeds (see Figure 5.58).
A drag angle helps push the slag back from the front of the pool and also
provides increased penetration (see Figure 5.59).
170
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- -
171
-
A drag angle from 10p to 20p is typically used with the FCAW process (see
Figure 5.60).
pp - --
--
pp
--
172
-
- -
--
With mechanized or automated welding, the welder must position the electrode
in the correct location before starting. For a horizontal fillet weld a slight offset
is often used to obtain an equal leg fillet weld (see Figure 5.64).
For circumferential joints under rotation, the position of the electrode relative
to top dead center has a major effect on bead shape. The bead shape can be
convex, flat, or concave as shown in Figure 5.65.
173
-
- -
--
- - -
- -
174
-
Remember the seven essential welding variables. They are the key to making
-- quality welds with the FCAW Process (refer to Figure 5.66).
-
-
-- -
-- -
175
-
--
-
176
-
-
A properly filled crater is important to ensure full throat thickness for the
complete length of the weld. Two different crater filling techniques are shown
in Figures 5.68 and 5.69.
-
-
177
-
178
-
- --
- -
- -
179
-
-- To obtain maximum benefit from this chapter it is recommended that you fol-
low this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises
are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material
presented. If you get a question wrong go back and read that section again.
2. The range of WFS and voltage for FCAW to produce acceptable welds is:
A. Less than GMAW
B. Same as GMAW
C. Greater than GMAW
3. Which of the following welding processes has the best deposition rate?
A. SMAW
B. FCAW
C. GTAW
180
-
7. True or False?
Self-shielding wires produce insufficient gases to protect the weld pool
from contamination. True False
8. True or False?
Melting of the base metal (penetration) depends mainly on the amperage.
True False
9. True or False?
For self-shielding FCAW, the wire type for the same diameter does not
effect the deposition rate. True False
11. List the seven essential welding variables for the FCAW process:
(1) ________________________________________________________
(2) ________________________________________________________
(3) ________________________________________________________
(4) ________________________________________________________
(5) ________________________________________________________
(6) ________________________________________________________
(7) ________________________________________________________
12. When increasing WFS or amperage with FCAW, which of the following
will occur?
A. Higher voltage
B. More porosity
C. Greater penetration
D. Less penetration
E. Greater deposition rate
F. More spatter
G. C and E
181
-
13. Too high voltage in a multipass weld leads to which of the following?
A. Slag inclusions
B. Undercut
C. Smaller weld sizes
D. A and B
15. When making a horizontal fillet weld with the FCAW process, the trans-
verse gun angle should be:
A. 15 to 20
B. 40 to 45
C. 60 to 65
D. 90 to 95
A. Bead width
B. Penetration
C. Contact tip to work distance
D. Weld reinforcement
17. With gas-shielded FCAW, the electrode is connected DCEP. What does
this mean?
A. The welding gun is connected positive and the work lead is negative
B. The welding gun is connected negative and the work lead is positive
C. Alternating current is used
D. None of the above
18. With self-shielded FCAW, too high a voltage leads to which of the
following?
182
-
20. For 1/16 in. diameter FCAW (E71T-9), at a CTTWD of 3/4 in., what wire
feed speed is necessary to obtain approximately 300 amps?
___________________________________________________________
183
-
-- 1. B
2. C
3. B
4 C
5. B
6. C
7. True
8. True
9. False
10. D
11. (1) WFS
(2) Voltage
(3) Travel Speed
(4) Contact tip to work distance
(5) Travel angle
(6) Transverse angle
(7) Wire position
12. G
13. D
14. True
15. B
16. A
17. A
18. C
19. False
20. 275
184
--
This chapter will provide an overview of the Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
process, with particular emphasis on the advantages of using this process in
specific applications. Special considerations in using the process, such as joint
tracking requirements, will also be discussed.
NOTE: Although the scope of this section does not allow a thorough
description of all aspects of the SAW process, it will focus on the important
advantages that make SAW the preferred process for specific applications.
The SAW process differs from other arc welding processes in that the arc is
shielded beneath a blanket of granulated flux as shown in Figure 6.1. Since the
arc is not visible, the weld is produced without the associated radiation, fume,
and spatter that characterize open arc processes.
--
- In addition to the absence of both arc radiation and fume, some less obvious
but still important advantages of SAW are as follows:
185
--
1. The ability to achieve high deposition rates and productivity. Since the
SAW process allows the use of relatively high welding currents, high
deposition rates can be achieved as compared with other welding processes
(see Figure 6.2). Furthermore, since the SAW process is applied with
mechanized equipment, high operating factors and productivity can also be
attained, which generally makes SAW the preferred process for welding
thick materials.
-- ---
- - -
2. The ability to produce welds that are generally sound and free from
fusion-type defects. Because the SAW process employs relatively large
wire diameters, resistance heating effects from the electrode extension are
proportionately less than with other welding processes. For the same size
deposit of filler metal, therefore, the total fused area of SAW typically will
be greater than that obtained with other welding processes (see Figure 6.3).
This ability not only provides a decreased susceptibility to fusion-type
defects, but it also allows square groove welds to be welded to greater
thicknesses. In heavy plate fabrication, this advantage also makes the
SAW process well suited to narrow gap applications.
186
--
With manual and semiautomatic open arc welding processes, the welder
- tracks the arc by guiding the torch manually relative to the joint. With SAW,
because the arc and joint are submerged under a flux, alternate means are
needed to provide joint tracking. Selecting the right joint tracking system for a
particular application and ensuring that the system is correctly set up and
maintained is critical to successful SAW. The SAW operator needs to be very
knowledgeable in this area. When compared with other welding processes, the
SAW process, in general, requires the operator to have a higher level of
knowledge skills.
187
--
The most commonly used joint tracking methods for SAW are as follows:
3. Guide lights. Figure 6.8 shows how a guide light is used for joint tracking.
The guide light is attached to the welding head and is set to line up with the
electrode so that the point of impingement of the light in the joint repre-
sents the position of the electrode underneath the flux. The light impinge-
ment point is kept just ahead of the flux and allows the welding operator to
make an accurate assessment of bead placement. This method is commonly
used for welding circumferential and longitudinal seams on vessels. When
guide lights are not available, welding operators will often use a bent wire
that runs just above the joint to provide a similar, but less accurate, effect.
188
--
4. Other methods. A variety of other joint tracking methods are also used
with SAW. Through-the-arc sensing and laser vision systems, although
used less frequently, offer alternatives to the methods described above.
Methods and techniques for joining materials using arc welding processes have
evolved over the years. The butt joint, in particular, is worth examining since it
189
--
The one pass single-sided weld, in fact, represents the highest level of produc-
tivity in welding. Further improvements are obtained only by increasing the
joining rate (travel speed) or by eliminating the seam itself. Several industries
have successfully employed single-sided welding, most notably the ship build-
ing industry. Multipass welds still have widespread use in situations where the
volume of work may not justify the capital expenditure required for single-
sided systems.
190
--
-- -- -- --
- - --
The SAW process plays a significant role in one pass single-sided welding,
because it offers the following three advantages:
191
--
- -
- -
-
1. Fused fluxes. To produce a fused flux particle, components are first melted
together to form a uniform mixture. The melt is then poured onto a chilling
block, crushed, and screened to obtain a specific range of particle sizes.
Each flux particle and any fines (fines are fine sizes of the larger flux
particle as shown in Figure 6.15) are identical.
192
--
-
--
-
- --
193
--
- -
- -
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- -
-
Hence, alloy deposits can be obtained with a plain carbon steel electrode.
Flux consumption will usually be less than with fused fluxes. These fluxes
can absorb moisture if not properly stored and changes in the flux composi-
tion are possible due to segregation or removal of fine particles.
194
--
Keep flux in the original hermetically sealed undamaged bags until ready
to use. If bags become damaged and vapor seal is broken, remove flux and
place in flux oven.
During use, all flux that is not converted to slag during the welding may be
reused immediately provided the welding surface is not wet (rain or snow)
nor has any contaminates such as grease or oil.
Fluxes that have become wet due to either rain or snow should be discarded.
All flux not in use and not in original storage bags should be placed in flux
ovens.
-- The SAW process in a single wire application is controlled by eight (8) essen-
- tial welding variables that are set by the operator (see Figure 6.17).
-
NOTE: There are many different process variations that use SAW. Parallel
electrodes and tandem electrodes, for example, will include additional SAW
essential variables; however, these will not be covered in this program.
Because the SAW process is typically mechanized, all of the variables are
machine settings and some settings cannot be changed once welding com-
mences. This emphasizes the importance of proper machine setup prior to
welding. Careful and meticulous adjustment of the eight essential variables and
the joint tracking system settings are key to successful SAW. The SAW pro-
cess requires little manipulative skill of the operator but requires considerable
knowledge skills in these areas.
The SAW essential welding variables control bead shape, appearance, pene-
tration, and weld quality. These essential variables are the key settings that
make it possible to consistently obtain high productivity rates and quality
welds.
195
--
--
-- -
--
- The SAW process can be run with either a constant voltage power source (CV)
or constant current power source (CC). In the case of CV, the wire feed speed
is set in inches per minute. For CC, the current is adjusted as an amperage set-
ting. CV is preferred for smaller diameter wires and CC for larger diameters
although they can be used interchangeably.
Increase wire feed speed rate; therefore, permitting increased weld size
or permit an increase in the welding travel speed
Increase amperage
196
--
Decrease amperage
1. Increasing dial (greater number) increases welding arc length and voltage:
Increases the width of the weld bead and flattens the weld bead in
appearance
2. Decreasing dial (lower number) decreases welding arc length and voltage:
Decreases the width of the weld bead and increases weld bead height at
the center, i.e., more convex
197
--
Increase the speed of the torch across the surface of the base metal
Decrease the speed of the torch across the surface of the base metal
Typically increase the penetration of the weld bead but if speed is set
too low, the weld pool can flow ahead of the arc and reduce penetration
and trap slag
Decrease amperage.
Increase amperage.
Flatten bead
198
--
--
The correct transverse angle for a single pass fillet weld is about 40 from
the horizontal.
For small fillets, set the wire on the joint centerline. For larger fillets, bring
the wire out from the joint horizontally about 1/2 to 1 wire diameter.
Moving away from the joint horizontally will deposit a larger horizontal
leg.
Moving away from the joint vertically will deposit a larger vertical leg.
Slag is more difficult to remove when the weld bead shape in the deep-
groove is full width and concave
Narrow and deep weld root beads are more prone to cracking; amperage on
root pass should not exceed 100 amps per 10 of bevel for a single wire
application
Slag is easier to remove when the weld bead shape in the deep-groove is
convex and less than full width of the weld joint
199
--
Narrow and deep backgouging can lead to cracking, weld beads should be
wider than they are deep
A 3/8 in. leg is the largest single-pass fillet weld that can be made in the
horizontal position with a single electrode
A 1/2 in. leg is the largest single-pass fillet weld that can be made in the
horizontal position with a multiple electrodes
With inadequate displacement after or past the vertical center, the weld
will produce a narrow, humped bead
2. Positioning of the arc on the inside diameter of the joint determines bead
shape and flux cover as follows:
With inadequate displacement after or past the vertical center, the weld
will produce a shallow, concave bead
Arc flashing
200
--
2. Which of the following type of SAW flux does not require a binder during
manufacture?
A. Fused
B. Bonded
C. Agglomerated
D. Iron powder
3. Which of the following welding processes has the highest deposition rate?
A. SMAW
B. SAW
C. GTAW
D. GMAW
201
--
7. True or False?
DCEN will give a higher deposition rate but DCEP will increase
penetration. True False
202
--
-- 1. B
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. A
6. D
7. True
203
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204
Steel is a very versatile material. It is relatively inexpensive and is produced in
a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and mechanical properties. About 850 million
metric tons of steel were produced in the world in 2000, far exceeding any
other metal. Hence, it is not surprising that steel is the most commonly welded
material.
The modern age of steelmaking began in the middle of the 19th century in
England when Henry Bessemer developed a converter process to produce
carbon steels in large quantities. Modern steel works use a modified version of
the converter process called the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF). In this process,
oxygen is used to reduce undesirable levels of carbon and other elements (see
Figure 7.1).
205
Wrought iron is soft because it contains almost no carbon and cast iron is
brittle because it contains too much. Intermediate carbon levels provide the
best combination of strength, ductility, and toughness (see Figure 7.2).
-
-
-
-
The blast furnace reduces iron ore (iron oxide) to form iron by using the reduc-
- ing agents of carbon monoxide and carbon. A sample reaction is shown in
Equation 7.1.
The resulting iron is brittle because of excessive carbon and other elements.
Steelmaking lowers carbon (C), silicon (Si), and phosphorous (P) levels by
combining these elements with oxygen (O2) to form compounds that are
removed with the slag (see Figure 7.3).
206
At this point the steel will contain about 0.20% O2 , which can make the steel
brittle or cause the evolution of gas when the oxygen combines with carbon.
This extra oxygen must be removed by adding deoxidizers such as manganese
(Mn), silicon (Si), and aluminum (Al) just before casting. These elements
combine with the oxygen, and the resulting compound is removed through the
slag (see Figure 7.4).
Based on the previous discussion, it is evident that certain elements are impor-
- tant in determining the properties of plain carbon steels. Most steel specifica-
- tions will specify at least the range of chemical composition for the elements
shown in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
- -
-
--
207
- --
Some steel mills use scrap steel as their source of material. This scrap can con-
tain small amounts of elements called residuals, including Cr, Ni, and Cu,
which have a negative effect on weldability, and need to be controlled by the
steelmaker. Some steel specifications have been designed to take advantage
of controlled residuals like copper. For example, ASTM A 992 specifies steel
to be strengthened with copper as a precipitation hardening agent. This speci-
fication is restrictive on other elements such as carbon, allowing for good
weldability.
- -
208
- - -
- -
-
The characteristics shown in Table 7.3 provide steel with some unique metal-
lurgical properties that are best explained using the iron-carbon phase diagram.
The phase diagram shown in Figure 7.6 shows the phases that are present at
various temperatures for the complete range of compositions of steel under the
conditions of slow heating and cooling. Fcc iron (austenite) has a much greater
solubility for carbon than bcc iron (ferrite). Hence, at lower temperatures steel
exists as two phases, and at higher temperatures as a single phase.
209
During slow cooling, the carbon cannot be accommodated in the ferrite phase
(bcc); therefore, a second phase is formed called cementite (Fe3C), which is a
very hard carbide. At 0.8% carbon, this carbide and ferrite form simulta-
neously from austenite (fcc) to a microstructure called pearlite (see Figure 7.7).
- -
Cementite is very hard and brittle as compared with ferrite. However, the
cementite in pearlite is surrounded by soft ferrite and the combination provides
good strength and ductility in the lower carbon range. Increasing the carbon
above 0.8% (100% pearlite) does not increase the strength of steel as shown in
Figure 7.9.
The steel metallurgist has a variety of methods for increasing the strength of
- steel. Depending on the steel alloy, the steel producer uses different strengthen-
ing methods. The method selected depends on the intended application for the
material and the desired mechanical properties. When steel is heated and
cooled during the welding operation, these properties may change. To under-
stand these changes and control the welding procedure to minimize any detri-
mental effects, the welding supervisor should have a basic understanding of
strengthening methods and how the steel is affected by welding.
210
- -
-- -
-
- -
211
-
- - -
Other methods use second phases that are much harder than the surrounding
matrix to increase strength. The role of cementite as described above is an
example of this method.
For structural applications, most metals are not used in their pure form. For
example, we can change the properties of iron by adding other elements to
form alloys. Solid solutions are mixtures of the atoms of two or more different
elements in the solid state. There are two different types of solid solutions as
shown in Figure 7.11. The alloy distorts the crystallographic structure, which
makes slip more difficult and thereby increases strength.
- - - - - - - -
- -
- -- -
- -
-
- - -
- Another very useful feature of alloy additions is that some alloys tend to form
carbides (see Figure 7.12) rather than go into solid solution. Different alloys
have different tendencies to go into solid solution or form carbides as shown
in Figure 7.13. We will discuss the effect of carbides later under Strengthen-
ing by Precipitation Hardening.
212
213
- Certain elements combine with iron to form brittle compounds and need to be
- controlled. For example, sulfur can react with iron to form iron sulfide, as
shown in Equation 7.2.
FeS forms at grain boundaries, making low manganese steel brittle. Because
FeS melts at low temperatures, welding can cause the sulfides to melt at the
grain boundaries, which makes the steel weak. Weldable steels have sulfur
levels at less than 0.05%.
With manganese in the steel, sulfur tends to form manganese sulfide, which is
present as globules distributed throughout the grains, rather than at grain
boundaries. MnS is one of the main nonmetallic inclusions in steel and is not
detrimental in the rolling direction when uniformly distributed. Manganese
additions are important for deoxidation during steelmaking and increase
strength though solid solution effects.
--
- -
214
In actual results, the elements may have other effects in addition to simple solid
solution strengthening, therefore, the strength increase may be different from that
shown in Figure 7.14. For example, carbon also forms pearlite, which has a good
combination of strength and ductility. Increasing the carbon content increases the
amount of pearlite and therefore the strength, as we have shown previously.
Carbon and nitrogen also provide a distinct yield point in steel as shown in Fig-
ure 7.15. The yield stress is the load at this point divided by the area of the test
specimen.
- -
--
--
215
Furthermore, increasing carbon levels raises the risk of certain types of weld
cracking so that weldability is reduced. Some typical carbon steels are shown
in Table 7.4.
-- -
- -
- -
-- - - --
This method is more effective than solid solution strengthening, because the
precipitate helps prevent movement of the atoms in the grains of steel. This
method also allows a reduction in carbon content, which improves weldability.
ASTM A 441 and A 572 are typical examples of steels that use this method.
ASTM A 992 is a relatively new grade, which is strengthened with copper as a
precipitation hardening agent.
216
- -
- -
- -
- -
-- -
- -
-- - --
--
-- - -
--
Grain refinement is a powerful tool for the steel metallurgist. Smaller grains
increase strength since grain boundaries provide an obstacle to slip within the
atomic structure. The smaller the grain size, the greater the number of grain
boundaries.
The other significant feature of grain refinement is that it is the only method
that simultaneously improves strength and toughness. Toughness is the ability
of a material to resist a load (or absorb energy) without fracturing. Most other
methods of increasing strength cause a reduction in the toughness of steel,
therefore, grain size control has become an important feature of modern steels.
The effects of various strengthening methods on strength and toughness is
shown in Figure 7.18.
217
- -
--
- - -
--
The grain size of steel can be reduced by a normalizing heat treatment (see
Figure 7.19). Normalizing involves heating steel with a carbon content of
about 0.20% to a temperature of 1600pF (900pC) followed by an air cool.
--
218
--
--
219
- - - -
- -
- -
- -
-
- -
- -
- -
-
-
-
- --
- -- -
-
220
-
-
- -
- - --
-- -
- -- -
- --
-
- - -
-
We have seen previously that when steel is heated to the austenitic phase, all
the carbon atoms will be in solid solution. For example, a 0.15% carbon steel
heated to 900C (1660F) will be fully austenitic. The phase diagrams show
the results when the steel is cooled slowly, i.e., the austenite (fcc) transforms to
ferrite (bcc) plus cementite (see Equation 7.5).
If rapid cooling occurs, the austenite (fcc) transformation to ferrite (bcc) still
takes place; however, the carbon atoms now become trapped within the bcc
structure because there is no time for the carbon to diffuse out. The resulting
structure, martensite, is a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in bcc iron.
Normally, bcc iron cannot accommodate much carbon in solid solution. This
limited solubility distorts the atomic structure, which causes an increase in
volume along with a significant increase in hardness and strength. These steels
are hardened by the use of relatively fast cooling rates.
In Figure 7.23, the cooling time from 900C (1660F) should be about 1 sec-
- ond to obtain the martensite structure. While this fast cooling rate may occur
on the surface of a steel plate it is not likely in the middle thickness regions
(see Figure 7.24).
221
- -
222
-
-
-
- - -
the martensite phase is much slower than the movement of carbon atoms. The
net effect of this movement is that martensite is formed at much slower cooling
rates, which allows thicker materials to be through-hardened more effectively.
The relative ability of a steel to form martensite when quenched is hardenabil-
ity. Alloy additions such as Mn, Cr, and Mo are very effective in increasing
hardenability. This is an important concept to remember when weld cracking is
discussed in a subsequent section.
Alloy additions and heat treating are an effective technique for making strong
steels; however, it reduces weldability because the use of preheat or large
passes to reduce cooling rates has little effect on reducing hardness. In effect,
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the weld is hard no matter what preheat or
heat input is used for welding. In such cases, thermal stress relief after welding
may be necessary to temper or soften the HAZ.
223
Caution should be used when heating quenched and tempered materials to high
temperatures, because the material can be damaged if the tempering tempera-
ture is exceeded. For example, when stress relief is needed it should be kept
about 50F below the tempering temperature to avoid loss of strength. The use
of flame heating for shape correction should be avoided, because torch heating
can be difficult to control (see Figure 7.26).
- -
It should also be noted that with alloy steels, the formation of martensite can be
depressed to relatively low temperatures. As shown in Figure 7.27, martensite
will form over a range of temperatures and the start (Ms) and finish (Mf)
temperatures can be defined. Whether the preheat, interpass, and postheat
temperatures are above or below the Ms is important, and will be discussed
further in the next section.
- -
- - -
- -
- -
224
Alloy additions do not have a significant effect on the hardness of the marten-
site, which is mainly determined by the carbon content (see Figure 7.28).
--
- - --
-
-
- --
- -
-
-- - -
- --
-
-
225
p
p
p - - -
p p
--
Steel base metals are tested by the steel mill to ensure that all the requirements
- of the steel specification are met. In addition to the chemical analysis, the mill
- - test report provides the results of the various mechanical tests, including:
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Elongation
226
The tensile and yield strengths are shown in Figure 7.30. They are calculated
by taking the load at the point of interest and dividing by the area of the test
specimen taken from the base material.
- -
- -
227
For example, if the weld has insufficient strength, failure of the weld joint can
occur. Some welding codes ensure matching properties by specifying the elec-
trode strength level, joint details, and welding details, which are prequalified
conditions. In such cases, mechanical testing of the welding procedure may not
be necessary.
A typical procedure qualification test plate is shown in Figure 7.34. The loca-
tion of the tensile specimens and bend specimens is indicated.
- -
The tensile test is used to determine the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the
joint. The maximum load is divided by the area (prior to testing) of the reduced
section (see Equation 7.7).
For weld testing, the yield point and elongation usually are not measured. To
pass, the tensile strength shall be no less than the minimum of the specified
tensile strength range of the base metal used.
228
- - -
-
- -
--
- -
The bend test is a measure of both the ductility of the joint and the soundness
of the weld. For acceptance, the surface on the tension side must not contain
discontinuities exceeding certain dimensions. A dimension of 1/8 in. is often
specified in welding standards. Bend tests can be either side, root, or
229
face. With the root or face bend the corresponding location of the weld is the
tension side. With a side bend the complete thickness of the joint is put into
tension (see Figure 7.35).
--
-- --
The Charpy test measures the energy absorbed in a small test specimen that
contains a notch (see Figure 7.36). A typical Charpy impact testing machine is
shown in Figure 7.37. The difference in the initial height of the hammer and
the height obtained after striking the specimen is a measure of the energy
absorbed by the specimen.
230
- -
- -
231
In the first section of this chapter, we examined the metallurgy of steel base
metals. In this section, we will consider the metallurgy of the weld itself, which
- includes both the weld metal and adjacent HAZ. Having a good understanding
of welding metallurgy is important for the supervisor to ensure that the weld
matches the base metal in terms of mechanical properties and that the welding
operation does not introduce injurious defects into the joint.
-
- The mechanical properties of importance for the weld metal are strength and
toughness. The most obvious factor here is to ensure the use of the correct elec-
trode. The specified electrode classification will be indicated in the welding
procedures such as a welding procedure specification or similar document. It is
critical that the welding supervisor be very familiar with these procedures and
the base metals being welded so that the correct electrode is used in every joint.
Refer to the Chapter 9, Welding Instructions, for further information.
It is of interest to note that the solidified weld metal will have a microstructure
that is much different from the base metal. The base metal goes through a
slowly cooled casting process plus a complex heating and rolling sequence.
The weld metal on the other hand is a rapidly cooled casting and its properties
will depend on its microstructure and composition. Table 7.5 shows a base
metal and weld metal of equal strength. However, the chemistry will be differ-
ent with the carbon content usually much lower in the weld metal.
- -
Weld metal is actually a mixture of melted electrode and melted base metal
(see Figure 7.38). Its composition depends on three things:
232
Dilution is the relative proportion of the base metal in the weld. Dilution can be
calculated from a weld cross section using the formula shown in Figure 7.39.
- I
Typical dilution values for some commonly welded joints are shown in Figure
7.40.
The welding process itself can have a major effect with SMAW having a
relatively low dilution and SAW having a relatively high dilution (see Figure
7.41).
233
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
The essential welding variables also need to be included when considering the
mechanical properties of welds. Although heat input does not have a signifi-
cant effect on strength, it can change the toughness of both the weld metal and
the HAZ. As shown in Figure 7.42, the HAZ lies adjacent to the fused weld
metal and is typically less than 1/8 in. wide, although it can exceed this width
in high heat input processes. Initially, the HAZ is base metal that has not been
melted. However, the HAZ can be heated high enough and can be cooled fast
enough to cause changes in the mechanical properties of this region.
234
The heat from the arc raises the temperature of the base metal on either side of
the weld. The HAZ reaches the highest temperatures with the maximum tem-
perature at the fusion boundary, or weld interface (see Figure 7.43).
Within the HAZ region adjacent to the bond line, the temperature is high
enough to form austenite, which may transform to a variety of structures on
cooling. In Region 1 shown in Figure 7.44, the grain size will be relatively
large because of the high temperatures obtained. Region 2 is also austenitized,
but the temperature is too low to promote significant grain growth resulting in
a fine grain size. Next to this area is Region 3, where partial transformation to
austenite occurs. No austenite forms in Region 4 and no major changes to the
microstructure occur; however, secondary effects such as changing of the fer-
rite structure and tempering of the martensite, if present, may take place.
235
--
- -
The resulting microstructure in both the weld metal and the HAZ depend sig-
nificantly on the heat input used in making the weld. Heat input is important
because it determines the cooling rate in the weld.
In a 100 watt light bulb, the total energy output is 100 watts, most of which is
heat. If the bulb is plugged into a 110 volt outlet the resulting current will be about
0.9 amps. The light bulb converts electricity into heat and light (see Figure 7.45).
Similarly, the electric arc converts electricity into heat that melts the base
metal. Measuring the amount of heat input is important and can be quantified
using the concept of heat input per unit length (see Figure 7.46).
The rate at which energy is developed in the arc, as with the light bulb, is:
In arc welding, however, the arc is moved along the joint at a constant speed.
Under these conditions, the heat input per unit length provides us with the
amount of heat exposure for each unit length of weld. The formulas shown in
Equations 7.8 and 7.9 are for both U.S. Customary and metric (SI) units.
236
- - I -
I
U.S. Customary
voltage I amperage I 60
Energy input/in. (kJ/in.) = travel speed I 1000 (Eq. 7.8)
where:
kJ/in. = kilojoules/in.
travel speed = in./min.
237
Metric (SI)
voltage I amperage
Energy input/mm (kJ/mm) = travel speed I 1000 (Eq. 7.9)
where:
kJ/mm = kilojoules/mm
travel speed = mm/sec
Heat input has a major effect on cooling rate. Larger welds tend to cool at a
slower rate than smaller welds because there is greater heat to dissipate. This is
an important point to remember for understanding weld cracking (see Figure
7.47).
- -
Cooling rates can be measured and plotted against heat input and material
thickness (see Figure 7.48).
238
--
- --
-
-
239
--
In the HAZ, hardness affects both toughness and cracking. Figure 7.51 shows a
typical hardening curve for a plain carbon steel. The HAZ hardness changes
depending on the cooling rate. Fast cooling rates produce a harder HAZ that is
prone to cracking; slow cooling rates can cause a loss of toughness.
--
--
240
Heat input is proportional to the area of the deposited metal for a given weld-
ing process and welding conditions. The relationship between heat input and
fillet size for SMAW is shown in Figure 7.52. As expected, small welds have a
low heat input and large welds have a high heat input.
It is highly flammable
It embrittles steel
241
--
It is this latter property that is of concern in the welding of steels. There are
four factors necessary for hydrogen cracking to occur:
242
Stress or strain will always be present due to the localized heating effects of
welding, and generally we cannot change the material thickness or joint details.
Furthermore, welds always cool to ambient temperatures at some point. There-
fore, the prevention of hydrogen cracking centers on controlling the amount of
hydrogen in the weld and the hardness of the weld HAZ (see Figure 7.55).
--
Electrode type
Storage of electrodes
Level of preheat
The effect of welding process and electrode type is summarized in Figure 7.56.
Hydrogen levels are measured and reported in ml/100g of deposited weld
metal, which is the volume of hydrogen (ml) per weight (100 grams) of the
weld metal. A standard test is described in AWS A4.3, Standard Methods for
Determination of the Diffusible Hydrogen Content of Martensitic, Bainitic,
and Ferritic Steel Weld Metal Produced by Arc Welding. For example, an elec-
trode classified as an H8 has a hydrogen content of 8 ml/100g of deposited
weld metal or less when tested. One classification of relative hydrogen levels is
shown in Table 7.6.
Shown in Figure 7.57 are potential sources of hydrogen that can enter the weld
zone. It is important to keep the electrodes clean and to control their exposure
to ambient conditions. AWS D1.1 covers these issues in subclause 5.3 of the
code. Because SMAW electrodes pick up high levels of moisture in the first
few hours of exposure, most standards limit the exposure of low hydrogen of
standard E7018 electrodes to four hours. Moisture-resistant electrodes are also
available that allow extended exposure times (see Figure 7.58).
243
- -
-
---
-- - -
--
-
--
- -
244
-
p
-
p
-
p
- -
- -
-
It is important to start with processes and materials that introduce the least
amount of hydrogen into the weld pool. However, that may not be enough to
control the amount of hydrogen in the weld, especially when the materials are
relatively thick. This is where preheat plays an important role (see Figure
7.59).
The rate at which hydrogen is removed from the solidified weld (diffusivity of
hydrogen) depends on the temperature. As shown in Figure 7.60, allowing the
weld to stay at a higher temperature for a longer period of time greatly aids in
the removal of hydrogen. Increasing the weld temperature from 20pC (room
temperature) to 150pC increases the diffusivity of hydrogen by a factor of up to
10,000. In addition, for certain types of steels, a high preheat temperature can
help to reduce HAZ hardness by slowing the cooling rate. Using preheat is an
important technique to avoid hydrogen cracking in both the weld metal and the
HAZ.
245
- -
-
-
Also note that hydrogen diffuses much more slowly in austenite than in ferrite.
This is important because if the preheat or interpass temperature is high
enough to retain austenite in the weld, then the preheat will have a lesser effect.
This could occur if the preheat is above the Ms temperature. Too high a preheat
temperature can actually hinder getting the hydrogen out. Some approximate
Ms and Mf temperatures are shown in Table 7.7. For plain carbon steels, the
Ms is relatively high and the preheat and interpass temperatures are typically
lower. However, for alloy steels, the Ms temperature can be low, therefore,
excessive temperatures should be avoided to obtain effective hydrogen
diffusion.
- - -
- p p
246
- -
--
247
completed weld with insulation to effect a slow low temperature cooling rate is
extremely beneficial and can be imperative when welding in cold temperatures
(see Figure 7.62).
- -
The type of microstructure that forms in the HAZ, its hardness and the risk of
-- cracking depends on the following:
The hardenability of the steel
Mn Cr + Mo + V Ni + Cu
CE (IIW) = C
6 5 15 (Eq. 7.10)
Mn + Si Cr + Mo + V Ni + Cu
CE = C
6 5 15 (Eq. 7.11)
248
These formulas provide a rough indication of the risk of cracking in the HAZ.
A value greater than 0.5 is more difficult to weld and a value less than 0.42 has
relatively low susceptibility to hydrogen cracking. However, the actual condi-
tions necessary to cause cracking are more complex, because hydrogen levels
and residual stress also play important roles. The formula is useful as a compar-
ison of one steel to another. The formula also provides some insight about the
effect of different elements on cracking susceptibility and indicates that carbon
content has a major impact. As we discussed in the steel metallurgy section
under Effect of Alloy Additions, the carbon content has a primary effect on
the hardness of martensite. Also previously noted was that the actual hardness
obtained depends on the cooling rate. At fast cooling rates, a hard martensitic
structure forms; at relatively slow cooling rates, a softer HAZ results.
Most structural welding standards have requirements for minimum fillet weld
sizes that ensure that small welds are not deposited on relatively thick material.
Minimum fillet weld sizes control cooling rates to minimize the risk of crack-
ing. Table 7.8 is taken from AWS D1.1, Table 5.8.
-
- -
-- --
- -- -
The hardness of the HAZ can be measured and correlated with the risk of
cracking. Generally, a HAZ hardness less than 350 Hv (Vickers hardness
number) is not sensitive to hydrogen cracking, even with higher hydrogen lev-
els. For relatively low hydrogen levels, a hardness of 400 Hv may be tolerated.
For some steels, maximum hardness is obtained by controlling the cooling rate,
and for others, the cooling rate has little effect. A useful diagram, originally
proposed by Graville, which indicates whether the HAZ hardness can be
limited by controlling the cooling rate is shown in Figure 7.63.
Zone 1. This area defines carbon and low alloy steels with a carbon content of
0.10% or less. These steels have a low carbon content and will not produce
hard HAZs (>350 Hv) susceptible to cracking under normal circumstances.
These steels include microalloyed fine grain steels developed for pipeline
applications and some high strength structural steels. The weld metal is more
likely to crack, especially at higher strength levels, and this should be the focus
of cracking prevention (see Figure 7.64).
249
-- -
--
250
Zone II. This area includes many steels that are used for structural and pres-
sure vessel applications, e.g., A516. A hard HAZ can be avoided by controlling
the cooling rate, or alternately, cracking can be prevented by controlling
hydrogen. With Zone II steels, preheat reduces hydrogen levels and also helps
reduce HAZ hardness although relatively high preheat levels are needed to
have a major effect on the latter (see Figure 7.65).
--
--
-- -
Zone III. This area includes both alloyed steels with typically more than
0.10% carbon, and also some quenched and tempered steels, such as A514.
Hardness cannot be controlled by cooling rate, because the HAZ will be hard
no matter which heat input is used (see Figure 7.66). Additionally, a relatively
fast cooling rate is often desirable to ensure good HAZ toughness. Hydrogen
control must be used to prevent cracking.
AISI 4140 also falls into this zone. With these types of high carbon alloyed
steels, the HAZ is so hard that brittle fracture can occur under loadeven if
hydrogen cracking is avoided. These steels often require thermal stress relief
after welding to temper or soften the HAZ.
251
--
--
-- -
Cracks in the weld metal are either hydrogen-related or form during solidifica-
tion. This latter type is solidification cracking or hot cracking. Solidification
cracks are evident right after solidification while the weld is still hot. It was
previously discussed that weld metal is like a casting. Crystals begin to form at
the outside edge of the pool because of the lower temperatures, and grow in
towards the center of the pool. When the crystals grow towards each other, liq-
uid can become trapped between them. As the weld shrinks, a crack can form
as shown in Figure 7.67. A characteristic of solidification cracking is a crack
located at the weld centerline, assuming symmetrical heat conduction on both
sides. Because solidification cracks do not always come to the surface, they
may be invisible to the welder.
252
- -
-
- -
-
It can be observed that welds made at higher travel speeds tend to have elon-
gated ripples on the weld surface. This is a result of an elongated weld pool
which has a greater tendency for crystal growth that can trap liquid weld metal
as shown in Figure 7.68. Higher travel speeds tend to be more susceptible to
this problem.
- -
- -
Bead shape also can influence crystal growth patterns. Deep narrow beads tend
to trap liquid weld metal, which increases the risk of solidification cracking
(see Figure 7.69). A rule of thumb often used in SAW is that the amperage
for the root pass should not exceed 10 times the groove angle for V-grooves
and bevel grooves. For example, for a 60p included groove angle, the current
should not exceed 600 amps for the root pass.
AWS D1.1, subclause 3.7.2, requires that the depth of any weld pass shall not
exceed the depth (see Figure 7.70).
253
-
--
-
-
254
--
-
Although solidification cracking can occur with any arc welding process, SAW
is particularly susceptible because it produces a penetration profile that is rela-
tively deep and narrow. SAW also produces beads that have a pronounced flare
in their shape.
SAW passes made with high voltages tend to produce a bay area near the sur-
face of the bead. The longer arc widens the bead near the surface, but has less
effect near the root. The bay region of the bead stays at a high temperature for
255
the longest time period; as a result, HAZ and weld metal grains are coarser in
this region. Also, the junction between the two parts of the weld bead locally
delays heat extraction and increases the risk of solidification cracking.
Although solidification cracking in SAW often focuses on the centerline area,
it is well documented that cracking in the weld metal near the bay region can
also occur.
These two types of solidification cracks are shown in Figure 7.72. Both types
of cracking are affected by the shape of the bead and weld metal chemistry.
Higher heat inputs also can increase the risk of solidification cracks.
- -
Carbon content plays a major role in increasing the risk of solidification crack-
ing. The British Standard for structural steel welding uses a formula for Units
of Crack Susceptibility (UCS) relative to SAW weld metal chemistry as shown
in Table 7.9.
- -
-
-
Because SAW has a relatively high dilution rate, higher weld metal carbon
contents are possible with this process. The presence of sulfur is also signifi-
cant, because high sulfur levels lower the melting temperature of steel, which
increases the risk of solidification cracking.
Note that the formula in Table 7.9 considers only the compositional effects on
solidification cracking. Other factors, such as bead shape, also play a role.
However, with high UCS numbers, cracking is possible even with favorable
bead shapes. Some early research into the development of this formula by
Bailey can be reviewed in reference (3).
256
Tandem SAW has some unique benefits in terms of minimizing the risk of
solidification cracking. The lead wire can be used to achieve relatively deep
penetration and the trail wire(s) can be used to control bead shape.
-- To obtain maximum benefit from this program it is recommended that you fol-
low this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises
are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material
presented. If you get a question wrong go back and read that section again.
257
2. The BOF:
A. Uses argon to reduce the carbon content of the iron
B. Uses oxygen to increase the carbon content of the steel
C. Uses oxygen to decrease the carbon content of the steel
3. True or False?
The unique features of steel are a result of the difference in the solubility
of carbon between the bcc iron and fcc iron. True False
6. True or False?
Grain refinement is the only method that increases both strength and
toughness. True False
258
9. True or False?
Fine-grained microalloyed steels use vanadium and/or niobium carbides
to provide increased strength by precipitation hardening and increased
toughness by minimizing grain growth during hot rolling.
True False
10. Which of the following elements have a large effect on the hardenability
of steel?
A. C
B. Cr
C. S
D. Mo
E. B and D
F. B, C, and D
11. Which of the following alloy additions have a large effect on the hardness
of steel?
A. C
B. Cr
C. Ni
D. Mo
E. B and D
259
260
22. Using the IIW CE formula, what is the carbon equivalent of the following
material?
- --
25. Which of the following can affect the risk of solidification cracking?
A. Bead shape
B. Dilution of the base metal
C. Travel speed
D. Chemistry of the weld metal
E. All of the above
261
-- 1. D
2. C
3. True
4. D
5. E
6. True
7. B
8. C
9. True
10. E
11. A
12. D
13. True
14. C
15. True
16. A
17. B
18. E
19. D
20. False
21. False
22. 0.38
23. False
24. True
25. E
262
-
- --
Type of weld
Location of the weld
Size of weld
263
-
Length of weld
Joint preparation
Sequence of operations
Surface finishing
Reference to a welding procedure
Shop or field welding
Inspection requirements
Welding symbols used in North America are defined by the American Welding
Society in AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Non-
destructive Examination.
1. Butt joint
2. T-joint
3. Lap joint
4. Corner joint
5. Edge joint
Each of these is shown in Figure 8.2 with a specific location for the actual
joint, which is essentially the area or line of contact between the two adjacent
base metals.
264
-
- -
Types of welds are shown in Figure 8.3. For groove welds, the weld type is
defined by the shape of the base metals prior to welding.
Some of the shapes require that the base metal be prepared by cutting or burn-
ing prior to fitting or welding. Burners or others involved in plate preparation
should also be skilled in reading welding symbols (see Figure 8.4).
265
-
- -
- -
-
266
-
- -
The upper and lower side of the reference line define the arrow side and
other side of the joint. Anything shown below the reference line is to be done
on the arrow side of the joint. Anything shown above the reference line is to be
done on the other side (or opposite to the arrow side) of the joint (see Figure
8.6).
-
-
Each arrow points to a joint which always has an arrow and other side [see
Figures 8.7(A) and (B)].
Welding symbols look through a joint and never through solid metal (see
Figure 8.8).
The welding symbol can be shown in any view on the drawing (see Figure
8.9).
267
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
- -
-
-
-
268
-
-
-
Weld symbols
Supplementary symbols
- -
269
-
- Weld symbols provide the type of weld to be used in a given joint. The weld
symbol information is placed on the reference line as shown below. The shape
- of the weld symbol is very similar to the actual shape of the weld (see Figure
8.11).
Weld size and/or bevel depth is placed on the left hand side of the weld
symbol. Weld length is placed on the right side (see Figure 8.12).
270
-
- -
- Weld symbols for groove welds can contain a variety of important details
including:
Root opening
Finishing method:
G Grind
C Chip
M Machine
R Roll
ExampleSingle V-groove weld with the correct order of groove details (see
Figure 8.15).
271
-
The depth of bevel is shown on the left side of the weld symbol (see Figure
8.16). Note that the root face is determined by subtracting the bevel depth from
the material thickness.
-
-
--
272
-
Some typical groove weld applications are shown in the following examples.
273
-
3. Use of the groove weld size in parenthesis in front of the weld symbol to
specify weld throat. Clearly, if the weld size is less than the thickness of the
material it is a partial penetration weld.
274
-
For welds with a prepared groove it is important to specify the depth of prepa-
ration and groove weld size separately. This done by the use of parenthesis as
shown below. Note that the throat of a groove weld is now considered a non-
standard term for groove weld size (see Figure 8.22).
For welds without a prepared groove, the groove weld size must be indicated in
parenthesis. The welding symbol is meaningless unless the groove weld size is
clearly indicated (see Figure 8.23). In this example of a skewed connection the
weld size is indicated by t. The dimension w provides a way of measuring
the weld size.
275
-
ExampleFlare bevel groove weld with a groove weld size equal to 5/16 in.
(see Figure 8.24).
- For fillet welds, weld size is specified as the leg size (see Figure 8.26).
Keep in mind that leg size can only be measured when the fillet is flat or con-
vex in shape. For concave fillet welds the weld throat must be measured using
a throat gage (see Figure 8.27).
276
-
- -
- -
-
Fillet weld length is specified on the right side of the fillet weld symbol (see
Figure 8.28).
277
-
When weld length is not specified it is assumed that the welding symbol
applies to the full length of joint where no change in weld direction occurs (see
Figure 8.29(A).
- -
278
-
Fillet welds are not always continuous in length. Intermittent welds (stitch
weld is a nonstandard term) are often used to reduce welding times and distor-
tion. For intermittent welds, the weld length and pitch are specified on the right
side of the weld symbol (see Figure 8.30).
- -
- -
The ends of a joint should not be left unwelded. It is general practice to have
the intermittent welds at both ends of the joint. Hence, it may be necessary to
have a different spacing or weld length at one end of the joint (see Figure
8.31).
Some typical fillet weld applications are shown in the following examples.
279
-
280
-
In Tee and corner joints it is common for the designer to ask for a fillet weld on
- top of a groove weld. This helps provide a smooth weld transition between the
two base metals (see Figure 8.36).
Various conventions are used in industry that are not necessarily covered in
AWS A2.4. Some may be covered in specific welding codes and standards.
- Others may be general industry conventions that are adopted by a specific
company and detailed in their own standards. Some examples follow.
281
-
Fillet welds deposited on the opposite sides of a common plane of contact shall
not be continuous at the corner common to both welds. If welds must be con-
tinuous for purposes of sealing, then the drawing should indicate such require-
ments. This is specified in AWS D1.1 (see Figure 8.37).
- -
When duplicate material such as stiffeners, web angles or gussets occurs on the
far side of a web, gusset or member, then the welding shown on the near side
shall be repeated on the far side even though no specific weld symbol is shown
on the far side (see Figure 8.38).
-
-
282
-
When a detailed piece occurs in several places on a member, the welding sym-
bol only needs to appear in one place, usually where the piece is detailed in
full. At other places, the piece mark, which identifies the piece, also implies
repetition of the welding (see Figure 8.39).
When a bevel or J-groove symbol is used (i.e., only one of the two members to
be joined is prepared) a break in the arrow is used to point to the member that
is to be prepared (Figure 8.40).
Plug and slot welds are other types of welds that can be readily be made with
- arc welding processes. Both plug and slot welds have common rules for weld-
ing symbol applications. For example, both use a rectangle for the weld sym-
bol. A typical plug weld application is shown in Figure 8.41.
Other features of plug welds such as size, spacing etc. are kept in line with that
previously described for other welds (see Figure 8.42). For slot welds a length
is indicated on the right side of the weld symbol.
283
-
-
-
284
-
- --
285
-
- To obtain maximum benefit from this program it is recommended that you fol-
-- low this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises
are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material
presented. If you get a question wrong go back and read that section again.
2. The 1/4 in. to the left of the fillet weld symbol refers to:
A. Length
B. Pitch
C. Weld size
D. Number of welds
E. All of the above
3. The 2 in. to the right of the fillet weld symbol refers to:
A. Weld length
B. Size
C. Spacing between weld ends
D. Pitch
E. Finish
5. The circle where the arrow breaks from the reference line stands for:
A. Field weld
B. Groove symbol
C. Weld all-around
D. Fillet symbol
E. None of the above
286
-
A B C
D E
7. In the adjacent welding symbol, the weld symbol shown on the other side
represents a:
A. V-groove weld
B. Back weld
C. Melt-through weld
D. Partial penetration weld
E. A and B
287
-
288
-
289
-
-- 1. C
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. C
6. A, D, E, B, C
7. C
8. B
9. D
10. A. 30
B. 1/8
C. 1/8
11.
12.
290
-
13.
291
-
-
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The welding supervisor is the primary conduit for information and instruction
to the employees in his department. He is responsible as managements eyes
and ears for the progress of production, and employee performance. To be
effective, he must be the only person that gives instructions to his welders and
other assigned personnel. This clear chain of command prevents contradictory
or incorrect instructions from other sources, which could result in work being
performed without the supervisors knowledge.
The types of daily instruction the supervisor gives welders follow the four
management metrics. These metrics are:
Quality
Cost
Throughput
Safety
The quality metric provides the supervisor with a properly defined quality
standard for use by the welders. This quality standard includes visual accep-
tance criteria that define the difference between acceptable weld appearance
and defective weld appearance for each job. The existence of this standard can
also lead to the creation of welding workmanship standards, sample boards, or
weld mock ups. These physical welding aids can be used for both training and
reference by the supervisor when instructing the welder (see Chapter 2,
Requirements of a Weld). The amount of undercut or porosity allowed before
the weld is considered defective is an example of the type of information
contained in the visual acceptance criteria that would make up the quality
standard.
Visual acceptance criteria should be taught to welders so that they can inspect
their own welds as they are made. Welders should be instructed not to pass on
parts or move to the next welds until they are sure the welds just completed are
acceptable. When welds are found to be unacceptable, the welders should cor-
rect their own welding mistakes so they learn how to prevent the same type of
defective weld in the future (see Chapter 12, Welding Inspection). Also see
Figure 9.1, which demonstrates that use of the proper visual inspection by the
welder and supervisor can help ensure that any weld defect is corrected at the
welding workstation.
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The Quality Assurance function, or some other part of the company respon-
sible for verifying adherence to product or customer requirements, writes
the visual inspection procedure for each specific weld, including the weld
acceptance criteria determined by Design Engineering. When welders,
supervisors, or inspectors are inspecting a weld, they are required to use the
same weld acceptance criteria from the visual inspection procedure to
ensure consistency of weld acceptance. When this is not done, it can
become a point of contention between departments. The welding super-
visor usually ends up stuck in the middle of this contention. If everyone
follows a common visual inspection procedure, disputes are eliminated.
- - - -
- -
The welding supervisor must instruct welders to follow the essential welding
variables that are detailed in the welding procedure. For example, when the
proper electrode, gun travel, and transverse angles are maintained, when the
electrode position is correct, and the proper amperage (wire feed speed), arc
voltage, contact-tip-to-work distance, and travel speeds are followed, the weld-
ers can make defect-free welds, barring outside influences.
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performance standards are met each day. The most effective way the super-
visor can do this is by monitoring the welders performance on a daily basis.
Monitoring is necessary in all four metrics, but is most important in quality, as
daily reinforcement is necessary to maintain quality. The actual approach to
monitoring is covered in Chapter 14, Work Reports and Records.
- The welding supervisor issues instructions to the welders to help control and
minimize welding costs. These instructions focus on reducing both the arc time
and non-arc time per weldment. To control and minimize arc time, the welders
must be instructed in the proper weld size to use and the part fitup must allow
the welders to make the weld sizes specified. The supervisor needs to assure
that the welding procedures have amperage or wire feed speed values accom-
panied by appropriate arc voltages to allow the welder to maximize the deposi-
tion rate for each specific weld. The welding supervisor may need to address
welding procedures when sufficient amperage or wire feed speed values have
not been set. The welding supervisor may have to revise the welding proce-
dures and retest them to allow for the highest productivity and lowest possible
cost. Supervisors must assure that any changes in welding procedure values are
tested before the products are released for production.
Welding supervisors also need to instruct welders in the proper welding work
methods and weld sequencing to reduce non-arc time. In most cases, the weld-
ing work methods and weld sequences are designed to limit or eliminate hand
and foot movements used when welding an assembly or component. When
dealing with welding work methods and weld sequences, supervisors should be
alert and identify new opportunities to reduce the amount of non-arc time.
When this is done, the documentation needs to be changed and the welders
need to be reinstructed to use these revised welding work methods and weld
sequences. The welders are also an important source for potential improve-
ments. Supervisors should cultivate them and be mindful that listening to the
welders can be very beneficial.
Many companies now have material pull systems. Pull systems depend on
welding departments to pull the parts they need to weld assemblies or compo-
nents to a schedule and then pass the completed work on to the next operation.
The welding department must complete their portion of the value added work
so that the manufacturing operations that follow welding will be able to pull
the materials they need from welding.
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Welding supervisors must ensure that welders are capable of making quality
welds in an efficient manner to prevent the welding department from becoming
a bottleneck in the flow of materials. To accomplish this, supervisors need to
complete work within the prescribed cycle time, and ensure that the work
meets all engineering requirements, including weld quality. The throughput
metric cannot be met if the welding is not completed on time to be pulled by
the next operation, nor can it be met if the parts or the welds are defective at the
time the work is pulled.
Welding, if not done properly or if required safety equipment is not used, can
be dangerous and even life threatening. Welding safety is the responsibility of
both the welding supervisor and the welder. The welding supervisor is the
person responsible for monitoring the welders use of all safety equipment and
adhering to the safety requirements at all times. This requires the supervisor to
reinstruct welders and see that worn out or faulty safety equipment is replaced
so as to not place welders in dangerous situations. Safety and Health is covered
in detail in a separate section of this manual (see Chapter 13, Welding Health
and Safety). As the supervisor spends more time each day with the welders, it
will become easier to be aware of and safety issues and to support the welders
efforts to work safely.
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Before we begin talking about the details of the Welding Procedure Specifica-
tion (WPS), it should be noted that the supervisor may encounter different
types of WPS forms; some are suggested, none are mandatory, but they all
must have the information discussed below on them. If the supervisor encoun-
ters a form that he hasnt seen before, he should pay special attention that it
contains all of the necessary information.
Using the sample WPS as shown in AWS D1.1, Figure 9.2 demonstrates how a
welding procedure can be used by the welding supervisor to give proper
welding instructions to the welder. Most welding procedures and welder
instructions from other codes are similar for the welding supervisor.
2. Joint Design
c. Backing: Using a backing strip or bar made out of ASTM A 131 Grade A
d. Root Opening: 1/4 in. should be the fitup spacing between the two parts
being welded
If the weld joint does not match these dimensions within the tolerances of
the engineering drawing, then either the welding procedure is wrong or the
parts to be welded are wrong. In either case, the welding supervisor should
instruct the welder not to proceed until the problem is resolved.
3. Base Metals
b. Thickness: Groove is 1 in. If the weld is greater than 1/8 in. to unlim-
ited, then the procedure is being properly followed. If the thickness of
the actual weld is less than 1/8 in., then the WPS cannot be used to
make the weld.
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WELDING PROCEDURE
Fillor MAt> Is CurrAnt
Pass or
Weld Type & \f.mp~ or Wire Travel
Layer(s) Process Class Diam. PDianty Feed Spaad \lolls Spes <I Joint Details
2-8
:L l!'CAI-1
" .
E7J.'I'-1
.
.045" DC""
"
:l.BO
200
26
21 10
8
I I
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If the base metal or thickness does not agree with the WPS, the welding
supervisor must verify that he has the correct parts. The supervisor may not
always know the specification of the base material, but he can always
verify or have the welder verify the correct thickness.
4. Filler Metals
a. AWS Specification: A5.20 should appear on the side of the weld wire
spool or on the side of the bulk wire container.
b. AWS Classification: E71T-1 should appear on the side of the weld wire
spool or on the side of the bulk wire container.
If neither of these matches the welding procedure, then either the welding
supervisor or the welder must stop and replace the wire. The welding pro-
cedure should not be used on a weld joint without the correct filler metal.
5. Shielding
a. Flux: Used to identify the Submerged Arc flux that is to be used with
the filler metal wire listed above.
c. Gas: The only gas qualified to this WPS is CO2no other gas can be
used with this WPS.
e. Flow Rate: 45 CFH. This flow rate is normally set by the flow meter
mounted on the gas bottle or the wall. It should be checked by the
supervisor to see that the welder is using the right flow rate for this
WPS.
f. Gas Cup Size: #4. This gas cup size is specified since the combination
of gas type and cup size affects flow rate for effective gas shielding
during welding. If a different gas cup size is used with this WPS, it
could cause defects in the weld. (Gas cup sizes are used mostly with
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and not FCAW.)
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The supervisor must see that the gas used and the equipment set up is in
accordance with the requirements of this WPS. He must instruct the welder
to make appropriate changes when required.
6. Preheat
7. Position
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make sure that the orientation of the welded assembly is correctly posi-
tioned and is the same as the approved positions in the WPS. For a
more detailed description on welding positions, consult AWS D1.1 or
the AWS Welding Handbooks.
8. Electrical Characteristics
b. Current: This defines the type of current used in the WPS. AC or alter-
nating current is used on aluminum and some SMAW and GTAW
welding applications. DCEP or direct current electrode positive is the
most common type of current and polarity for welding. DCEN or direct
current electrode negative is used for selected applications where heat-
ing of the base metal is important or for GTAW welding with noncon-
sumable electrodes. Pulsed current is the welding process that uses a
background and peak current with pulsing from the background to the
peak at a set frequency. It can be used in GMAW to increase deposition
and penetration for out-of-position welds.
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9. Technique
e. Contact Tube to Work Distance: 3/4 in.1 in. This is one of the essen-
tial welding variables that welders control that affects penetration and
fusion. If not maintained between the allowable limits of the WPS,
weld penetration and weld strength could be negatively affected.
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This summary table includes the specific details of the actual welding for
each welding pass. It specifies the filler metal, current, arc voltage, travel
speed, and weld joint details such as welding bead placement.
From the above review of the somewhat general WPS, it should be apparent to
the welding supervisor that some of the sections in the WPS are informational
and only indirectly affect the welder during welding. Examples include Joint
Design, Base Metal/Filler Metal and Post Weld Heat Treatment. Design Engi-
neering through the Welding Specification determines these elements of the
WPS.
Some of the essential welding variables used by the welders are not in the
WPS. Examples of these include the Electrode Position, Transverse, and
Travel Angles of the Electrode. This is due to the fact that welding is a combi-
nation of technical process requirements and welder skill. Both are required to
make proper welds. Some of the skills required are not defined in a WPS.
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that WPS and demonstrate the welding skills to apply those essential elements
to a test coupon, which simulates the conditions under which the WPS is used.
The Welder Qualification Test Record (see Figure 9.3) is used to document that
- each welder has qualified to the essential elements of a WPS. The welding
supervisor is responsible for assigning a welder to a specific weld covered by a
WPS. Due to the lack of training and time constraints, the welding supervisor
may not do an adequate job of fulfilling this responsibility. This can result in
welders that are not qualified to make welds covered by the WPS being
assigned. In order to avoid this situation, the following section of the Welding
Instructions covers the elements of welder qualification that are important in
assigning welders. (See AWS D1.1 for a more detailed explanation of welder
qualification.)
1. Process Type. If the welding process in the welder qualification test record
is different from the WPS welding process, then the welder is not qualified
to use the WPS.
2. Filler Metal. For the SMAW process, if the F-number as recorded in the
welder qualification test record under the heading of Qualification range is
the same F-number or a lower F-number as recorded in the WPS, then the
welder is qualified to use the WPS.
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~e<:~d ~tu~lfVal';'es
se m ua ; 1cat1on Qualification Range
Variables
Process,Type [Table 4.11. hem ill]
Elnctrod" (mnglo or mlllriplo} [Tahto 4.11, l:"m (8)]
Current'Polaril';
loterprele:J by _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Tes:Number________________
Dat;; _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
OrganiLalion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
We, the undersigned, cedfy 1hat the statements in this record are correct and tl.at the lest welds were prepared, welded, and
tested in oorlfoflllaroc:e uith the re~J:uirernants af Set,1:ion 4 of AWS D1.1:'D1.1M, ( ) St!UL1ural Wel:Jing Code-Sleel.
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These seven variables are the only ones that the welding supervisor has to
verify before assigning a welder to a specific WPS. Other industrial and
military welding standards are structured in the same way. The welding super-
visor should check each specific standard and verify which essential welding
variables the standard requires for requalification of the welders.
- The need for the welding supervisor to give clear and detailed instructions to
his welders is critical to their quality, productivity, throughput, and safety. The
contractual requirements of a specific welding job may also require the weld-
ing supervisor to make determinations on the suitability of a WPS that will be
needed for specific weld joints, and to assign only those welders that are quali-
fied to the essential elements of a WPS. The amount of time and attention
required of the welding supervisor in these responsibilities will most likely be
more than previously but without it; the true potential of his welding depart-
ment will not be realized.
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-- 1. When the welder and welding supervisor are evaluating a weld visually for
weld quality, they must use?
A. What ever looks good
B. Follow the inspectors lead
C. Acceptance criteria
D. Not their job
E. Cannot be inspected in this fashion
2. If a fillet weld is made larger than the engineering drawing requires, which
of the following will it affect?
A. Quality Metric
B. Throughput Metric
C. Welding Procedure Specification
D. Welder Qualification
E. Cost Metric
3. When input parts are not to the proper engineering dimensions, which of
the following will be affected?
A. Quality Metric
B. Welding Procedure Specification
C. Cost Metric
D. Throughput Metric
E. All of the Above
4. Welders that do not weld using proper safety equipment will be violating
which of the following?
A. Quality Metric
B. Welding Procedure Specification
C. Cost Metric
D. None of these
E. Welders Qualification
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-- 1. C
2. E
3. E
4. D
5. A
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The Five Welding Dos Goals break down welding economics so that it can be
applied to each aspect of welding. In this chapter the Five Welding Dos Goals
will be used to explain the economics of welding. As a refresher, these Dos
Goals are:
Specific welding terms that will be used and defined in this chapter are as
follows:
Deposition Weight
Deposition Rates
Deposition Efficiency
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Operating Factor
Non-Arc Time
The most important equation from the viewpoint of welding and weld produc-
tivity is:
Total Labor Time is the amount of time required by the welder to complete the
assigned task.
Total Arc Time is the amount of arc time a welder spends during one welding
cycle. Measured in minutes, Total Arc Time is often used as a basis to compare
the amount of welding time per hour. When converted to a percentage of Total
Arc Time of welding per hour, this time is referred to as the Operating or
Operator Factor.
Non-Arc Time is the time used by a welder to perform tasks other than welding,
such as:
Setup time
Grinding
Inspection
Cleaning
The concepts of Total Arc Time and Operating Factor appear to be simple, but
in controlling the cost of welding, all factors involved are expressed in this
equation. The Five Welding Dos Goals are used to help the welding supervi-
sor focus on improving each welders Operating Factor.
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Dos Goals 1 and 2 focuses on reducing the arc time per weldment. Dos Goal
3 focuses on reducing both the Total Arc Time and the Non-Arc Time. Dos
Goals 4 and 5 focus on reducing Non-Arc Time. Together all Five Welding
Dos Goals result in the lowest Total Labor Time for any welding operation or
complete weldment.
We will now review in some detail how welding economics are improved by
focusing on each of the Five Welding Dos Goals.
- Weld Metal Volume is the amount of filler metal consumed in making welds.
The two most common types of welds are the fillet weld and the groove weld.
-
The fillet weld is the most commonly used type of weld joint. To understand
the economic impact of weld metal volume, it is important to understand how
the volume of a given fillet welds size is calculated.
To calculate the area of this triangular shape, it is necessary to view this triangle
as one-half of a square. Multiply the length of one side by the length of the other
side. This is the area of the square. The triangular fillet makes up one half of the
square. To calculate the area of the triangle, divide the area of the square by 2.
--
- - I )
Area of the fillet weld = a (one side of the triangle) I b (the other side of the
triangle) and then divide by 2.
The lengths of the fillet weld sides shown in these calculations are the
same sizes that a welder or supervisor sees when they measure a fillet
weld using a fillet weld gage. For example, a 1/4 in. fillet weld size on the
gage is the same 1/4 in. leg size shown here.
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If both sides of the triangle are equal in length (an equal leg fillet weld) or a =
b = leg, then the equation could be written as:
A = (a I b)/2
A = (leg I leg)/2
A = (leg)2/2
Where the term (leg)2 means that one fillet weld leg length is being multiplied
by the other fillet weld leg length, which is the same size. Leg is the size of
fillet specified on the engineering print.
A 1/4 in. fillet weld has two equal legs, each 1/4 in. in length. The area of this
1/4 in. fillet weld is calculated as follows:
Area = (0.0625)/2
The next step to calculate total weld metal volume for a given weld is to multi-
ply the area by the length of the weld. For example, if a weld is 12 in. long, the
total weld metal volume is 12 in. I the Area (A). To calculate the volume for a
fillet weld of a different length, substitute the new length (such as 30 in). for
the 12 in. shown in the following example.
For the previously described 1/4 in. fillet weld, the deposited volume per linear
foot of weld is calculated as follows:
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = 0.0625 sq. in. I 12/2
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Compared to fillet welds, groove weld calculations are a little more difficult to
do, but with practice will become easier. If we wanted to calculate the volume
of weld metal deposited in one running foot (12 in.) of butt weld, with gap W
and thickness T, then multiplying W I T I 12 in. will give you the required
volume of this groove weld.
Figure 10.2 shows the calculations for a butt joint, square groove weld.
- -
-- -
Where:
W = Width of the gap
T = Thickness of the plate
Butt joint, square groove weld with 1/8 in. gap and 3/16 in. thickness of plate
(see Figure 10.2).
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = 0.125 in. I 0.1875 in. I 12 in.
When working with beveled groove welds, the calculations get a little more
complicated. However, following this breakdown of the calculations should
make them more understandable.
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The first new term is the tangent angle of a right triangle; we have already been
discussing right triangles when discussing fillet welds. We saw that when one
of the sides of the triangle was multiplied by the other and divided by 2, you
could obtain the cross-sectional area of the triangle. Now, we will use that
triangle to help calculate the area of a beveled groove weld. We do this by
using trigonometry and specifically the relationship between one of the angles
in the triangle and the length of two of the sides of the triangle.
-
)
The angle as shown in Figure 10.3 has an angle which we call theta (a Greek
alphabet letter) and denote by using the symbol . This symbol can represent
any angle in degrees. By using trigonometry we know that the sides a and
b are related to the size of this angle by the following formula:
a = tan Ib
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In part A1 we know that the thickness T is the same as side b in our equa-
tion, and that tan is the angle of the bevel cut into the plate. Since we dont
know what side a is, we can find it by the following formula:
a = tan IT
and if we now side a and side T, then it is just like our fillet weld triangle:
A1 = a I T 2
We can also see that area A3 is the same as A1; then all that remains to be done
is to calculate the center block A2, which is calculated just like the square
groove weld in the earlier example.
A1 + A2 + A3 = (a I T 2) + (W I T) + (a I T 2)
A1 + A2 + A3 = {(tan I T) I T 2} + (W I T) + {(tan I T) I T 2}
To convert the cross-sectional area into deposited volume per linear foot of
weld, it is only necessary to multiply the above equation by 1 foot (12 in.).
15 0.268
30 0.577
45 1.000
60 1.732
75 3.732
Where:
Tan = Angle that the bevel on the plate is cut, such as 30 angle
T = Thickness of the plate
W = Width of the gap between the plates; if there is no gap, W = 0
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Butt joint, V-groove weld of 30 angle, with a gap of 1/8 in. and a plate thick-
ness of 1/2 in.
To convert the deposited weld metal volume into a deposited filler metal
weight the following equation is used:
Deposited Weight = DV
Where:
= Specific density of deposited metal
DV = Deposited Volume
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Using the previous example where the deposited volume was 0.237 cubic
inches and the weld metal is steel with a specific density of 0.283 lbs./cu. in.,
the deposited weld metal will be calculated as:
Deposited Weight = DV
This calculation demonstrates that the smaller the deposited weld metal
weight, the less time it takes to make the weld and the less filler metal is
required.
- --
When deciding which type of weld joint to use, the choice becomes a trade off
between the cost of the weld preparation time for a groove weld vs. the addi-
tional deposited weld metal needed to make a fillet weld of equal strength. In
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sheet metal and light plate thicknesses, the comparison usually favors the use
of fillet welds. In heavier plate, the advantage in productivity shifts to groove
welds. The transition point usually occurs with fillet welds of less than 5/8 in.
to 3/4 in. leg size. In some cases it can occur before, depending on an individ-
ual companys cost of weld groove preparation.
Once a groove weld has been selected over a fillet weld, then the decision whether
to use a single-sided weld joint (single bevel or single V-groove) or a double-
sided weld joint (double bevel or double V-groove) must be made. As the plate
thickness increases, the amount of extra deposited weld metal needed to make a
single-sided groove weld will exceed the cost of double-sided joint preparation.
Where this changeover point occurs will in part be affected by the companys
cost of making weld joint preparations, but in most cases this point occurs in
groove welds when the thickness of the metal exceeds 1-1/8 in.
Another factor that can affect the requirement to use the least amount of filler
metal is the need to control distortion in the welded plates. When welding is
done from one side only, the amount of weld metal deposited about the neutral
axis of the plate being welded is unbalanced, which can lead to distortion of the
material about that axis. In most cases, depositing the same amount of filler
metal on each side of the neutral axis will result in the least amount of distortion.
When backgouging is not required (e.g., for a partial joint penetration weld)
this is achieve by equal groove preparations on both sides. When backgouging
is required (e.g., for a complete joint penetration weld) this is accomplished by
making the first side of welding deeper than the second side. When the back-
gouging operation is performed from the second side into the root of the first
side, the resulting groove on each side will be equivalent. A 2/3 (first side) 1/3
(second side) is often used to achieve this result.
The second potential source of overwelding is the welder. Once the Design
Engineer has specified the weld size required, the welder must make the weld
that size and length. Any weld greater than those amounts results in overwelding.
The third potential source of overwelding is parts fitup. If a weld fillet has a
gap greater than 1/16 in. the welder is required to weld a larger fillet than the
engineering print specifies, which results in overwelding. If a groove weld
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The welding supervisor does not have control over Design Engineering, but
does exercise supervision over the welders and, to a degree, the fitup. There-
fore, the welding supervisor can effect how large a weld is being made.
Figure 10.6 illustrates the effect that overwelding can have on costs. The
examples use a fillet weld for ease of comparison.
A 3/16 in. fillet weld volume per inch length is 0.0175 cubic inches, a 1/4 in.
fillet weld volume per inch of length is 0.031 cubic inches. The subtraction of
0.0175 from 0.031 = 0.0135 cubic inches of deposited metal savings. The
0.0135 when divided by the small fillet weld volume will show the percentage
of savings, 0.0135 divided by 0.0175 = 78% volume savings when making a
fillet weld to engineering size that is 3/16 in. instead of overwelding the fillet
weld 1/4 in.
As shown in Figure 10.6, the difference in filler metal volume can range from a
43% to a 124% increase if the weld leg size is larger than the size required by
just 1/16 in. This difference can be even greater if the leg size is oversized by
more than a 1/16 in.
As shown in Figure 10.7, having just one leg of the fillet weld oversized can
lead to significant overwelding. A further example is the effect on cost of mak-
ing a 1/4 in. fillet weld with one leg oversized. This overwelding example
results in a fillet with one leg 1/4 in. and the other leg 5/16 in. This increases
weld metal volume by almost 26%. If the oversized leg is 3/8 in., which can
happen with horizontal fillet welds, the increase in weld metal volume will be
almost 52%. This results in a cost of overwelding of more than 50% in both
filler metal and welder arc time.
At the same time, overwelding can also occur when doing intermittent or partial
length fillet welds where the length of fillet weld is specified by the design engi-
neer. If the welder fails to make a fillet weld of this length, but instead makes
the weld longer, the additional weld length is also considered as overwelding.
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- - -
The same logic for overwelding can be applied to groove welding where
excessive increase in the groove angle, gap opening, or depth of penetration
above what is specified in the design requirements results in additional filler
metal. This additional filler metal requirement consumes more pounds of filler
metal material, as well as taking additional welder time.
If the Design Engineer specified a 3/16 in. fillet weld leg size on an engineer-
ing drawing, and the welder made a 5/16 in. weld, this would result in an
increase in weld metal volume and therefore deposited filler metal weight of
177%. The result, independent of the deposition rate used, would require 177%
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I
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more arc time per weldment to complete. For example, the welder making a 3/
16 in. fillet weld one foot long would require 36 seconds, the same weld with a
5/16 in. fillet weld using the same welding parameters would require 1 minute
and 39 seconds to complete. A welder could complete approximately three
feet of weld using a 3/16 in. fillet in the same time that would be required to
make a 5/16 in. fillet one foot long.
It is obvious that a major reduction in the amount of arc time required to make
a length of weld is greatly impacted by the size of the weld being made.
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A welding supervisor can do little to impact the weld size designed for the part,
except to be aware of its impact and alert the Designer Engineer whenever a
change in weld size is warranted. Overwelding occurring due to welder perfor-
mance and joint fitup is to a degree controllable by the welding supervisor. The
supervisor can ensure that the welders periodically check their welds using a
fillet weld or weld reinforcement gage to verify that the welds are made to size
(see Figure 10.8). This practice not only prevents overwelding, but also guards
against undersized welds that could lead to weld failures or repairs. The super-
visor should periodically check the welders joint fitups to verify that welds are
being made to the specified size and length. This type of monitoring can dem-
onstrate the importance of weld sizes if the welders supervisor takes the time
to check them.
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- The Arc Time Per Weldment is the amount of time the welding arc is main-
tained while making a specific length of weld.
The Arc Time Per Weldment should not be confused with Total Arc Time.
Total Arc Time is the amount of time a welder is able to weld out of each labor
hour. Total Arc Time is used to calculate the Operating Factor.
Once the supervisor has established that welds are being made to specified size
and length, the next Dos Goal is to Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment. To
accomplish this, the supervisor must understand the importance of welding
procedures and the wire feed speed/amperage and arc voltage essential weld-
ing variables that the procedure specifies. In all welding processes, the ability
of the welder to obtain the lowest arc time per weldment is the result of using
the highest wire feed speed/amperage and corresponding arc voltage possible
to achieve the maximum Deposition Rate (pounds of deposit) (see Figure 10.9).
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The Deposition Rate is the amount of filler metal wire/electrode that a welder
can deposit in one hour using specified amperage or wire feed speed with
100% Operating Factor.
The highest possible Deposition Rate allows the welder to produce the maxi-
mum amount of weld footage in a given period of time. Maximum weld foot-
age is achieved by making welds of the proper size and length (Dos Goal 1)
and depositing the greatest amount of filler metal in accordance with the
specified wire feed speed/amperage contained in the welding procedure (Dos
Goal 2).
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As is evident in these welding process charts, the higher the amperage used
during the arc-on welding time, the greater the Deposition Rate will be. The
welder should be trained to use the highest amperage specified by the welding
procedure. The welding procedure should be qualified or tested to identify the
highest amperage value that can be used in a specific welding application.
A welder using the Gas Metal Arc Welding Process (GMAW) is using 0.045 in.
diameter solid wire at 260 amperes (300 ipm) depositing 8 lbs./hr. making a
1/4 in. fillet weld. If the same welder is able to use 340 amperes (500 ipm) and
deposit 13 lbs./hr. how much more welding will be done at the higher amper-
age in 1 minute of welding arc time?
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At 260 amperes the welder deposits 0.133 lbs. of wire in one minute. This
amount of metal used to make the 1/4 in. fillet weld with no overwelding
results in 15.1 in. of fillet weld length per minute (the 15.1 in. is the result of
dividing the 0.133 lbs. of wire by the weight of one inch of 1/4 in. fillet weld
which is 0.0088 lbs./in.). The same welder welding at 340 amperes depositing
13 lbs./hr. and welding 1/4 in. fillet for one minute will make 25 in. of weld.
From this example it is easy to see that welding using the highest permissible
amperage (wire feed speed) for a given application will result in the lowest arc
time per weldment. In this example the increase in productivity is 63% by just
the reduction of Arc Time Per Weldment though the use of higher amperages.
A welder must weld 120 inches of 1/4 in. fillet weld in a welded assembly. If
the welder uses the GMAW process with 0.035 in. wire and 205 amperes, the
deposit rate is 6.4 lbs./hr. The metal is carbon steel with a metal density of
0.283 cu. in. How much time in arc minutes will it take to weld the assembly?
If the same welder used 230 amperes with a Deposition Rate of 7.5 lbs./hr. and
all other variables remained the same, how many arc time minutes would be
required to weld one assembly?
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The savings in arc welding time minutes per unit length is 9.8 minutes 8.4
minutes or 1.4 minutes for each welded assembly. 1.4 9.8 shows a savings of
14% of arc welding time per assembly. If the company was to weld 200 of
these assemblies each day and each welder used the higher amperage, the sav-
ings would amount to 4.6 man-hours per day. This savings resulted from just a
25-ampere higher setting.
Once the deposited weight of weld metal is known, it is easy to calculate how
much filler metal has been used.
Filler Metal Bought represents the amount of filler metal needed to make a par-
ticular weld. It is calculated by taking the Deposited Metal (pounds) and divid-
ing it by the Deposition Efficiency. Deposition Efficiency is the value for each
weld process that represents how much filler metal of weld wire or electrode is
actually deposited. This amount is different for each welding process and is
always less than 100%.
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It should be clear to the welding supervisor that Dos Goals 1 and 2, when
applied, Reduce The Arc Time Per Length of weld.
When Dos Goals 1 and 2 have been used to Reduce The Arc Time Per Weld-
ment, the arc time per labor hour is also reduced. This occurs because the
welding arc time is less. Up to this point, no reduction in the Non-Arc Time
has occurred. With Dos Goals 1 and 2, the amount of time the welder spends
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each labor hour in welding is reduced because the Arc Time Per Weldment is
reducedwhich requires less time to do the same amount of welding.
As the arc time decreases, the non-arc time minutes remain the same; there-
fore, the labor time will decrease by the same amount of time that the arc time
decreases.
Another very powerful method of cost reduction that the supervisor should
know is the reduction in the number of welds. When a weld is eliminated, both
the Arc Time and Non-Arc Time are reduced, which can have a significant
effect. A typical example would be an increase in the pitch for intermittent
welds or the use of staggered welds. Although these are design responsibilities,
the supervisors can contribute though their knowledge of weld economics.
The belief was that if quality, expressed by the need to make welded compo-
nents to the engineered quality standard was emphasized, then productivity
would suffer. Conversely, if productivity or schedule was emphasized, espe-
cially in the end of the month shipping frenzy, then quality would suffer. Dos
Goal 3 will actually show that not only are quality and productivity not in con-
flict, they compliment each other, because meeting quality standards helps
improve productivity.
The Reduction of Rejects, Rework, and Scrap can affect both Welding Arc
Time and Non-Arc Time. If a reject is found and the weld is to be repaired,
then removal of the defect will require Non-Arc Time. Rewelding of the
repaired area will require additional arc time over the time to make the original
weld. In this case, the Non-Arc Time to remove the defect and the arc time to
reweld the repaired area will add to the original labor time and increase the
overall cost of the part.
If the defective weld requires the part to be scrapped, then the entire setup,
fitup, and welding operation will have to be repeated. The amount of work to
make two production parts is invested to make one good part. The arc and
Non-Arc Time to make the replacement part is additional cost without any pro-
ductive benefit.
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The welding supervisor can do a great deal to effect the quality and workman-
ship of the welders. The supervisor is the one individual that observes the
welders more than any other person in management. The supervisor is respon-
sible for giving orders and work instructions to the welders. Both the welders
and management look to the supervisor for leadership. Many supervisors see
this as a difficult assignment to fulfill, and lack the confidence necessary to
meet this responsibility, especially when it comes to quality issues. To meet
this challenge, the supervisor needs both to instruct and to monitor the welders.
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All welders should be instructed in the essential welding variables for the
welding process they are using. Refer to Chapters 36 (SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW, and SAW).
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With some variation, the essential welding variables for all arc-welding
processes are the same. These variables for the more common arc welding
processes are contained in Chapters 36 (SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, and SAW).
For the sake of continuity, the seven essential welding variables will be briefly
reviewed here.
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The first two essential welding variables are taken together, because within
limits, they must always be in balance. As seen in Dos Goal 2, the desire is to
always maximize amperage within acceptable limits of the welding procedure
for the weld joint application. From a weld quality standpoint, an arc voltage
that will support a given amperage is needed to avoid welding defects such as
undercut and cold lap. A good welding procedure reflects a narrow range of
amperage and arc voltages that will support the need for these two variables to
maintain an acceptable balance.
Travel Speed
The third essential welding variable, travel speed, is determined by weld size
as defined in Dos Goal 1. Once the welder has set the amperage and arc volt-
age, he will achieve the correct travel speed by making a weld of the correct
size in accordance with Dos Goal 1. The welder that is tasked with making a
1/4 in. fillet weld where the amperage and arc voltage have been set, will move
the electrode at a speed so that the deposited filler metal deposits a 1/4 in. fillet
weld. This movement rate results in a specific travel speed. If the travel speed
is too slow the weld will be oversized and miss meeting the Dos Goal 1, or it
will have rollover resulting in cold lap and not meet Dos Goal 3. If the travel
speed is too fast, the weld will be undersized and therefore defective and not
meet Dos Goal 3. This variable normally appears in welding procedures
If the electrode extension is too short, excessive heat for the wire feed speed
will go into the base metal and possibly result in excessive melting and even
burn through of the base metal.
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The fifth essential welding variable, transverse gun angle, is the angle trans-
verse to the axis of weld and the direction of the travel of the welding elec-
trode. This angle affects the balance between the fillet weld legs as well as the
arc force. These variables control bead shape, fillet weld leg size, and weld
bead tie-in. Improper transverse angle control can lead to defective weld condi-
tions requiring rework. This essential welding variable is not normally speci-
fied in a welding procedure, however, it is as important as those included and
should be addressed by both the supervisor and the welder to make sure that
the proper transverse angle is used.
Travel Angle
Travel angle, the sixth essential welding variable, is defined as the angle that
lies in the direction of the weld axis and the travel of the welding electrode.
This angle is defined by whether a weld is made in the push forehand position,
or the pull backhand position. Bead shape, penetration, and weld bead fusion
are affected by this essential welding variable. Maintaining control over this
variable will contribute to making a quality weld. This variable also does not
normally appear in a standard welding procedure; however, it should be under-
stood, observed, and followed consistently if Dos Goal 3 is to be achieved.
Electrode Position
This seventh essential welding variable controls where the electrode impinges
on the surface of the base metal. For a fillet weld of only one weld bead the
electrode will, in general, be aimed by the welder at the root or junction of the
mating base metal plates being joined. This may be altered somewhat by weld-
ing processes such as FCAW, where a large weld using a large diameter wire is
used to make a horizontal fillet. If it is other than a single or root pass, the elec-
trode position will be in accordance with good bead placement for multipass
welding. This variable is sometimes specified in the welding procedure. It is
essential that the welder control this essential welding variable to prevent roll-
over, undercut, slag entrapment, incomplete fusion, and incomplete penetration
(see Figure 10.10).
Control of these seven variables leads to consistent quality results. The super-
visor must ensure that the welder knows and understands how to follow these
variables, and has mastered the skills to follow them under diverse welding
conditions. Where welders cannot follow these variables, due to accessibility
problems because of component assembly or welding fixtures, the supervisor
must resolve the situation by working with engineering.
After the welders have been adequately instructed in the seven essential
welding variables, the welding supervisor must monitor each welder daily to
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assure that the specified variables are being followed, thus ensuring long-term
sustainability of welding quality.
Welding supervisors must monitor the welders each day to ensure that the
welders are following the welding procedures, instructions, and are welding in
accordance with the essential welding variables (see Chapter 12, Welding
Inspection).
Monitoring can take many forms, but should achieve the following results:
that welders are welding in accordance with the essential welding variables
for the welding process they are using.
that after a weld is completed, the welder visually inspects the weld to
ensure there are no defects.
that the welder knows the acceptance criteria for visual inspection and
applies them correctly.
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In all cases, if the welder is unable to perform the required process or proce-
dure to the required degree of proficiency, additional training and or instruc-
tion may be required.
Following the completion of welds and visual inspection by the welders, the
supervisor should perform random samplings of all welds made during that
work shift to ensure that only quality product is being made and sent on to the
next operation or to the customer.
- Dos Goal 4 encompasses the adage of Work Smarter, Not Harder. The
effort to meet Dos Goal 4 will result in a decrease in the amount of Non-Arc
Time that the welder spends each hour during the work shift. It is important
that the supervisor recognizes that the welder is asked to perform a number of
non-arc welding tasks. Some of the tasks are necessary, such as assembling
parts into a fixture for welding. However, no matter how necessary a task is,
the amount of effort required by the welder should always be minimized. If the
supervisor is sensitive to the importance of making improvements to reduce
work effort, many opportunities can be found. Some of these opportunities
include the following:
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Alignment of Subassemblies and Parts. The more time the welder spends
trying to get parts properly oriented, especially without proper welding
fixtures or alignment tools, the more time is wasted in unnecessary work
effort.
Ease of Use of Welding Fixtures. Bring the work to the welder properly,
and adjust the height of the fixture to allow the welder to work in a less
strenuous position.
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it is easy to see that a decrease in work effort and the welders fatigue results in
a decrease in Non-Arc Time. Therefore, a given number or welds or parts can
be completed in a shorter period of time. By decreasing the Non-Arc Time, the
Operating Factor is also improved. The formula is:
Since Total Labor Time is decreased as Non-Arc Time decreases and the Arc
Time/Hr. remains the same, the value of the Operating Factor increases. When-
ever the Operating Factor increases by virtue of a decrease in the Non-Arc
Time, the productivity of the welding operation improves. Conversely, when-
ever the arc time/unit length is reduced by an increase in the deposition rate or
making welds to size, the Operating Factor will decrease. Hence, both an
increase and reduction in the Operating Factor can increase productivity as
long as the Labor Time is decreasing. The effect this productivity has on the
Operating Factor depends on whether the Arc Time or the Non-Arc Time is
reduced.
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If the operator is able to reduce Non-Arc Time by one hour by reducing the
work effort through fixture improvement or repositioning the welds, the new
Total Labor Time and Operating Factor will be as follows:
- Welder Motion and Delay Time is affected by work area layout, weld fixturing
and tooling, equipment downtime, and any hand, foot or body movement that
is required to complete the welding task. These activities comprise the Non-
Arc Time of the welder. Any project that decreases the time for these activities
will reduce the Non-Arc Time and thereby increase the Operating Factor (see
Figure 10.12).
When looking at Reduction of Motion and Delay Time, the supervisor needs to
differentiate between the Non-Arc Time tasks that are necessary and those that
are unnecessary. The objective for the supervisor in meeting Dos Goal 5 is to
reduce all Non-Arc Time as much as possible. Necessary Non-Arc Time tasks
can never be completely eliminated but their times can be reduced. Non-Arc
Time steps that are unnecessary can be completely eliminated.
Layout
Tacking of parts (if parts are positioned in a fixture, this task may be elimi-
nated)
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All of the above tasks are necessary as part of welding. The supervisor can
influence and control the amount of time that is used in performing these tasks.
For example, if the parts needed to be loaded into a weld fixture are properly
placed around the fixture, the welder can save a lot of hand, foot, and body
movements. Without proper parts positioning the welder can spend an inordi-
nate amount of time walking or reaching to pick up parts.
As another example, the amount of grinding that the welder does can be greatly
influenced by the size and shape of the weld bead. A properly shaped weld
bead that is made to size can be ground in a fraction of the time of an oversized
weld. Too often when welders know they are going to grind a weld they will
not put the proper care into that weld to control weld size. This leads to addi-
tional grinding by the welder to produce an acceptable finished weld surface.
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It is evident from these examples that both the welder and the welding super-
visor affect the time required for non-arc necessary tasks that the welder must
perform. One of the most valuable activities for the supervisor is to spend time
in the workstations with the welders to observe, monitor, and support their
daily activities. The amount of savings that can be realized by observing and
thereby reducing necessary non-arc welding time can be significant.
The elimination of non-arc welding time for unnecessary tasks should not
be neglected. A problem with these tasks is that in some cases they have
been occurring for so long that they have taken on the appearance of necessary
tasks. The following examples are unnecessary tasks that can sometimes seem
necessary:
Delaying caused by filler metals and consumable parts not readily available
The problem with the above list is that too often many of these issues seem
unfixable. The belief is that since they have been happening for so long that
nothing can be done about them. Or they only happen occasionally and there-
fore are not a big deal. Both of these beliefs are not true.
Much of what causes the welders to perform unnecessary tasks are little things
that keep happening throughout the course of the shift. The fact that they are
just little things and many do not take up a considerable amount of time is not
really the issue. The real issue is that these tasks happen repeatedly to many
welders and on most shifts. These types of issues are systemic problems that,
when traced back to their source and solved, will yield significant reductions in
wasted motion and delay time.
For the welding supervisor it is important not that they solve all of these prob-
lems, but that they consistently monitor and report occurrences without becom-
ing complacent. The following example serves to illustrate this point.
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A company has a 15% Operating Factor, and a welding component cycle time
of 60 minutes. This equates to an arc time per hour of:
If the company were able to save, through the elimination of some Non-Arc
Time unnecessary tasks, and reduce the time duration of some necessary Non-
Arc Time tasks, a total of 10 minutes out of 51 Non-Arc Time minutes, the
new Non-Arc Time will be 51 10 = 41 minutes.
With this reduction of non arc time by 10 minutes, what would the Total Labor
Time, Operating Factor and productivity improvement be?
As previously shown:
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Several important arguments can be made from this example. The most com-
pelling is that a 10-minute savings achieved from reducing Non-Arc Time
tasks results in a 16.6% productivity improvement. To achieve the same
amount of productivity improvement from Arc Time would mean completely
eliminating all the welding time and 1 minute more. This of course is a physi-
cal impossibility. Since Non-Arc Time is a much greater percentage of the
welders Total Labor Time than Arc Time, the potential for improvement is
greatest with Non-Arc Time.
A method can be used to determine the present Operating Factor for any
company, either by department, section, or company-wide by the following
steps:
1. Take the number of welders using the same process for a given department,
section, or company-wide and calculate how many hours they have worked
over a specific period of time such as one year, one month or one week.
2. Survey the welding machines that these welders are using and establish a
good representative average welding current or wire feed speed. From this
number a filler metal deposition rate can be determined.
3. For the same period of time, determine how many pounds of wire or elec-
trodes have been issued and used by the welders in the area under consider-
ation. Take this weight of filler metal or electrodes and multiple it by the
deposition efficiency factor to get the amount of deposited filler metal.
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4. Take this deposited filler metal figure and divide it by the filler metal
deposition rate. The result will be the arc time in hours at 100% Operating
Factor that it would take to deposit all of the filler metal consumed.
5. Take this arc time and divide it by the number of welder hours from Step 1
and this will give a rough Operating Factor. The accuracy of this approach
will depend on how accurate the quantity of filler metal used is, the accu-
racy of the amperage or wire feed speed of the welding, and the accuracy of
the number of actual welder hours for doing welding.
If the companys Total Labor Time for welders was 5000 man-hours, then
the Operating Factor = Arc Time Total Labor Time or
A company has 150 welders using the Flux Cored Arc Welding process, using
0.052 in. diameter wire at an average of 200 amperes. Over a one-year period
these welders consumed 350,000 pounds of Flux Core Arc wire. Over this one-
year period what was their Operating Factor?
Step 1. 150 welders I 1700 hrs./year = 255,000 Hours used by the Flux Core
Arc Welders.
Step 2. 200 amperes using 0.052 in. wire would yield 6.0 pounds/hr. of
welder deposition rate at a 100% Operating Factor.
Step 3. Company records showed that 350,000 pounds of Flux Core Wire
were consumed by the welders during the one-year period.
Step 4. 297,000 pounds 6.0 pounds/hr. = 49,583 hrs. of arc time to weld this
quantity of wire if welding at 100% Operating Factor.
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Operating Factor = 49,583 arc time hrs. 255,000 Total Labor Hours.
Lets take a real life example to help demonstrate how the welding econom-
ics work and what the benefits can be from following the five Dos Goals.
The welding supervisor has a crew with ten welders. The supervisor does an
initial review of the welding of these ten welders and finds the following:
Although the average size of the fillet welds shown on the engineering
drawings is 1/4 in., the welders are depositing a 5/16 in. fillet weld by mea-
surement. From the comparison chart in Figure 10.6, the supervisor real-
izes that the welders are overwelding by 57% by volume and weight of
filler metal. Since, the welding arc time is 2,968 man-hours, correcting the
welding sizes and making 1/4 in. size fillet welds would result in a gain in
welding footage equivalent to 1,692 additional arc-welding hours.
The supervisor then checks each welders weld parameters. They are using
Gas Metal Arc Welding Process with a 0.045 in. diameter wire in the spray
mode with an average wire feed speed of 300 inches per minute, which has
a deposition rate from the chart of 8.0 lbs./hr. The supervisor also knows
that with a little retraining the welders could learn to weld at 500 inches per
minute with a new deposition rate of 13.0 lbs./hr. This change in deposition
rate would result in a reduction of arc time per weldment of 38%. Using the
new deposition rate would be the equivalent increase in welding footage of
1,127 additional arc-welding hours.
The supervisor also looks at the welders rework and repair rate. In this
example, almost all defect conditions in the welding department are
resolved by rework and repair, not by scrapping the defective parts. The
supervisor, by closely monitoring the welders, finds that 10% of the welds
made require either rework or repair and that most is due to the welders not
following the welding procedures and essential welding variables. The
supervisor soon realizes that by correcting this situation by having the
welders work in accordance with the essential welding variables, results in
the rework and repair rate being reduced by 50%. The rework and repair
was found to consume 890 man-hours a year. A reduction of 50% would
result in a savings of 445 man-hours a year.
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Step 2. 300 amperes using 0.045 in. wire would yield 8.0 lbs./hr. of
welder deposition rate at a 100% operating factor.
Step 3. Records showed that the welders consumed 25,000 pounds of Gas
Metal Arc Solid Wire during the one-year period.
25,000 lbs. I 0.95 (deposition efficiency for Gas Metal Arc Wire)
= 23,750 lbs. of deposited filler metal
Step 4. 23,750 lbs. 8.0 lbs./hr. = 2,968 hrs. of arc time to weld this quan-
tity of wire if welding at 100% Operating Factor.
This operating factor means that 82.5% of the welders time is spent in Non-
Arc Time activities. In other words, of the 17,000 hours spent by the ten weld-
ers and only 2,968 Arc Time hours the other 14,032 hours were spent doing
Non-Arc Time (necessary and unnecessary) things as previously discussed.
However, some of this time was used either doing rework and repair, or as
work effort and was lost and wasted time. The supervisor found that by identi-
fying the unnecessary time losses and reducing the necessary tasks to more
efficient times, a savings of 20% in Non-Arc Time could be achieved. Since
the Non-Arc Time is 14,032 hours this would result in a labor-hour savings of
approximately 2,800 hours per year.
After the welding supervisor made these improvements, the results achieved
were quantified for productivity and dollar cost improvement.
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These total savings represent slightly over 35% overall productivity improvement.
The total cost benefit of these improvements can be calculated by obtaining the
companys labor rate + benefits + overhead fixed costs. This figure for most
companies is available from the accountant or comptroller of the company. For
the sake of this example, a rate of $45.00/hr. will be used.
With this example it is easy to see that the welding supervisor can make a
significant productivity and cost savings impact for his company by using the
information available in this manual and making improvements in his own
department.
Lets take a look at another real life, everyday situation in the environment that
we all work in every day.
All 3 welders have been asked to weld 500 feet of 3/16 in. fillet weld at
250 amps with a 45% arc time. Carbon steel that has a density of 0.283 pounds
per cubic inch is being welded.
NOTE: 45% arc time is 27 minutes of every hour, or 3 hours and 36 minutes
of the work day.
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There is also a reason why 500 feet was chosen: this will become evident
momentarily.
WELDER A
500 feet I 0.0596 = 29.8 pounds of weld metal deposited into the joint.
At 250 amps, depositing 8.2 pounds an hour, the welder can weld 137.6 feet an
hour at 100% arc time.
In an 8 hour day, he can weld 1100 feet. Now with a 45% arc time, he can weld
495.3 feet a day. Rounded off, that is 500 feet and the reason why I chose it as
our baseline.
So 35.05 pounds of wire times $1.25 a pound equals $43.82 for consumable
cost.
Welder A: Cost equals $379.82 to weld 500 feet of 3/16 in. fillet weld at
250 amps.
WELDER B
Welder B slightly overwelds and gives us a 1/4 in. fillet instead of the 3/16 in.
we asked for. He also only welds at 225 amps and with an arc time of 35%.
Lets do the math.
500 feet I 0.106 = 53.06 pounds of weld metal deposited into the joint.
53.06 ) 7.0 = 7.58 hours at 100% arc time. At 35% arc time, labor hours will
be 21.65.
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Welder B: The direct cost for this weld is $987.30 to weld the 500 feet. The
resulting weld is 1/16 in. larger than specified and the total assembly
weighs almost 27 lbs. more than the engineer wanted. Welder B also took
more than 13 extra hours to deliver this out-of-spec weld.
WELDER C
Now returning to our original premisewe are looking at a real life, everyday
situation. So lets use Welder C as our realistic welder.
His foreman is not checking his weld size, nor his amperage and never
instructed him as to any kind of footage expectancy. So what do you get from
Welder C?
He overwelds a 3/16 in. fillet and gives us a 5/16 in. fillet. His amperage is 180
and at the end of the day he had a 20% arc time. Lets do the math.
500 feet I 0.165 = 82.9 pounds of weld metal deposited into the joint.
82.9 ) 5.08 = 16.31 hours at 100% arc time. At 20% arc time, labor hours will
be 81.6.
Welder C: The direct cost for this weld is $3,599.06 to weld 500 feet. The
resulting weld is 1/8 in. larger than specified and the total assembly weighs
almost 62.45 lbs. more than the engineer required. Welder C also took
more than 73.6 extra hours to deliver this out-of-spec weld.
Welder A: $379.82
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- Based upon the examples used in this chapter, you are now aware that actual
Operating Factors are lower than what you might have expected. Many super-
visors think that their welders are making welds the majority of the time the
welders are at their workstations. Experience and surveys have shown that this
is not the casewhich is why so much improvement is possible when sound
principals are used to achieve the Five Welding Dos Goals.
As shown, the supervisor can affect every facet of welding economics and
productivity through the use of the Five Welding Dos Goals.
A quick review of the actions that the welding supervisor can take related to
each of the Five Welding Dos Goals to improve welding quality and
productivity the summary for each Dos Goal are:
Make sure that welders check their fillet welds and reinforcement weld
sizes with weld gages and weld length for intermittent welds.
Monitor the weld sizes and take corrective action when over or undersized.
Make sure welders use the highest amperage (wire feed speed) value
allowed in the welding procedure.
Verify that the welding process with the greatest deposition rate is being
used.
Look for opportunities to use automatic welding that can use much higher
deposition rates.
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Verify that all welders are capable of inspecting their own work.
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Monitor welding before it leaves your area to ensure that it meets the appli-
cable acceptance criteria.
Ensure that welders understand the essential welding variables for the
welding processes they are using and monitor them periodically to ensure
that the essential welding variables are followed.
Make sure welding equipment and fixtures are in good working order.
The Key Concepts discussed in this chapter are summarized in Table 10.7.
-
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--
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- -
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-- 1. A welder using the FCAW process welds for 15 minutes out of every
hour. What is the welders Operating Factor?
A. 10%
B. 15%
C. 25%
D. 30%
E. 35%
2. A welder using the SMAW process welds for 12 minutes out of every
hour. What is the welders Operating Factor?
A. 5%
B. 10%
C. 15%
D. 20%
E. 25%
3. A welder using the SAW process welds for 30 minutes out of every hour.
What is the welders Operating Factor?
A. 10%
B. 25%
C. 50%
D. 80%
E. 90%
4. A welding job requires 25 feet of 1/4 in. carbon steel fillet weld. The
FCAW welding process used has an 85% deposition efficiency. Approxi-
mately how much filler metal will be required to weld this job? Assume
the density of carbon steel is 0.283 lbs./cu. in.
A. 2.0 pounds
B. 3.0 pounds
C. 6.0 pounds
D. 7.0 pounds
E. 7.5 pounds
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5. A welding job requires 120 feet of full penetration square groove welds in
a 1/4 in. carbon steel plate with 1/8 in. gap and a backing strip. The SAW
welding process used has a 95% deposition efficiency. Carbon steel has a
density of 0.283 lbs./ cu. in. Approximately how much filler metal will be
required, assuming no reinforcement?
A. 9.0 pounds
B. 10.0 pounds
C. 11.0 pounds
D. 12.0 pounds
E. 13.0 pounds
6. A welding job requires 30 feet of full penetration weld in a 3/16 in. carbon
steel plate with 1/16 in. gap, welded from both sides. The SMAW welding
process used has a 6% deposition efficiency. Carbon steel has a density of
0.283 lbs./cu. in. Approximately how much filler metal will be required,
assuming no reinforcement?
A. 2.0 pounds
B. 3.0 pounds
C. 4.0 pounds
D. 5.5 pounds
E. 6.0 pounds
7. If the labor time to perform a welding task is 3 hours and 30 minutes and
the Total Arc Time is 1 hour, how much of the time is Non-Arc Time?
8. If the labor time to perform a welding task is 2 hours and 45 minutes and
the Total Arc Time is 30 minutes, how much of the time is Non-Arc
Time?
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9. A welding task requires 1 hour and 30 minutes of Arc Time, using a weld-
ing process that has a 35% Operating Factor. Approximately how many
labor hours will it take the welder to complete this task?
A. 2 hours and 48 minutes
B. 3 hours and 10 minutes
C. 1 hours and 15 minutes
D. 30 minutes
E. 4 hours and 30 minutes
10. A welding task that requires 10 lbs. of deposited filler metal is being done
using the SMAW process. E-7018 electrode with a deposition rate of 4 lbs./
hour is being used. If the welding process is changed to use FCAW, E-70T-
4 electrode with a deposition rate of 10 lbs./hr., approximately how much
Total Arc Time will be saved?
A. 90 minutes
B. 75 minutes
C. 150 minutes
D. 50 minutes
E. 200 minutes
11. A welder using FCAW process and E70T-1 electrode can weld up a job in
30 minutes of Arc Time with a 7 lbs./hr. deposition rate. Another welder
does the same job using SAW process with a single electrode and a depo-
sition rate of 15 lbs./hr. Approximately how much time will the second
welder require to do the same job?
A. 6 minutes
B. 10 minutes
C. 14 minutes
D. 18 minutes
E. 24 minutes
12. A welder using the SMAW process and E-7018 electrode is making a ver-
tical weld using 180 amperes and the job takes 30 Total Arc Time minutes
with a deposition rate of 4 lbs./hr. The job is repositioned so that the
welder can weld it in the flat position using 250 amperes with a deposition
rate of 6 lbs./hr. Approximately how many arc time minutes will be saved
with this new method?
A. 2 minutes
B. 4 minutes
C. 7 minutes
D. 10 minutes
E. 13 minutes
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13. A welding job using GMAW process in the short circuit mode on out of
position fillet welds using 150 amperes with a deposition rate of 4 lbs./hr.
requires 75 minutes of Arc Time to weld. The out of position fillet welds
are repositioned so that they can be done in the flat position using GMAW
in the spray mode at 260 amps with a deposition rate of 9 lbs./hr. Approx-
imately how much time will it take to weld the fillets in the new weld
position?
A. 22 minutes
B. 33 minutes
C. 38 minutes
D. 18 minutes
E. 44 minutes
14. The engineering drawings call out for 1/4 in. fillet welds totaling 75 linear
feet of welds. The welder makes welds that are consistently 5/16 in. fillet
welds. Approximately how much weld metal volume should have been
used and how much weld metal volume did the welder actually use?
A. 65 cu. in. and 100 cu. in.
B. 35 cu. in. and 50 cu. in.
C. 56 cu. in. and 88 cu. in.
D. 28 cu. in. and 44 cu. in.
E. None of the above.
15. Using the example below approximately how much filler metal will be
required to make the 1/4 in. fillet welds?
A. 2.0 pounds
B. 2-1/2 pounds
C. 3-1/4 pounds
D. 3-3/4 pounds
E. 4-1/2 pounds
A welding job requires 20 linear feet of 1/4 in. fillet welds, 45 linear feet
of 1/8 in. fillet welds and 30 linear feet of 5/16 in. fillet welds. The job is
to be welded using FCAW process and 250 amperes with a deposition
rate of 7.5 lbs./hr. on all fillet weld sizes. The non-arc welding time
including set-up, loading and unloading of fixtures and welders move-
ments is 2 hours and 40 minutes. The deposition efficiency for FCAW is
85%. The weld metal density is 0.283 lbs./cu. in.
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16. Using the same example above, approximately how much filler metal will
be required to make the 1/8 in. fillet welds?
A. 1/2 pounds
B. 1 pounds
C. 1-1/2 pounds
D. 2 pounds
E. 2-1/2 pounds
17. Using the same example above, approximately how much filler metal will
be required to make the 5/16 in. fillet welds?
A. 4 pounds
B. 4-5/8 pounds
C. 5-1/4 pounds
D. 5-7/8 pounds
E. 6-1/4 pounds
18. From the same example above, what is the approximate amount of filler
metal required to make all three sizes of fillet welds?
A. 8-1/2 pounds
B. 7-1/4 pounds
C. 9-3/4 pounds
D. 6-1/2 pounds
E. 9 pounds
19. Based on the information from the same example above, approximately
how much arc time will be required to make all of the fillet welds?
A. 60 minutes
B. 70 minutes
C. 80 minutes
D. 90 minutes
E. 100 minutes
20. Using the same example above, approximately how much labor time will
be needed to complete this job?
A. 4 hours and 00 minutes
B. 3 hours and 30 minutes
C. 3 hours and 10 minutes
D. 2 hours and 30 minutes
E. 1 hours and 20 minutes
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-- 1. C
2. D
3. C
4. B
5. E
6. A
7. C
8. A
9. E
10. A
11. C
12. D
13. B
14. D
15. B
16. C
17. D
18. E
19. C
20. A
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The application of welding standards and codes is not well understood by most
welding supervisors. This is usually the result of the lack of formal training in
the use of standards and codes as they apply to welding.
Very often supervisors are not told about contract welding standard require-
ments because the individual responsible for negotiating the contract is not
very knowledgeable about welding standards and codes. As a result, the super-
visor becomes aware of a specific standard or code requirement only after it is
missed, which then requires rework to correct. With proper understanding and
communication, most of these situations can be avoided. The use of standards
and codes as they apply to welding is not difficult for the supervisor to under-
stand. Even though there are many standards and codes, there are just a few
that are widely used.
-
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- 1. AWS D1.1, Structural Welding CodeSteel
2. AWS D1.2, Structural Welding CodeAluminum
3. AWS D1.3, Structural Welding CodeSheet Steel
4. AWS D1.6, Structural Welding CodeStainless Steel
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sections I, III, IV, VIII, and IX,
ASME Piping CodeSections
This is not a complete list of standards and codes, but provides some idea of
how many different types of standards and codes are available for industries to
choose from for a given welding application. In many cases, standards are
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This section of the standard or code usually states what the scope and limita-
tions of the particular standard or code is. Examples include which types of
structures, components, equipment, or parts are covered by the requirements
contained in the standard.
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The code or standard with the year or edition the document was issued.
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This requirement in the standards and codes is usually covered in two ways:
prequalified and qualification by testing. Not all standards and codes include
the prequalification option. Where prequalification is allowed, the require-
ments are very rigid, because of the need to follow all of the essential welding
variables without exception. In many cases, a company may find this too
restrictive and may decide instead to qualify their own procedure using essen-
tial welding variables that are more in line with their own practices and needs.
The prequalified option contains some codes and standards used where
the WPS that is needed is so commonplace and has been qualified so
many times in the past that the welding parameters and specific infor-
mation needed to qualify the WPS are well-established and unquestioned.
Under those circumstances, a particular code will allow a company to use
a WPS that contains all of the welding parameters and specific infor-
mation required for that weld without requiring the company to perform a
PQR.
Welder qualifications are handled in a similar way in all codes and standards.
Welders are required to take a test that has specific welding variables, such as
thickness of test coupon, weld position, and welding process, and need to
follow an already approved welding procedure.
These are the rules and requirements for the preparation, assembly, and
workmanship of the welded structure, equipment, or component covered by
the standard or code.
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The welding supervisor is the person most involved from the fabricator or
contractor side and is responsible for helping create and use the Welding
Procedure Specification. The supervisor is also responsible for making
sure only qualified welders use the procedures. With inspection responsi-
bility falling more on the welders, the supervisor is responsible for verify-
ing that all work done by their welders meets the standard or code
welding acceptance requirements.
This section contains the inspection requirements for the welded connections
specified, and the acceptance criteria for each type of inspection method, espe-
cially visual and nondestructive testing. In addition, it contains the criteria for
the qualifications and responsibilities of inspectors or refers to another com-
panion standard where the information can be found.
Of the fabrication requirements covered by the standards and codes, the ones
that are the most important to the welding supervisor are qualification of weld-
ing procedures, welder qualification, fabrication, and visual inspection. This
chapter will cover these areas in more detail.
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For the supervisor, the administration of this test is no different than produc-
tion, as the welders are required to follow an approved WPS during the test. In
production, the welder is required to follow the approved WPS to make welds.
The only difference is that the test coupon will be destructively and possibly
nondestructively tested. The production weld may only be nondestructively
tested. Upon successful completion of the destructive test, the welders test
papers or test record is written, containing the essential welding variables to
which they qualified and the results of the destructive tests are recorded.
- Table 11.1 contains a comparison of three well used, but somewhat different
standards. This table shows that many similarities exist between the qualifica-
- tion of welders from one standard to another.
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Welding Environment. This section includes factors that could affect weld
quality such as maximum wind velocity and minimum ambient temperatures.
Temporary and Tack Welds. The treatment of these temporary welds and
their removal, and the tack welds that are either incorporated into a finished
weld and those that are not, is covered here.
Repairs. In the event that a repair becomes necessary, this section covers
how the repairs are to be made and what approvals are necessary.
Identifies the level of training, experience, and testing that the inspector
must undergo to be qualified for working with the welding standard.
One of the two most common types of certified inspectors the welding
supervisor encounters is the Certified Welding Inspector (CWI). This
inspectors qualifications and responsibilities are covered by the AWS
QC1, Standard for Certification of Welding Inspectors, previously dis-
cussed in this manual. The CWI is a Q.A. function, the CWI besides
visual inspection they will also audit many of the before, during, and after
welding activities. The other is the American Society of Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT) Inspector, which is covered under SNT-TC-1A. This cer-
tification covers all of the nondestructive testing methods. The most com-
mon are Visual, Liquid Penetrant, Magnetic Particle, Ultrasonic, and
Radiographic (see Chapter 12, Welding Inspection). The (ASNT) Inspec-
tor is a Q.C. function with no auditing responsibilities.
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Level I. Individuals holding this level of qualification can conduct tests, set
up equipment and evaluate the results, but only under supervision from a
certified NDT Level II or Level III.
Welding supervisors will most frequently come in contact with the NDT Level
II inspectors as they carry out specific NDT testing of welds, such as Visual,
Magnetic Particle or one of the other inspection methods. The job of the Level
II inspector is to conduct the specific test and interpret the results. If the welds
are acceptable, the supervisor knows that the welders have followed instruc-
tions and achieved the desired results. If weld defects are detected, the NDT
Level II inspector can explain the nature and type of these defects to the weld-
ing supervisor. He then can address corrective actions with the welders for
those defective welds, and thus prevent the occurrence of such defects in the
future.
- Most welding supervisors will come in contact with welding codes and stan-
dards in carrying out their responsibilities for welding. In many cases, this con-
tact is incomplete and after the fact, since companies have a tendency to isolate
or provide only partial information to the welding supervisor. Sometimes this
is the result of the management not understanding how many of the require-
ments in the code or standard affect welding. In other cases, the welding super-
visor, due to lack of training or instruction, feels overwhelmed by how to meet
the requirements of the standards and codes.
The welding supervisor can now see that there is no great mystery to the struc-
ture and content of welding standards and codes. The information presented in
this manual better prepares the supervisor to handle any requirement contained
in these standards and codes.
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5. When using standards and codes, which of the following is the Design
Engineers responsibility?
A. NDT used on the contract
B. Qualification of the WPS
C. Qualification of the welders
D. Qualification of the inspectors
E. All of the above
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-- 1. D
2. C
3. B
4. D
5. A
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In Chapter 9, Welding Instruction, the four company management metrics
- were identified as quality, cost, throughput, and safety. The welding supervisor
must be able to understand and verify the quality of welding to assure that the
quality metric is met. To do this, the supervisor must first understand what a
quality weld is.
The designer must either develop or adopt a welding quality standard that
defines quality in both visual and measurable ways for each component part,
assembly, or structure being built. This quality standard answers the question
often asked, What is the welding quality required for this job? Without a
clearly defined welding quality standard, there is no way to get all of the indi-
viduals involved in welding to agree on what is required. This is demonstrated
when welding is completed, passed on by the welder as good, reviewed by the
supervisor as acceptable, and then rejected by the inspector, customer repre-
sentative, or someone else in authority over final product acceptance.
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Acceptance criteria is the standard against which the person doing the inspec-
tion evaluates a weld. A supervisor and welder can visually inspect a weld the
same as a Certified Welding Inspector if they understand the acceptance crite-
ria used for that weld. Acceptance criteria contain information such as whether
undercut is allowed, and if so, how much, or the presence of overlap. The crite-
ria also defines how much porosity, if any, a weld bead can have. It may also
define the need to fill weld crater cross sections.
When the acceptance criteria is known and clearly defined, a welder and super-
visor can visually inspect their welds before any required inspections are
performed, and have a high degree of confidence that the welds will pass.
Visual inspection is the most common type of nondestructive welding inspec-
tion used.
Quality issues usually arise when a company fails to define what inspection
method and acceptance criteria will be used on a particular job. Without the
answer to this question, most welding inspections are more subjective. Every
welding supervisor has the responsibility to know what inspection method and
acceptance criteria will be used on each job.
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367
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368
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4. Undercut. This is a groove melted into the toe or root of a weld that is not
subsequently filled by weld metal (see Figure 12.7). This groove results in a
mechanical notch that is a stress riser. Some potential causes of undercut are:
Excessive voltage
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5. Underfill. This is a condition where either the face or the root of the weld
is below the adjacent surface of the base material (see Figure 12.8). This
discontinuity is the result of a welder not completely filling the weld joint
to at least flush with the base material.
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7. Cracks. This is the most serious discontinuity that can occur and is always
considered a defect (see Figure 12.10). In appearance, cracks are sharp
tipped with a length-to-width ratio that is high. There are a number of
different orientations and types of cracks.
Transverse cracks
Crater cracks
Face cracks
Root cracks
Toe cracks
Underbead crack
Cracks are the result of localized stresses from causes such as other discon-
tinuities, notches, or high restraint areas. Welding cracks exhibit little sign
of stretching. This is do to localized hardening of the cracked material.
(See Chapter 7, Steel Metallurgy, for more a detailed discussion on
cracking.)
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LEGEND:
1 CRATER CRACK
2 FACE CRACK
3 HEAT-AFFECTED-ZONE CRACK
4 LAMELLAR TEAR
5 LONGITUDINAL CRACK
6 ROOT CRACK
7 ROOT SURFACE CRACK
8 THROAT CRACK
9 TOE CRACK
10 TRANSVERSE CRACK
11 UNDERBEAD CRACK
12 WELD INTERFACE CRACK
13 WELD METAL CRACK
- -
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- - Visual inspection is the most common inspection method used for evaluating
welds. It is always the first inspection method to be used, and in many cases,
the only one.
373
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--
It is even more critical that the initial visual inspection be completed properly
when a second nondestructive inspection method follows the visual inspection.
It is important to ensure that all necessary steps before, during, and after weld-
ing, including the visual inspection, are done properly to obtain an acceptable
result in subsequent inspections.
For visual inspections, the welder and the supervisor both play critical roles. The
supervisors responsibility is to ensure that all the welders follow all the proce-
dures and instructions for the work they are doing. In addition, the supervisor must
monitor the welders during these steps to assure that they are being done properly.
To complete a weld successfully and pass visual inspection a welder must:
Before welding: have an acceptable weld fitup, including the correct bevel,
root face, and gap for butt joints, as required. In fillet welds, the proper
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angle of fitup with no gap over 1/16 in. Larger gaps will require an adjust-
ment to the fillet weld size or the need to refit the weld joint.
During welding: follow the essential welding variables and other parame-
ters in the approved welding procedure during welding.
After welding: visually inspect the weld following the approved accep-
tance criteria after the completion of the weld.
In addition, the supervisor must monitor the welders progress at each of these
points to assure that the welders are successfully following procedures and
instructions, and to assist in correcting any of the parts, parameters, values, or
results that are not as specified. To do this, the supervisor must be able to
spend sufficient time in the welders workstation. The subjects of proper parts
fitup and the essential welding variables have been covered in earlier chapters
of this manual. The subject of the how to conduct the visual inspection will be
addressed below.
Besides performing and administering NDT after the welding, the CWI has
additional responsibilities that must be carried out before welding begins.
Checking base metals and filler metals to see that they match the engi-
neering drawings
Checking to see the joints are clean and that the preheat temperature, if
required, is correct per the welding procedure
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During the time the CWI is carrying out these responsibilities, he is in essence
an extra set of eyes that the welding supervisor can rely on, as the CWI is
checking many of the things that the supervisor must verify.
Every welder should visually inspect 100% of the welds they make. Monitor-
ing by the supervisor should be sufficient to assure that each welder is properly
performing the work assigned in the proper way. More monitoring time is
required for a new welder or a welder performing weld tasks that are different
than previously successfully done. All visual inspection is done using the spec-
ified acceptance criteria.
- -
3. Crater Cross Section. All craters shall be filled to provide the specified
weld size, except for the ends of intermittent fillet welds outside of their
length.
5. Undersized Welds. The size of a fillet weld in any continuous weld may
be less than the specified nominal size without correction by the following
amounts as shown in the Table 12.1 However, the length of this undersized
fillet cannot exceed 10% of the total length of the weld.
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{A) DESIRABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES (B) ACCEPTABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES
Note 1. Convexity, C, of a weld or individual surface bead with dimension W shall not exceed the value of the following table:
I
1', :
1/
'>,
- --~~~--
s
UNDERSIZE EXCESSIVE EXCESSIVE OVERLAP UNDERSIZE INCOMPLETE
WELD CONVEXITY UNDERCUT WELD FUSION
[R(Note2) ~
~. . . -----4..8.1-::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::f~1~1 ~.-------(c:; )
[ R (Note 2)
BUTT JOINT- BUTT JOINT (TRANSITION)-
EQUAL THICKNESS PLATE UNEQUAL THICKNESS PLATE
Note 2. Reinforcement R shall not exceed 1/8 in. [3 mm] (see 5.24.4).
(D) ACCEPTABLE GROOVE WELD PROFILE IN BUTT JOINT
377
-
6. Undercut. For material less than 1 in. thick, undercut shall not exceed
1/32 in. with the following exception: undercut shall not exceed 1/16 in.
for any accumulated length up to 2 in. in any 12 in. length. For material
equal to or greater than 1 in. thick, undercut shall not exceed 1/16 in. for
any length of weld.
Many supervisors consider all of this work by the CWI while the welder is
making welds to be a distraction and interference. However, all of the
things the CWI is doing are the same checks the welding supervisor
should be making as part of their monitoring activities. In essence, the
CWI is reinforcing and at times supplementing the work of the welding
supervisor.
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-
After the CWI has completed his preweld and in-process responsibilities,
he then must perform the after welding responsibilities. These are the
activities the welding supervisor is most familiar seeing the CWI do.
These activities often frustrate both the welders and the welding super-
visor. The source of the frustration is that the welders and the welding
supervisor have a different understanding of the weld quality require-
ments than that of the CWI.
The following are the responsibilities the CWI has after the welding is
complete.
As the welding supervisor begins to follow the CWS training in this manual, he
will find that the objectives of both the CWI and the CWS are the same in
ensuring the quality of the welding.
Next to visual inspection, liquid penetrant is the least expensive and easiest
- nondestructive welding process to use. This process does, however, require
someone with experience in preparation, application, and interpretation of the
results for the method to have any value. An incorrect interpretation of results
can lead to an assessment that an indication is present where none exists, or a
missed indication where one exists. Both can be just as damaging as no liquid
penetrant testing at all. The liquid penetrant testing method is still the most
commonly used method after visual inspection for both quality information as
well as required inspections. The reason for this is that the materials used for
this process are inexpensive, and the procedure can be performed in a manner
that causes limited interference with the workflow.
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The method of applying the two types of penetrant tests consists of seven
steps:
1. Clean the surface to be inspected of scale, slag, grease, oil, paint, and
water. Then apply a spray cleaning solution that is available with the liquid
penetrant materials.
3. Allow sufficient penetrate dwell time. This time, which is specified by the
manufacturer of the penetrant, is used to allow time for the penetrant, by
capillary action, to enter into any indication that is exposed to the surface.
4. Remove excess penetrant. This is done using various techniques, but in all
cases care must be taken not to flush the area and remove penetrant that has
collect in surface indications. The most common technique for visible liq-
uid penetrant is to spray a clean cloth with the same cleaner that was used
in the cleaning of the surface, and then gently wipe off the weld surface
without flushing or rinsing the area of inspection.
6. Examine and inspect. This is the hard part, because there can be shallow
indication from surface anomalies that can give false readings, and these
must be segregated from the indications that are discontinuities. At this
time, the interpreter must use the acceptance criteria for the liquid pene-
380
-
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
381
-
being tested. Depending on the type of testing equipment used, the amount and
depth of subsurface discontinuities that can be detected will vary.
The magnetic particle testing equipment used in most applications in the field
is a machine that transforms electricity into high amperage, low voltage for
application to welds through either a yoke or a set of prods (see Figure 12.15).
The yoke is a U-shaped device with adjustable legs. The operator grips the
insulated center of the U-shaped yoke and touches the legs of the yoke to the
part where the test is performed (see Figure 12.16).
The prods are used in sets of two. They resemble cylindrical rods with tapered
ends that touch the work surface. The other end of the rods has an insulated
handle for the operator to grip. The operator applies the prods to the work in
much the same manner as the yoke. The operator activates the yoke or prods
when they are in contact with the part being inspected. This allows current to
flow through them and into the part creating a magnetic field. This circular
magnetic field is what allows detection of any discontinuities in the material
between the contact points of the yoke or prods. This detection is made possi-
ble in field or shop applications by the use of dry magnetic particles being
applied while the yoke or prods are energized. This dry magnetic powder is
applied by means of a dusting bag, atomizer, or spray gun. When the magnetic
field lies parallel to the direction of the discontinuity, the indication from the
powder will be light and may be difficult to interpret. When the magnetic field
lies transverse to the discontinuity, the accumulation of dry powder is much
382
-
- -
heavier. For this reason, any given length of weld must be checked by orient-
ing the yoke or prods in two directions with the second 90 to the first. This
will prevent the missing of a discontinuity.
The current used for the magnetic dry particle testing can be either alternating
or direct current. Alternating current is used for surface inspection and will not
detect subsurface discontinuities. In this respect, it is similar to liquid penetrant
testing in that if the discontinuity is not exposed to the surface, the alternating
current magnetic particle testing will not detect it.
With direct current magnetic particle testing, a magnetic field is produced that
penetrates into the part, and is therefore capable of detecting subsurface dis-
continuities. For small fillet and groove welds with sufficient direct current and
the proper inspection procedure, such defects as subsurface cracks and incom-
plete fusion that cannot be detected by visual, liquid penetrant, or alternating
current magnetic particle are detectable.
The following steps are required to ensure that the results of the magnetic par-
ticle testing are accurate. For the interpretation and evaluation of the results to
be accurate, a trained and experienced technician is necessary. Any mis-
interpretation of results could lead to missed defects or unnecessary repairs.
1. Clean the part. As with any inspection, the surface of the part being
inspected must be clean from dirt, oil, rust, moisture, or other contaminates
that could prevent the powder from moving freely with the magnetic field
383
-
or prevent good electrical contact between the yoke legs or the prods and
the material surface.
2. Contact with yoke or prods and material surface. With welds, this will need
to be done twice at 90 angles for a given inspection area.
3. While the yoke or prods are in contact with the material surface and the
current is flowing, the magnetic particles are applied. The current should
still be flowing when a stream of air that is just strong enough to carry
away the excess powder is used.
-
--
--
384
-
Advantages:
Can be used to test both surface and to a limited degree subsurface of weld
Requires less experience and skill to interpret the results than Ultrasonic or
Radiographic Testing
Disadvantages:
- Ultrasonic testing will detect, locate, and when evaluated against established
- acceptance criteria, determine if defects are present in a weld. This inspection
method uses a high-frequency sound beam projected into the material being
inspected. A reflection of the sound beam occurs if any interruption within the
material is encountered. If this interruption occurs in the weld, its most likely
385
-
5. Modern ultrasonic equipment is light and very portable for moving around
a job site.
6. Inspection of welds, using ultrasonic testing will not interfere with other
welding work in the near vicinity.
2. Fillet welds and especially groove welds that are irregular in shape or
geometric configuration are ultrasonically difficult to inspect.
3. When discontinuities lie close to the surface, the reflection from the surface
of the material makes them difficult to detect.
5. Test blocks and workmanship samples are needed to calibrate the equip-
ment before testing can begin.
6. Different test blocks and workmanship samples are required if the mate-
rials or metallurgical conditions vary.
386
-
- -
the 16 MHz frequency range to be emitted. The most commonly used fre-
quency for welding application is 2.25 MHz. Between pulses, the echoes from
any interruption are received back by the detector and displayed on a screen.
This screen display is most commonly shown as an A scan that is capable of
showing both the size and location of interruptions. The pulse signal and echo
are introduced and retrieved from the material being tested by a transducer that
converts the electrical signal from the equipment into the sound wave and then
converts the echoing sound wave back into an electrical signal. In order to pre-
vent this signal from being weakened at the interface between the transducer
and the material, a coupling is used. This coupling can be water, light oil, or
cellulose gum powder mixed with water. The most common coupling is a form
of glycerin.
387
-
Before testing of a weld can begin, the equipment with transducer must be
calibrated using a test block with known notches and drilled holes to simulate
defects. The equipment is calibrated against these known defects so that an
indication of their presence is shown on the equipment screen display with the
right location and the correct size. In this way, when an indication appears in
the actual test, the inspector will be able to tell where it is located and its
approximate size based on the calibration settings.
Once the operator has calibrated the equipment and has assured that the
material surface is clean, the testing may began. Since the test is interpreted
as the transducer sends back signals, the operator must be aware of the accep-
tance criteria for the particular weld application to render an accurate inspec-
tion. The inspection can be performed in one of two modes, by using either a
longitudinal or shear wave. Shear wave mode is the more commonly used
because it does not require the removal of the weld reinforcement (see Figure
12.19).
-
- - - - -
-
- -- - - --
- - - -
388
-
1. Shear Wave Mode. This mode requires using a 70, 60, or 45 angle on
the transducer, allowing the sound wave to enter the material at one of the
three angles. The angle of this path can be closely calculated, and since the
speed of the sound wave is constant through a given material, the location
of any discontinuity can be found and the size and type evaluated.
Cracks
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete penetration
Slag
Porosity
Radiographic testing uses a radiant energy source, which can be either X-ray,
- gamma rays, or high-energy neutrons. These radiant energy sources are placed
on one side of the weld. An industrial radiographic film is placed on the oppo-
site side. This radiographic film is a thin, transparent, flexible plastic base that
has been coated with gelatin containing microscopic crystals of silver bromide.
When this film is exposed to a radiation source, the parts of the weld that have
the highest density will appear the lightest in the film. This is because for the
time of the exposure, these areas of the film had the least amount of radiation
strike the surface of the film. In those areas of the weld where the density is
reduced because of the presence of discontinuities (discontinuities are for the
most part voids and therefore do not block radiation energy), the film will be
darker, showing the presence, size, and shape of the discontinuity (see Figure
12.20).
389
-
--
390
-
1. The radiation used during the test poses a hazard to humans through exces-
sive exposure.
2. A great deal of training and experience in safety and proper testing using
the radiographic testing method is required.
3. When the radiation source is operating, the area used must be evacuated,
which can result in lost production hours.
6. Radiographic testing requires access to both sides of the part. This is the
only inspection method of the five discussed in the chapter that requires
this level of access.
-- -
2. Either the weld being radiographed must be prepared with the weld
reinforcement removed or with the weld reinforcement properly contoured,
preventing the obscuring of a potential discontinuity.
391
-
these film quality requirements are not met, the film cannot be used for
inspection purposes.
5. The film, after having been exposed, must be developed much like a pic-
ture. This requires a laboratory and the proper developing equipment or an
automated developer.
Once the film has been properly exposed and developed, the job of interpreting
the content of the film begins. A radiographic film is capable of being used to
identify the following discontinuities and defects.
2. Inclusions. Slag will appear in the film as large and irregularly shaped
shadows. It will be somewhat linear in appearance, and may run parallel to
the sidewall of the joint. Tungsten inclusions are one of the exceptions to
the fact that inclusions appear darker on film. Since tungsten is denser than
carbon or stainless steel, if any tungsten is broken off into the weld, it will
appear lighter than the surrounding film surface.
392
-
The inspector conducting the test, with the proper equipment, must follow a
procedure on how the inspection will be conducted. The inspector must be
properly trained and tested in accordance with a recognized standard or code to
perform a specific inspection. In all cases, nondestructive inspections require
interpretation, either during the inspection, or in the case of radiographic
testing, after the film is developed. To do this interpretation properly, the
inspector must be trained and have demonstrated the required interpretative
skills through testing before being assigned to a weldment. In addition, the
responsible designer engineer must designate which acceptance criteria will be
used during the interpretation. This allows the inspector to distinguish between
flaws and imperfections that are discontinuities, and those that are defects.
Without all of these elements in place and followed through the inspection
sequence, the results from nondestructive testing may be either false or
misleading, resulting in unnecessary rework or undiscovered defects.
393
-
5. Under the sample acceptance criteria on page 378, how much total
porosity is allowed in any 12 in. of weld length?
A. 1/32 in.
B. 1/4 in.
C. 3/8 in.
D. 1/2 in.
E. 3/4 in.
6. Which of the following is an item that both the CWI and welding super-
visor should check before welding begins?
A. Joint fitup
B. Correct shade of welding lens
C. Welding gloves
D. Welder is following the essential welding variables
E. All welds were visually inspected
7. Which is the least expensive NDT method other than visual testing?
A. Eddy Current
B. Radiography
C. Liquid Penetrant
D. Magnetic Particle
E. Ultrasonic
394
-
10. Which NDT examination method uses a thin, transparent flexible plastic
base panel coated with gelatin containing silver bromide?
A. Ultrasonic
B. Radiographic
C. Visual
D. Magnetic Particle
E. Liquid Penetrant
395
-
-- 1. A
2. D
3. B
4. A
5. E
6. A
7. C
8. C
9. D
10. B
396
Most industrial operations have potential risks to health and safety. Welding
and associated activities expose workers to certain hazards, ranging from fire
and explosion to fumes and gases. It is the joint responsibility of the employer
and worker to minimize these hazards and provide a safe working environ-
ment. Some general rules for providing a safe working environment are as
follows:
Use protective clothing and equipment as required for the job in hand
Do not bypass the safety features of the equipment you are using
Know the hazards of the materials and processes you are using
Many hazards in the shop are rather obvious. These can be called apparent
hazards, one of which is shown in Figure 13.1. However, workers still need
training on methods and procedures to control these types of hazards.
397
Less obvious hazards (which can be called hidden hazards) can be just as
important, but without training, workers may not even be aware of them. For
welding operations, these types of hazards include:
Electrical hazards
Confined space
AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for the Preparation for Welding
and Cutting of Containers and Piping
- Table 13.1 shows the primary hazards for different welding processes.
- -
---
-
--
398
Electric shock and even electrocution are possible hazards with all types of
electric arc welding. A typical electric circuit indicating how current and volt-
age are measured is shown in Figure 13.2.
I = V/R
Electricity is a hazard in welding because the body can become part of the
electric circuit. Electric shock or electrocution can occur when the body has a
critical level of amperage flowing through it (see Figure 13.3).
399
--
- -
Any source of water, including sweat, will reduce resistance and increase the
electrical hazard (see Figure 13.5).
-- -
400
Higher voltages will always increase the electrical hazard. The primary side of
a welding power source is connected to a high voltage supply, usually 460 or
575 volts. Keep the primary side cables out of the work area. Any servicing on
the primary side must be done by a qualified electrician (see Figure 13.6).
- -
The welders first line of defense is to be properly insulated from the source of
electricity (see Figure 13.7).Table 13.2 provides recommendations for electri-
cal safety in welding.
--
--
-
-
The work lead and ground are not the same. Figure 13.8 shows the work table
connected to ground or earth.
Improper grounding of the workpiece (see Figure 13.9) can lead to:
401
- -
- -
-
-
- -
- -
- -
- - -
- -
- - -
-
-
- -
-
-
Stray welding current in the building or grounded structure which can lead
to overheating, sparking, fires, or damage to bearings and other electrical
equipment
Do not try and pull the victim free while in contact with the electrical power
If you must move a victim in contact with a live wire, insulate yourself
If the victims heart has stopped, and you have been trained, give cardio-
pulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
402
-
-
- -
-
-- -
403
The electric arc emits three types of radiation (see Figure 13.10).
Skin exposed to welding UV radiation will burn much like a sun burn. You will
not know it is occurring at the time of exposure, but hours later a burning sensa-
tion and redness will appear. Higher amperages and argon-based gases will
increase the radiation intensity making the hazard more severe. It is important
to protect the skin with clothing that is heavy enough to prevent the passing of
radiation. Take special precautions when welding reflective material such as
stainless steel or aluminum, as reflected radiation can make the problem worse.
The eye is sensitive to all three types of radiation (see Figure 13.11).
Arc eye or welders flash is the most common injury from radiation. Several
hours after the exposure a painful effect that feels like sand in your eye can
occur. Additional symptoms can include swelling and fluid excretion. The
symptoms can last for several hours or longer. Occasional and minor welders
flash has no lasting effects. However, intense exposure can cause eye damage
over a period of time and must be avoided. Some clear plastic lenses can offer
protection from arc eye caused by short wave UV but not the other types of
light describe above. Therefore, it is important to use shaded lenses with the
correct shade number at all times (see Table 13.3).
- Because of the very high temperatures associated with arc welding processes,
burns and fires are a potential safety hazard. Most arc welding produces sparks
and spatter which can travel considerable distances from the welder (see
Figure 13.12).
404
--
- -
-
--
-
-
-- -
Keep combustibles away from welding work areas. This would include but not
be limited to:
Wood
Paper products
Plastics
Proper protective clothing is important for welders to avoid serious burns (see
Figures 13.13 and 13.14). Clothing should be heat and fire resistant. Avoid
wearing synthetic or frayed materials. Never carry a cigarette lighter in your
clothing while welding.
405
-
-
-- -- --
--
--
--
-
- - ---
-- -- -
406
--
- -
--
-
- --
- -
-
- -
- -- The fume or smoke that is seen coming off a welding operation is composed of
very small particles that come from the electrode, flux, or base metal. Gases
used for shielding or produced by the arc will also be present (see Figure
13.15).
407
--
- --
Breathing the fumes and gases may present health hazards ranging from
discomfort to long-term illness depending on the amount of exposure and con-
stituents in the fume (see Figure 13.16).
- --
- - - -
- -- -- - -
-- - --
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-- -
- -
Coatings on the base metal can also be an important sources of welding fumes
(see Figure 13.17).
408
- - - -
Some coatings that welders might encounter are listed in Table 13.4.
- - - -
-
-- -
- - -
- -
- - -
- - --
Harmful coatings should be removed from the weld area to minimize the fume.
It should be noted that further precautions regarding coating removal may be
necessary, as simple grinding may produce harmful dusts. Seek expert advice
for proper methods of coating removal (see Figure 13.18).
The level of fume in the welders breathing zone will depend on:
General ventilation
409
- -
-
--- --
Keep the head and breathing zone out of the plume, and take special precau-
tions when welding in confined space (see Figure 13.21).
Allowable levels of exposure to welding fumes have been set by several orga-
nizations, such as the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),
and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). The most widely used are Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) pub-
lished by the ACGIH (see Table 13.5).
410
- -
In some situations, ventilation and local exhaust may not be practical or ade-
quate to control exposure. In these circumstances, personal protection devices
such as a respirator may be necessary. Generally, expert advice is required in
the use of respirators. Some jurisdictions require training and a pulmonary
function test prior to the use of respirators. Two different types of respirators
are shown in Figure 13.22. Note that a dusk mask does not provide adequate
safety in hazardous fume situations.
411
- - -
- - -
- -
- - -
- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- -
- -
- --
412
-- The UV radiation from the welding arc can produce hazardous gases.
Phosgene gas is produced from the action of UV light on the vapor of a chlori-
nated hydrocarbon solvent. Containers of cleaning solvents should be kept
capped and removed from the welding area. Solvents should be removed from
the workplace and welding gloves should not be allowed to become contami-
nated with solvents (see Figure 13.23).
- -
- -
Ozone can be a major problem with GMAW of aluminum. Exposure can pro-
duce headaches, chest pain, shortage of breath, and in high doses, can produce
fluid in the lungs or even death. Ozone levels will depend on the filler metals
and shielding gases used. Because ozone can form at some distance from the
arc, local extraction may not be effective (see Figure 13.24).
Explosion and asphyxiation are two of the most common hazards when work-
ing with industrial gases. The properties of the individual gases determines
-- their hazard potential (see Figure 13.25). Argon and CO2 are two commonly
used shielding gases that are heavier than air and can act as an asphyxiant in a
confined space.
413
-
- --
-
-
-
- - --
All flammable gases and vapors have a range of mixture with air where they
are dangerous (see Figure 13.26).
- -
Flammable ranges for different gases are shown in Figure 13.27. Acetylene has
a relatively large flammable range and is considered to be more hazardous than
the other gases shown.
The fire triangle shows that fuel, oxygen, and a source of heat or ignition are
needed to start a fire. When working with pure oxygen, just about anything can
be a fueleven your own clothing (see Figure 13.28).
414
- --
Never handle oxygen cylinders with greasy or oily hands and gloves
Keep oxyfuel systems free from oil, grease, dust, or any other combustible
material
- Here are important things to remember when storing, handling, and using
cylinders.
415
416
Crack the cylinder momentarily to blow out any dirt before attaching a
regulator. Stand to one side when performing this operation
Keep welding cables and the welding circuit away from cylinders
Always leave some gas (50 psi) in the cylinder to prevent contamination or
mixing of gases.
-- -
Because high pressure gas cylinders store a tremendously high level of energy,
serious injury can result (see Figure 13.32). See page 410 for storage and
handling recommendations.
417
-- - - -
Confined spaces present greater hazards to the worker. Almost all of the previ-
ously mention hazards are magnified in a confined space situation. Typical
confined spaces are pressure vessels, bins, pipelines, ship compartments, etc.
(see Figure 13.33).
- - -
418
Containers that have held hazardous materials present the risk of fire or explo-
- sion during cutting or welding operations. Workers sometimes make the mis-
take of assuming that no danger is present if the container seems empty.
- However, it is the vapors from the contents that present the real hazard and
- gaseous materials generally cannot be seen. Vapors can also be released from
the heat produced during the welding or cutting process. Special procedures
are needed to clean containers prior to welding (see Figure 13.34). AWS F4.1,
Recommended Safe Practices for the Preparation for Welding and Cutting of
Containers and Piping, should be used as a guide for these types of operations.
-
-
- - -
419
2. True or False?
Welding can be hazardous to your health unless proper safety rules are
followed. True False
3. True or False?
The output of a welding power source is never dangerous because of the
low welding voltages used. True False
4. True or False?
It is good practice to always attach the work return clamp as close as
possible to the point of welding. True False
5. True or False?
AC is more dangerous than DC. True False
6. True or False?
The ground and work lead are the same thing in a welding circuit.
True False
7. True or False?
Attachment of the work return cable is not critical when welding on a
structure supported with a chain-type lifting device. True False
8. True or False?
Arc radiation burns on the skin are similar to sunburn. True False
420
9. True or False?
Reflection of arc radiation off surrounding surfaces is not a problem.
True False
12. Which of the following are required for fire watch duties?
A. Shall be maintained for at least 1/2 hour after welding and cutting
operations are complete
B. Personnel shall be properly trained in the use of fire extinguishing
equipment
C. Can be terminated after welding operations are complete
D. A and B
E. All of the above
13. What is the minimum recommended shade number for a welders helmet
when using GMAW at 250 amps?
__________________________________________________________
14. True or False?
A dust mask provides adequate safety in hazardous fume situations.
True False
15. Metal fume fever is caused by exposure to fume produced by welding on:
A. Carbon steel
B. Carbon steel coated with zinc or copper
C. Stainless steel
D. Manganese compounds
421
17. Which of the following is important regarding welding fume health and
safety?
A. Total fume generation
B. The concentration of each type of fume chemical or component
C. The welding travel speed
D. A and B
21. The following shielding gases used in GMAW are heavier than air and are
dangerous as simple asphyxiants:
A. Argon
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Nitrogen
D. Helium
E. A and B
F. A and B and C
22. Oxygen cylinders in storage shall be separated from fuel gas cylinders by:
A. 15 ft
B. A noncombustible partition (5 ft high) having a fire resistance of at
least 1/2 hour
C. 20 ft
D. A wall of any type
E. B or C
422
423
-- 1. F
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. False
7. False
8. True
9. False
10. False
11. E
12. D
13. #10
14. False
15. B
16. False
17. D
19. True
19. False
20. False
21. E
22. E
23. False
24. Heat, Fuel, and Oxygen
25. False
26. True
424
- -
As detailed in previous chapters of this manual, the welding supervisors pri-
mary roles are to support, monitor, and evaluate the welders quality and pro-
ductivity throughout each day.
During the shift, welding supervisors, for accounting and production con-
trol purposes, may be required to fill out reports that record material
usage, order completions, and work completed by individual welders.
They may also have to fill out missing and defective parts reports and
inventories. This recorded data can be used as the input for the daily
report to supervisors and managers, which is called the Welding Quality/
Productivity Report.
The most important information that a welding supervisor must have and
understand is the engineering specifications as how they relate to the welders
qualifications and the Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) that are used
for the welding in their department.
Supervisors should know which welds require a specific WPS and then assure
that the welders are following them as required. The supervisor should monitor
the welders to verify they are following the required Welding Procedure
Specifications.
The supervisor should know before assigning a welder to weld a specific weld
requiring a WPS, that he is qualified to weld to that specific welding procedure
and understands the effect and control of the essential welding variables (see
Figure 14-1).
425
- -
-
- - -- -
- -
The supervisor should monitor the quality of the parts received into each weld-
ing workstation for dimensional accuracy and proper fitup. The supervisor
must have confidence that the welders are following the work method and
welding procedures, especially the essential welding variables of the welding
process and the proper weld sequence. A portion of the report should include
the visual quality observed, including discontinuities or defects observed and
the corrective actions taken. The supervisor should also note which input parts
required grinding before use, which were unusable, and which had to be sent
back for rework. These types of occurrences should be detailed in the report.
- - -
426
- -
NOTE: Welding Dos Goal 3, Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap, does not
appear under the Metric of Cost because of its use in the Quality Metric.
The supervisor, throughout the course of the work shift, should monitor the
welders to assure that they are following the above listed Welding Dos Goals
to assure that the welding metric of cost is addressed (see Figure 14.2).
-
- --
The supervisor needs to ensure that the size of the welds specified on the engi-
neering print is the size being made by the welders. A random sampling of
fillet and groove weld reinforcement sizes can verify that the welders are
neither overwelding nor underwelding. The number of random samples done
during the shift and the results should be recorded to document for manage-
ment the level of compliance and to help identify cases where welders might
need to be retrained on controlling weld sizes. Recording of over welding can
also help identify fitup issues that often lead to the need for overwelding to
compensate for loss of weld strength due to gaps in weld joint fitups. This can
be done by having the welders identify the need for overwelding when it
occurs as being the result of poor fitup.
427
- -
The welding supervisor should monitor the welders each day to assure they are
welding in accordance with the approved welding procedure for a given appli-
cation and using the maximum amperage/wire feed speed and corresponding
arc voltage. The maximum deposition rate can be achieved for a particular
welding process by using the highest optimum amperage/wire feed speed
while maintaining quality welding results. A high deposition rate will reduce
the arc time and thereby increase productivity. To assist in this effort, the
supervisor should randomly sample the amperages and arc voltages being used
by the welders to verify that the average amperages remain consistently high as
planned. This awareness will permit the supervisor to identify situations where
the amperages may be decreasing. The supervisor can then take steps to
address the situations that are causing the decrease in deposition rate.
Difficult to reach welds that cause the welder to get into awkward welding
positions,
In cases where the supervisor identifies the above conditions the corrective
actions may be as follows:
Changing equipment,
428
- -
When the corrective action is taken, the result will be a reduction of work
effort. The actions will not only reduce cycle time, but also result in welders
experiencing less fatigue during their work shift from having to perform diffi-
cult tasks.
Positioning parts,
Excessive hand, foot, and body movements during the weld cycle,
429
- -
This report format outlines the type of information that should be collected
daily by the welding supervisor. Once he records the data, it can serve as a
report to management and other departments on the progress that is occurring
in the welding operations. Also, the data in the report can serve as a record of
what occurred during a particular work shift.
The first part of the form, Monitoring Weld Size and Deposition Rate, allows
the supervisor to record the weld sizes and the amperages/wire feed speed
along with other essential welding variables data. This data will serve as an
indication of how well the first and second Welding Dos Goals are being met.
The second part, Visual Inspection of Welds, is one of the most difficult
things for welding supervisors to become accustomed to doing. Throughout
most of their careers, welding supervisors have not been present in the work-
station when welding was being done. As a result, this responsibility will take
some time for most supervisors to get used to doing. It cannot be ignored as it
pays big rewards in quality and productivity improvement. It gets the welding
supervisor involved in what is going on in his department.
If the welding supervisor uses a hand face-shield and checks the weld perfor-
mance against the essential welding variables, this will help him measure the
conformance of the welders in making welds in accordance with the required
welding visual acceptance criteria. It will also tell the supervisor how well each
welder is inspecting his own work before the supervisor checks.
The third part of the report, Delay, Lost Time, or Excessive Work Effort
During the Work Shift, requires the welding supervisor to record for action
any occurrences affecting Welding Dos Goals 4 and 5. This includes any item
that resulted in lost production or delay time in the output of welded compo-
nents and assemblies during the work shift. This report section serves two pur-
poses, to document how much time was lost in unproductive activities, thus
430
- -
- -
--
-
-
--
-
-
- -
- -
- - -
- - - -
-
431
- -
- --
allowing for an objective evaluation of the non-arc time of the welders, and. to
alert management to problems that are occurring for the welders that are origi-
nating outside of the supervisors scope of responsibility. Corrective action can
then be taken to control or eliminate these occurrences in the future.
-- 1. Which of the following Welding Dos Goals will affect the Quality Metric?
A. Reduce Motion and Delay Time
B. Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment
C. Reduce Weld Metal Volume
D. Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap
E. Reduce Work Effort
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3. When the welding supervisor monitors the deposition rate for productivity,
which of the following should the supervisor pay particular attention to?
A. The size of welds
B. Positioning of parts
C. Amperage/Wire Feed Speed and Arc Voltage
D. Moving and handling parts
E. Poorly design weld fixtures.
5. What is one of the hardest things for the welding supervisor to learn when
doing monitoring of the welders?
A. Pick up a pen and fill out a report
B. Watch the welders, while they are welding
C. Hunt for missing parts
D. Drink coffee during the shift
E. Compliment the welders when they do good work
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-- 1. D
2. E
3. C
4. A
5. B
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