Tsetskhladze G - Who Built The Scythian and Thracian Royal and Elite Tombs

GOCHA R.
TSETSKHLADZE
WHO BUILT THE SCYTHIAN AND THRACIAN ROYAL AND

ELITE TOMBS?
To my Bulgarian friends and colleagues.
Summary. This paper discusses the complex and controversial problems of

Scythian and Thracian royal and elite tombs of the fifth/fourth centuries BC.
The similarities beween them are too great to be explained simply as
coincidence. Although the inspiration for the type of chamber tomb might have
been local, the architecture, painting and many other features show that
Ionian Greeks were constructing them for the local elite. This conclusion is
strongly supported by the close similarities between these tombs and those of
the rulers and elite of the Bosporan Kingdom in the Kerch and Taman
Peninsulas of a similar date.
the wooden roof and earthen pit with a

INTRODUCTION
gallery leading down to it which formed
Since the discovery of the Scythian, the typical Scythian grave? . . .
Thracian and Bosporan royal and elite tombs
This is how E. Minns (1913, 194) viewed the
in the nineteenth century much literature has
origin of the Scythian royal tombs.
been devoted to them.1 The main question
Some academics have linked the
addressed by many scholars is that of the
appearance of the Scythian royal and elite
origin of these grand stone burials.
stone chamber tombs to the evolution, from
. . . The masonry of all is clearly Greek, simple, local constructions in wood, of the
though the plan rather suggests the so-called Timber cultures which were
Mycenaean period. Are we to see in it a spread widely through the Eurasian steppes
survival of the old method of burial among in the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
the Milesian descendants of the ancient (Minns 1913, 194; etc.).2 Other scholars have
race? Are we to ascribe this way of found prototypes for the Bosporan royal and
building tombs to the influence of Asia elite tombs in the local tent type burials of the
Minor, if this be not saying the same thing sixth-beginning of the fourth centuries BC in
in other words, or should we not rather the Kuban region (Blavatskii 1955; 1964,
regard these as the translation into stone of 78). V. Gaidukevich stated that the form of
OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 17(1) 1998

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and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. 55
WHO BUILT THE SCYTHIAN AND THRACIAN ROYAL AND ELITE TOMBS?
these tombs (particularly the circular ones) be local burial practice but the realization of
originated outside the region, perhaps in it required skills and knowledge.
Thrace (1971, 271); V. Fedak agrees with
him (1990, 169). A. Ivanova (1953, 69) links
SCYTHIAN TOMBS
them to influences from Asia Minor or
Thrace. Y. Boltrik and E. Fialko suppose Thanks to Herodotus3 and archaeological
that Bosporan masons under the supervision evidence, the Scythians have long been
of a Scythian priest participated in the known to scholarship and the literature about
construction of the Scythian tomb Oguz them is extensive.4 However, many questions
(1989, 98). connected with them are the subject of debate.
The origin of Thracian royal and elite Currently, in Russian and Ukrainian historio-
stone chamber tombs is another difficult graphy many problems are being looked at
question, much debated. The close similari- anew and reinterpreted (Murzin 1984; 1990;
ties between them and Macedonian Murzin and Skory 1994; Alekseev 1992;
(Tomlinson 1974; Valeva 1994a; etc.) and Pogrebova and Raevskii 1992; Andrukh
Phrygian tombs, as well as their local proto- 1995; Marchenko and Vinogradov 1989;
types, have been noted by many scholars (see Melyukova 1989, 3380; Olkhovsky 1991;
below). R. Hoddinot (1975, 98) writes: Davis-Kimball et al. 1995, 582; Chlenova
and Martynov in Genito 1994, 499540 and
The origin of the craftsmen with the skill
64350; etc. Cf. Chernenko 1987, 312).
not only of brick-making but of building
According to the latest investigations, the
circular domed chambers is, as is their
Scythians appeared in the steppes of the
fate, an unsolved mystery. Perhaps a
northern Black Sea region from northern
consequential benefit of Seuthes relation-
Siberia at the beginning to middle of the
ship with Antigonos was a visit from
seventh century BC. The middle to end of the
Graeco-Syrian craftsmen who took their
seventh century is thought to be the period of
secret with them when they departed or
the Scythian movement to the Near East and
died.
also of the migration of the vast majority of
J. Boardman (1994, 191) thinks that Greek or the remaining Scythian population from the
Macedonian masons might have been steppes of the northern Black Sea to those of
employed in the building of the barrel- the North Caucasus. At the end of the seventh/
vaulted tombs in Thrace. sixth century BC the Scythians returned from
As this short and far from full the Near East, settling mainly in the present
historiographical excursus demonstrates, the day Kuban and Stavropol regions. The end of
problem of the origin and ethnicity of the the sixth-beginning of the fifth century BC
architects and masons constructing the saw the final establishment of north Black Sea
Scythian and Thracian (as well as Bosporan) Scythia, based in two centres: one in the
stone chamber tombs is a matter of confusion Crimean steppes (not far from the future
and scholarly debate. I am convinced that Bosporan Kingdom) and the other in the
before investigating the origins of these Lower Dnieper area (not far from Olbia). It is
tombs, the main question to be asked and at this period that close relations between the
answered is: who built the Scythian and Scythians and the Greek cities of the northern
Thracian royal and elite tombs? The Pontus began (Murzin 1984, 92104; 1990,
inspiration for the type of tomb could indeed 6678).
OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY
56 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1998

GOCHA R. TSETSKHLADZE
The number of known Scythian graves royal tombs (Alekseev 1992, 1567) is as
varies over time. It is, as yet, not possible to follows:
date many of them precisely. For the middle
seventh-beginning of the sixth century there Four chronological groups.
are 6 graves; for the sixth century, 21; for
Group A (end of fifth to first half of fourth
the end of the sixth-beginning of the fifth
century BC):
century, 12. Altogether, 39 graves (Murzin
Solokha,7 Berdyansk Kurgan,8 Kazennaya
1990, 51; Olkhovsky 1991, 56; Melyukova
Mogila.
1989, 54). More than 2500 date from the
fourth century BC (Melyukova 1989, 54).5 Group B (c.360/350330/320 BC):
The reason for the small number of Archaic Tolstaya Mogila,9 Tsimbalka, Chmyrev
graves in the north Black Sea steppes is that, (initial burial), Shchulgovka (initial burial),
in the seventh/sixth centuries, the Scythian Bashmachka.
tribes used to live mainly in the steppes of
Group C (c.340320 BC):
the northern Caucasus which is where the
Chertomlyk,10 Kul-Oba, Melitopolskii,11
great majority of Archaic graves have been
Oguz (initial burial),12 Kozel, Chmyrev
found (Murzin 1990, 524; Makhortykh
(secondary burial), Deev (initial burial),
1991, 1781) (Fig. 1). Only a few rich
Zheltokamenka (initial burial), Pyatibratnii
Scythian royal and elite tumuli are known
No. 8, Mordvinovski Nos. I and II,
for the Archaic period (Kelermess,
Vishnevaya Mogila(?).
Melgunovs barrow, Krasnoe Znamya
tombs, early Ulskie, Kostromskoi), all Group D (c.330300 BC):
situated in the present day Kuban and Aleksandropolskii, Krasnokutskii,13 Oguz
Stavropol regions (Murzin 1984, 104). In (later complexes),14 Deev (secondary burial),
the fifth century the number of royal tombs Shchulgovka (secondary burial), Leme-
increases but most date from the fourth shev(?), Ryzhanovka, Denisova Mogila,
century BC (Figs. 23).6 Verkhnii Rogachuk (secondary burial),
The chronology of the Scythian royal and Babina Mogila, Kamenskaya Bliznitsa.15
elite tombs of the Classical period is very
complex and much disputed. It is based The burial customs of the Scythian elite
largely on the study of Greek imports are very well described by Herodotus (4.71
(particularly amphorae and amphora stamps) 73) and have been studied thoroughly by
found in the tombs. Thus the dating of the scholars (Bunyatyan 1985; Olkhovsky 1991;
burials depends on the accuracy with which Raevskiy 1993, 1523; Bessonova 1983;
the chronology of the amphorae and amphora Kamenetskii 1995; Rolle 1989, 1937;
stamps has been reconstructed; there have Semionov 1993; etc.). Neither the burial rites
been several changes already to the (Bunyatyan 1985; Olkhovsky 1991; etc.) nor
chronology of amphora stamps with the the role of Greeks living in the Greek cities
inevitable consequences for the dating of of the northern Black Sea in the creation of
the burials (Melyukova 1981, 1017; Scythian elite culture16 is the subject of this
Alekseev 1992, 14457; Monahov 1995/96). paper. I shall focus only upon the architecture
Another problem is that scholars disagree and design of Scythian royal and elite tombs,
over which tombs are royal and which not. and later upon Thracian ones in the fifth and
The latest chronology and identification of fourth centuries BC.
Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1998 57

Figure 1
Scythian sites in the northern Caucasus
1Novokorsunskii; 2Baturfinskaya; 3Radzolnaya; 4Ust-Labinskaya; 5Starokorsunskaya; 6Ulyap (Ulskii
Aul); 7Kelermess; 8Mokhoshevskaya; 9Kostromskaya; 10Novosobodnaya; 11Podgornaya; 12Besskorbnaya;
13Kovalevskoe; 14Stavropolskie Kurgany; 15Alekseevskii; 16Krasnoye Znamya; 17Sotnikovskoe;
18Lermontovskii Razyezd; 19Novozavedennoye; 20Otkaznoe; 21Nartan; 22Gvardeiskoe. (After Petrenko
1995, 2, Map 2)
Scythian royal and elite tombs of the the earth mound, the usual height of which
Classical period, especially those of the varied between 3 and 21 m and the diameter
fourth century BC, are concentrated on both between 30 and 350 m. By the height of the
banks of the Lower Dnieper, in the Azov area mound they are divided into four groups
(Don) and the Crimea (Melyukova 1989, 54) (Mozolevskii 1979, 152): tombs 34.5 m
(Figs. 45).17 The vast majority are situated high;19 5.77.5 m high;20 811 m high;21
in the Lower Dnieper area, which is where and 1421 m high.22 Another feature is the
Herodotus located the special place of burial stone chamber and the dromos leading to it
of the Scythian kings Gerrhi.18 Some of antechambers were rare. Usually, the
them re-used the tumuli of the Bronze Age chamber was rectangular. The chamber had
(Tumulus 1 not far from Kherson, Ostraya a step-vaulted stone roof (Oguz) (Fig. 4). The
Tomakovskaya Mogila, Malaya Tsimbalka) chambers are very large and their height
but most tumuli were built specially for varies between 4 and 14 m. Some tombs have
burying the elite, and were constructed in several chambers (Solokha, Verkhnii
several stages (Melyukova 1989, 54). Rogachik) (Fig. 4). There are several types
The chief characteristic of these tombs is of tumulus, recently very well described and

Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1998
Figure 2
Scythian burials of the seventh-fifth centuries BC
Icatacomb grave; IIstone box (stone chamber); IIIpit grave; IVwooden tomb; Vmud-brick tomb; VItype uncertain; VIIburials with dark tarnished
pottery; VIIIburials of seventh-sixth centuries BC; IXnorthern border of steppes.
1Ogorodnoe; 2Shevchenkovo; 3Chervonyi Yar; 4Artsyz; 5Kholmskoe; 6Rahkmanovka; 7Novofilippovka; 8Konstantinovka (Zaporozhskaya Region); 9Annovka; 10Kovalevka; 11Konstantinovka; 12
Luparevo; 13Adzhigol; 14Petukhovka; 15Novoranzanovka; 16Novovasilevka; 17Roznovskii kurgan; 18Kurgan Baby; 19Raskopana Mogila; 20Pokazovoe; 21Olshanka; 22Mederovo; 23Melgunovskii
kurgan; 24Grushevka; 25Timofeevka; 26Novoalekseevka; 27Shirikoe II; 28Novokievka; 29Kurgan Molaya Tsimbalka; 30Semenovka; 31Pervokonstantinovka; 32Novotroitskoe; 33Nizhnie Seregozy; 34
Lyubimovka; 35Sholokhovo; 36Shakhty; 37Chabantsova Mogila; 38Zavadskie Mogily; 39Ispanovy Mogily; 40Pridneprovka; 41Pervomaevka; 42Nikopol; 43Ostraya or Tomakovskaya Mogila; 44
Dneproprudnoe; 45Dnepryany; 46Gusarka; 47Verkhnetarasovka; 48Vel. Znamenka; 49Dubovyi; 50Kichkas; 51Bashmachka; 52Voloshskoe; 53Novogrigorevka; 54Proletarskii; 55Podgorodnoe; 56
Pereshchepino; 57Vladislavska; 58Minovka; 59Verkhnyaya Maevka; 60Aleksandrovka; 61Obitochnoe; 62Vladimirovka; 63Konstantinovsk-na-Donu; 64Zhdanov; 65Vladamirovka; 66Berezan; 67Olbia;
68Rostov-na-Donu; 69Raiskoe; 70Elizavetovskii Mogilnik; 71Krivorozhe; 72Astantino; 73mys Ak-Burun; 74Adzhimushkai; 75Kashtanovka; 76Berezovka; 77Koloski; 78Privetnoe; 79Arkadevka; 80
eximenie Bobovicha; 81Mirnoe; 82Fruktovoe; 83Beloglinka; 84Dolonnoe; 85Arshyntsevo; 86Martynovka; 87Tankovoe; 88Simferepol; 89sovkhoz im. Kalinina; 90Nadezhda; 91Marino-lozovoe; 92
Izyumovka; 93Zolotoi kurgan (? GT); 94Filatovka; 95Frontovoe; 96Temir-gora; 97Semenevka (Aktashskii mogilnik); 98Rybnoe; 99Nymphaeum; 100Lenino; 101Kirovo; 102Ilichevo; 103Zolotoe. (After
Melyukova 1989, 50, Map 6)
59
60
Figure 3
Tombs and city-sites of Steppe Scythia of the fourth-third centuries BC
Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1998
Icatacomb grave; IIstone box (stone chamber); IIIpit grave; IVwooden tomb; Vtype uncertain; VIcity-sites; VIInorthern border of steppes.
1Ostrovnoe; 2Borisovka; 3Balabany; 4Butory; 5Tiraspolshchina; 6Nikolaevka; 7Kovalevka; 8Aleksandrovka; 9Baratovka; 10Lyparevo; 11Petukhovka; 12Adzhigol; 13Belozerskii mogilnik; 14
Olshanka; 15Sambrokovka; 16Sholokhovo; 17Novopodkryazh; 18urochishe Morskaya koshara; 19Baltasarovka; 20Babenkovo; 21Zheltokamenka; 22Krasnoe; 23Nagornoe; 24Dneprorudnoe; 25
urochishche Nosaki; 26Nikopolskoe; 27Voloshskoe; 28Solokha; 29Strashnaya Mogila; 30Lisaya Mogila; 31Kapulovka; 32Kirovo; 33Shakhty; 34group BOF; 35Kut; 36Kichkas; 37Malaya Lepetikha; 38
Deev kurgan; 39Pokrovskii kurgan; 40Chmyreva Mogila; 41kurgan Orel; 42kurgan Kozel; 43Otradnoe; 44Mikhailovka; 45Verkhnetarasovka, Dolinskoe; 46Lvovo; 47Ostraya Mogila; 48Shevchenko II-III;
49Shirokoe I-III; 50Lyubimovka; 51Arkhangelskaya sloboda; 52Volnaya Ukraina; 53I Mordvinskii kurgan; 54Velikii Tokmak; 55Berdyanskii kurgan; 56Melitopolskii kurgan; 57Shulgovka; 58Bashmachka;
59Tolstaya Mogila; 60kurgan Oguz; 61Chertomlyk; 62Glavnaya Blizitsa; 63Krasnokutskii kurgan; 64Aleksandropolskii Kurgan; 65Bolshaya Belezerka (Bolshaya Tsimbalka, Sakhnova Mogila); 66
Tomakovskaya I Bliznitsa; 67Clonovskaya Glavnaya Bliznitsa; 68Plavni; 69Krasnoe Podole; 70Balki (Gaimanova Mogila, Gaimanovo pole, urochishche Nosaki); 71Gyunevka; 72Elizavetovskii mogilnik; 73
Kul-Oba; 74kurgan Patiniotti; 75kurgan Kekuvatskogo; 76Ilechevo; 77Lenino; 78Kirovo; 79Astantino; 80Brannoe pole; 81Ogonki (groupe of Tri brata); 82Mirnoe; 83Fruktovoe; 84Dolinnoe; 85Zolotoe;
86Frontovoe; 87Koloski; 88Privetnoe; 89Aktashskii mogilnik; 90Semenevka; 91Nadlimanskoe; 92Peski; 93Kalinovka; 94Khirovka (Bogdanovka); 95Vladimirovka; 96Dmukhailovka; 97Belenkoe; 98
Shmalki (Kazennaya Mogila); 99Chkalovo; 100Vyvodovo; 101Volnyansk; 102Volnogrushevskoe; 103Primorskoe (Dvygorbaya Mogila) 104Kamenskoe city-site. (After Melyukova 1989, 52, Map 7)
Figure 4
Plans of Scythian royal tombs
1Verkhnii Rogachik; 2Solokha; 3Oguz. (After Melyukova 1989, 318, Table 13)
classified by V.S. Olkhovsky (1991). cosmological significance of the cross, these

The architecture and layout of tombs contained the burials of high priests
situated on the Lower Don and in the Crimea (Bessonova 1997; cf. Boltrik and Fialko
(Fig. 5) have some differences from those in 1989, 98).
the Lower Dnieper area. They are indeed Funeral couches (klinai) are found chiefly
very similar to the Bosporan royal tombs (see in the tombs of the Lower Don and Crimean
below): each has a dromos, single rectangular regions; they are rectangular, constructed of
chamber and step-vaulted stone roof. either one stone or several and situated in the
Four tombs (Chertomlyk, Kozel, middle of the chamber or adjoining the wall.
Mordvinskii I and II) have a cruciform plan. More usually, the body of the deceased was
Study of tombs of this type in many parts of placed in a wooden sarcophagus (Oguz, Kul-
the ancient world, and character of the grave Oba, etc.). This custom is typically Bosporan
goods found in them, has given some and study of these sarcophagi shows that they
scholars (probably correctly) grounds for were made by Bosporan craftsmen (see
concluding that, in view of the widespread below). Chamber entrances were often closed

Figure 5
KulOba.
(After Melyukova 1989, 320, Table 15)
by wheels from the burial chariot in the Kerch and Taman Peninsulas (Fig. 6)
(Gaimonova Mogila, Tolstaya Mogila, etc.) and can be divided into two main groups: 1
(Melyukova 1989, 56). tombs which probably belong to monarchs
There is a greater similarity between the of the Bosporan Kingdom (Tsarskii Kurgan,
architecture of Thracian tombs (see below) Zolotoi Kurgan) and its elite (Melek-
and those Scythian ones situated in the Lower Chesmenskii Kurgan, the double tumulus in
Don and Crimea (situated next to the territory Panticapaeum, Yuz-Oba group, Zmeinyi,
of the Bosporan Kingdom) than tombs etc.). These are all situated in the Kerch
situated in the Dnieper area. Peninsula near to Greek cities and the royal
tombs are close to Penticapaeum, the capital
of the kingdom; 2 tombs belonging to the
BOSPORAN TOMBS
local Sindian elite. These are all situated in
Of crucial importance to my discussion are the Taman Peninsula (Artyukhovskii,
the royal and elite tombs of the Bosporan Zelenskii, Vasyurinskii, Bliznetsy, Sem
Kingdom.23 They are well known in Bratev, etc.). Both groups together number
scholarly literature (Minns 1913, 42236; 17 tombs. Practically all of them were
Rostovtsev 1925; Gajdukevic 1971, 25680; discovered in the nineteenth century.
Gaidukevich 1981, 654; Koshelenko et al. Information about them is sketchy. Many of
1984, 958; Fedak 1990, 16870; Savostina them were robbed in antiquity and dating
1993, 5867; etc.). These tombs are situated them is a great problem. Overall, they are

Figure 6
Map of Bosporan Kingdom (Kerch and Taman Peninsulas) with main Greek cities, and tombs
Greek cities; tombs.
1Myrmekion; 2Panticapaeum; 3Tyritake; 4Nymphaeum; 5Theodosia; 6Hermonassa; 7Phanagoria; 8Kepoi;
9Patraeus; 10Gorgippia.
ITsarskii; IIZolotoi; IIIZmeinyi; IVYuz-Oba group; VKukbatskii; VIZelenskii; VIIArtyukhovskii;
VIIIVasyurinskii; IXBliznetsy; XSem Bratev (Seven Brothers).
dated to the fifth/fourth centures BC, but the For my purpose three tombs (the first two of
vast majority (like the Scythian tombs) which have been identified as those of kings
belong to the fourth century. of the Bosporan Kingdom) are the most
All of these tombs are built of stone and important. The mound of Zolotoi Kurgan
covered by a mound. Here a stone-roofed, (Fig. 7, 56) is elliptical (67 88 m), and
step-vaulted dromos leads to one or more 16 m high. Inside there are three separate
chambers. The chambers are usually chambers two rectangular and one circular
rectangular only at Zolotoi Kurgan (Fig. (6.30 m in diameter and 11 m high)
7, 56) is one of the three chambers round. In approached by a dromos (18 m long, 2.22 m
the literature these tombs are called ledged wide and 6.80 m high). The floor of the
tumuli because of the corbels in the form of circular main chamber was at a lower level
stepped, projecting ledges used to link the than that of the dromos and entrance way. This
chamber walls to the vaulted roof (corbel chamber is dated to the late fourth century BC;
vaulting). There are three types of ledged the other two chambers, also corbel-vaulted
chambers: those with corbels stepping out are considered to be earlier and it is
from two corners (the most widespread with 8 probable that each of the earlier burials had its
examples); those with corbels from three own separate mound (Gaidukevich 1981, 6
corners (2 examples); and those with corbels 24; Fedak 1990, 1689). Tsarskii Kurgan is
in all four corners (7 examples). In these situated 4 km north-east of Panticapaeum and
graves the body was placed either in a wooden is believed to be the burial place of Leukon I
or stone sarcophagus24 or on a klinai adjoining (389/8349/8 BC) or Parisades I (344/3311/
the wall opposite the entrance to the chamber 10 BC). The mound is 17 m high; the dromos
(Gaidukevich 1981, 654) (Fig 7). is 36 m long and for the last 20 m towards the

Figure 7
Plans of Bosporan royal and elite tombs (I) and roofs (II)
I. 14Tsarskii; 56Zolotoi; 79Vasurinskii; 1012Double tumulus in Panticapaeum. II. 1Tsarskii; 2Melek-
Chesmenskii; 3Cheroesus; 45Olbia. (After Koshelenko et al. 1984, 276, Table LXXXVI and 285, Table XCV)

chamber it is covered by a corbelled vault Melek-Chesmenskii Kurgan represents a

2.80 m wide and 7.14 m high. the corridor is typical example of the elite tombs in the
faced with perfectly fitted drystone masonry, Bosporan Kingdom different and smaller
whose blocks have a rusticated panel. The than the previous two examples. It has a
tomb has one chamber which is square (4.22 pyramid-like roof, though entirely under-
4.37 m) and is covered by a corbelled dome ground. The top of the false vault is closed
(Gaidukevich 1981, 2545; Fedak 1990, 169) by a large slab. The mound is 8 m high. The
(Fig. 7, I, 14, II, 1).25 roughly square tomb chamber (3.70 m) is
Figure 8
Painting from Shipka area. (After Kitov 1994f, 315)

approached by a dromos 9 m long and about about the philhellenic Anacharsis and Scyles.
1.35 m wide. The corbelled vault starts above The Scythians had become familiar with
the fifth course and consists of seven courses, chamber tombs from having lived in the Near
narrowing until the opening could be closed East, especially Asia Minor where such tombs
by a wedge-shaped slab. The tomb dates were very common, and this type of tumulus
from not later than the second half of the must have been brought to the northern Black
fourth century BC (Fedak 1990, 170, Fig. 7, Sea (particularly the Kerch and Taman
II, 2).26 Peninsulas) by the Ionians, who established
The first mural paintings in Bosporan colonies there. The Ionians themselves had in
tombs appear in the last quarter of the fourth turn become familiar with such tumuli from
century BC. The best example of such early their neighbours in the hinterland of Asia
painting is a head of Demeter from the roof Minor (see below).
of the Bolshaya Bliznitsa Kurgan in the
Taman Peninsula (Ivanova 1953, 67; cf.
THRACIAN TOMBS
Schwarzmaier 1996).
Even simple visual comparison (Figs. 47) The question of the origin of the Thracian
demonstrates the extremely close similarities royal and elite chamber tombs is more
in shape, type, construction technique (both complex.28 From the end of the sixth century
built from stone blocks) and design between BC, and especially the beginning of the fifth
the royal tombs of the Scythians and those of century with the establishment of the
the Bosporan Kingdom. One thing is also Odrysian Kingdom, Thracian tribes living in
obvious: there are parallels between the the territory of modern Bulgaria achieved
tumuli of the Bosporans and Scythian tombs prosperity (Fig. 9). This can be seen in the
of the Lower Don and Crimean regions (the changes which took place in the structure of
best examples are Scythian Kul-Oba, and the royal and elite tombs and burial customs:
Bosporan Zalotoi Kurgan and Tsarskii large tombs became common.29 The grave
Kurgan Figs. 5; 7, I, 16). For this there goods show the wealth of the rulers and elite
is a simple explanation. The Scythians in of the Odrysian Kingdom. Thracian kings
these ares lived next to the Bosporan and members of the elite began to think about
Kingdom and Bosporan Greeks contributed their dwelling places after death, as the rulers
greatly to the creation of Scythian elite of Mycenaean Greece had done even before
culture. Indeed, we know of workshops in the twelfth century BC and those of Phrygia,
Panticapaeum producing metal objects for Caria and Lydia by the end of the eighth
Scythian customers (Treister 1992, 934).27 century. Previously, only simple tombs with
The evidence discussed above provides rectangular chambers had existed in Thracia:
good grounds for concluding that Scythian the new tombs were round. They were
royal tombs were built by Bosporan Greeks in widespread only in eastern Rhodopos.
the same manner as they built tombs for their Characteristically, their chamber (often
own royal family. Why did the Scythians, a round) was reached by a short tunnel cut
nomadic people, want to be buried in the same into a vertical cliff-face. Although entirely
way as the Greeks? Archaeological and new to Thracia, these rock-cut tombs were to
written sources make clear that the Scythian be found elsewhere in Persia, Phrygia and
elite was highly Hellinized (Boardman 1994, throughout Asia Minor (see below). The
192217). Herodotus (4. 7780) has stories entrances to such tombs were blocked with

Figure 9
Thracian sites and tribal territories of the Classical period
1Alexandrovo; 2Arzos; 3Asenovgrad; 5Brezevo; 6Boukyovtsi; 7Branichevo; 8Chirpan; 9Daskal Atanas-
sovo; 10Derveni; 11Didimotikhion; 12Dolno Sahrane; 13Dulboki; 14Duvanlij; 15Edirne; 16Ezerovo; 17
Glozhene; 18Gotse Delchev; 19Gradnitsa; 20Izgrev; 21Kaloyanovo; 22Kazanluk; 23Kirklareli;
24Kjolmen; 25Koprinka; 26Kozarevo; 27Krivodol; 28Letnitsa; 29 Loukovit; 30Lovech; 31Madara;
32Mezek; 33Mumdjilar; 34Nevrokop; 35Nova Mahala; 36Novoselets; 37Opulchenets; 38Oryahovo;
39Panagyurischte; 40Pastousha; 41Pazardjik; 42Philippi; 43Pomorie; 44Pudrija; 45Purmovaj; 46Pustrovo;
47Razlog; 48Rozovets; 49Seuthopolis; 50Skalitsa; 51Slavyanovo; 52Smoljan; 53Stara Zagora; 54Staro
Selo; 55Stojanovo; 56Strelcha; 57Svetlen; 58Svilengrad; 59Sarnevets; 60Tatarevo; 61Tchernozem;
62Teteven; 63Toros; 64Topolovgrad; 65Topolovo; 66Troian; 67Turnovo; 68Velingrad; 69Beroea;
70Vetren; 71Voinitsine; 72Vulchitrun; 73Vurbitsa; 74Yankovo; 75Yourukler; 76Zlokoutchene; 77Kabyle
(Cabyle). (After Archibald 1994, 446, Map 14)
stones. The chamber was shaped like a were empty when discovered. Some assign
hemisphere or beehive and, with its dromos, them to the eighth or seventh century BC.
closely resembled the rock-cut tombs of Asia Rock-cut tombs are also found here and there
Minor (despite a difference of form and on the Black Sea coast, north of Odessos, but
structure) (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1975, in shape they are always like other tombs and
535). The domed tombs in that region, never round (Nehryzov 1994).30
widespread from the eighth/seventh centuries In Thracia, chamber tombs with dromos
BC, were built of blocks then covered with covered by burial mounds date from the fifth/
earth, forming burial mounds. It is extremely third centuries BC, with the vast majority
difficult to date Thracian rock-cut tombs: all built in the fourth century as in Scythia and

Figure 10
Plans of Thracian tombs
1Mal Tepe; 2Staro Novo Selo; 3Vulchepol (Kurt-Kale); 4Tatarevo. (After Venedikov and Gerasimov 1975,
5765)

the Bosporan Kingdom. They were found in and Etruria in the tombs and buildings of the
the hinterland where the Thracian royal eighth/seventh centuries BC (see below).
family and elite used to live the royal Another construction technique to achieve
cities of Seuthopolis (Chichikova 1991b; symmetry involved domes made by steadily
Dimitrov and Cicikova 1978; Getov 1991; reducing the radius of the courses of blocks,
Lilova 1994; Tacheva 1991; Zarev et al. placed stepwise on the walls of the round
1994; Dimitrov et al. 1978) and Kabyle chambers, while the remaining areas were
(Velkov 1982; 1991a; 1991b; Velkov et al. covered on the principle of the corbelled
1990) are known thanks to archaeolgical vault or dome resting on a rectangular
investigation. We do not know the location of chamber (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1975,
two other cities: Kypsela, capital of the 5363; Russeva 1995).32
Odrysian Kingdom; and Helis, residence of Three types of chamber roof can be
the Getic ruler Dromichaetes.31 distinguished: flat roofs in tombs with a
In the development of the shape of the rectangular chamber; and so-called false and
chamber, two periods can be distinguished cylindrical vaults (Russeva 1995, 32) (Fig.
(Fig. 10). The first is the middle fifthmiddle 11, 2). The same types of roof are also to be
fourth century BC, when the chamber is seen in the Bosporan Kingdom (Fig. 7, II).
rectangular; and middle fourththird century A characteristic feature of the Thracian
BC when round tombs built of stone blocks tombs is the stone entrance door to the
appear and they co-existed. This is probably chamber.33 This is also the case for
two stages of an architectural development: Macedonian tombs and the rock-cut tombs
the same can be said for the Bosporan royal of Lycia and Phrygia (see below). In the
tombs where rectangular chambers pre- tombs of the Bosporan Kingdom no entrance
dominate (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1975, doors survive but some architectural details
557). Within these two groups a further point to their having existed. There is a
classification can be made: first, tombs with variety of decoration on the cornices in
one chamber, secondly those with two or Thracian tombs and sometimes there are
multiple chambers. Within one and two columns (Doric, seldom Ionic) supporting
chamber tombs we can distinguish tombs the roof of the antechamber (one,
with or without dromos (Fig. 11, 1). Tombs occasionally two columns). In a very few
with multiple round chambers are mainly cases the roof of the chamber is supported by
built of quadrae and divided into three columns as well (Venedikov and Gerasimov
sections: an antechamber, a dromos and a 1975, 58; Kitov 1979, 710, figs. 711, 13,
burial chamber, with a saddle roof consisting fig. 15, 22, fig. 27; Kitov and Krasteva 1994/
of a corbelled vault and corbelled dome. The 95, 14, fig. 6; Valeva 1994b).34 Unique is the
vault was built by placing the blocks stepwise interior of the chamber at Sveshtari where ten
on two opposite walls, and cutting the steps women support a Doric entablature on their
to an angle on the lower side. The dome was raised hands, with the help of ten Doric half-
built by arranging the quadrae in quad- columns (Fol et al. 1986, 64105; Cicikova
rangles, the sides of each cutting off the 1989; Chichikova 1988; 1992; Teofilov 1988;
angles of the one below it, and projecting Valeva 1993; Gergova 1996) (Fig. 12).
farther into the tomb. The blocks were cut out Although they recall Greek caryatids in style,
spherically on the inner side. Corbelled they are closest to the half-figures depicted on
arches and domes were used in Asia Minor the Scythian gold horse frontlet from

Figure 11
1. Classification of Thracian chamber tombs: Itombs with rectangular chamber(s); IItombs with round chamber(s).
2. Roofs: Iplan of chambers; IIflat roofs; IIIfalse arch; IVround arch. (After Russeva 1995, 32)

Figure 12
Detail of the interior of the Sveshtari tomb. (After Fol et al. 1986, 57)

Figure 13
Reconstruction of the tomb-mausoleum. (After Kitov
and Krasteva 1994/95, 13)
Bolshaya Tsymbalka tumulus (which

represent, according to Herodotus Scythian
Logos, the mother of the Scythians
Herodotus 4. 9) (Fig. 14). The frontlet has
snaky and floral lower extremities, ending in
horned lion-, griffin- and snake-heads
(Piotrovsky et al. 1987, fig. 144). Such
depictions are spread extremely wide in the
Near East, Bosporan Kingdom and Greek
world (Boardman 1994, 1912; Valeva
1995).35 The same women can be seen in
the mosaic from the Macedonian tomb in
Figure 14
Vergina (Andronicos 1988, 45, fig. 20), but Gold horse frontlet from Bolshaya Tsimbalka. (After
stylistically the Sveshtari figures are closest Piotrovsky et al. 1987, 144)
to Scythian half-female figures (Piotrovsky et
al. 1987, figs. 203, 208), and especially to that
from a grave stele from Kerch (Marchenko If we turn to tomb paintings, in the
1984, 65, fig. 9; Savostina 1996). Recently, a Hellenistic period these are more common
tomb-mausoleum of the mid-fourth century in Thracia and Macedonia (Venedikov and
a type previously unknown in Thracia but Gerasimov 1975, 613; Andronicos 1988,
widespread in Anatolia was found at 10618; Miller 1993, 1214; Zazoff et al.
Shipka, in an area known as The Valley of 1985, 61826) than in the Bosporan
the Thracian Kings (Kitov and Krasteva 1994/ Kingdom. Well-known is the painting from
95, 914) (Fig. 13).36 the tomb at Kazanluk where the main
In the Thracian tombs, klinai were placed at chamber has a corbelled roof painted in a
the wall opposite the entrance to the chamber. colourful manner. There are chariot races, a
The same practice is visible in the Scythian Greek decorative frieze of bowls and
and Bosporan tombs. Sometimes the deceased bucrania, and the main scene contains figures
was placed in a sarcophagus (Venedikov and approaching the dead prince and his consort
Gerasimov 1975, 60; Fol et al. 1986, 106; seated at the table (Verdiani 1945; Zhivkova
Kitov and Krasteva 1994/95, 9). 1974; Ognenova-Marinova 1991; Tabakova-

Tsanova 1994; Vasileva 1991). Although

CHAMBER TOMBS ELSEWHERE
some scholars think that this is the work of
a local Thracian artist (Ognenova-Marinova The plan of the chamber tomb with its
1991, 1618), all signs point to its being antechamber and column facade is
Greek work (as in Macedonia) with the artist considered to be a reflection of a Greek
adapting to the taste of the local Thracian house or megaron. The use of stone klinai
elite, a practice well known throughout the mirrors the bedroom or symposium where
colonial world (Boardman 1994, 191). At feasters lie down on couches set around the
Shvestari there is also a painting of a walls. Chamber tombs are found in many
horseman, followed by a man on foot, being places (Kurtz and Boardman 1971, 272326;
greeted by three female figures (Fol et al. Fedak 1990. Both with extensive literature).
1986, 11015) (Fig. 12). Recently, in a tomb The early chamber tombs in Aegina and
in the Shipka region, a painting of the middle Rhodes were situated underground and had
of the fourth century BC was discovered on no tumuli. In Thessaly round tholos tombs
the ceiling of the main chamber with human resembled Mycenaean ones with tumuli,
and animal images, floral ornaments and the dromoi and corbelled vaults. Similar tholos
tail of a fish, dragon or some unidentified tombs with tumuli were also widespread in
fantastic animal (Kitov and Krasteva 1994/95, Thrace. In Epirus there are small, temple-
17, pl. 1). Best preserved and most impressive shaped tombs with engaged Corinthian
is the head of a woman, bent down slightly columns as well as tombs with a vaulted
onto her right shoulder (Kitov 1994f, 315; dromos. At Elaia, not far from Pergamon, a
Kitov and Krasteva 1994/95, 18, pl. 2) (Fig. tomb with an antechamber and three
8),37 a pose which is reminiscent of the sarcophagi was found; at Euboea, a tomb
womans head from the grave stele found in with an antechamber and two klinai.
the fill of the Great Tumulus at Vergina Chamber tombs are found in Locris, Aetolia,
(Andronicos 1988, 83, fig. 43). In its realistic Arcadia, Delphi and Eretria. Some of them
style it is closest to a male figure from the have vaulted roofs, others do not; some also
painting on a grave stele of the fourth century have marble doors. Painted chamber tombs
BC from Chersonesus (Koshelenko et al. are known from Tanagra (Kurtz and
1984, 298, tabl. CVIII, 6). Another recent find Boardman 1971, 27481).
is a polychrome wall decoration (red, yellow, Macedonian tombs need more detailed
white and black) from a tomb in the Sarafova examination. They are situated along the
Mound in the Shipka-Sheynovo necropolis course of roads, not always near a city: some
(Kitov and Krasteva 1994/95, 16, fig. 11).38 are located on family estates. All were
This is reminiscent of wall decorations in covered with an earth tumulus and most of
Hellenistic Bosporan houses and tombs (and the construction work was underground.
the similarity of decoration of both houses They have a dromos, either vaulted or
and tombs once again indicates that the latter stepped and the facade of the tombs is
were seen as houses for the dead) typically of painted, finely dressed masonry.
(Koshelenko et al. 1984, 298, tabl. CVIII, The richest tombs have marble doors, with a
23). Floral decoration and certain painted pediment above, set in an engaged columnar
architectural features found in Thracian facade. The columns are Ionic (Vergina and
tombs have parallels in the Bosporan Langaza) or Doric (Dion, Salonika, etc.). In
Kingdom. Lefkadia a tomb has a two-storied facade

with paintings. Most tombs have an soldiers of Alexander the Great. In the
antechamber behind the facade, usually antechamber scattered, burnt grave offerings
vaulted but in some cases with a flat roof were found (Mellink 1992, 148; 1993, 121).
and sometimes with interior engaged Ionic These and the burial rites have been thought
columns (Kurtz and Boardman 1971, 2747; by some scholars to resemble contemporary
Fedak 1990, 1048; Andronicos 1988; Miller Thracian practices (Vassileva 1995b, 28).
1982; 1992, 120, 10516; 1994; Andronicos In Lydia, there are fifth century tumuli,
in Ginouve`s 1994, 14491). some of them vaulted, with dromoi and klinai
The main chamber is rectangular and (Hanfmann 1983, 549; Butler 1922, 115
vaulted, with one or two klinai along the 17). In Caria from the early Iron Age down to
back or side walls. The klinai were either the Classical period tumuli with dromoi to
simple block benches or cut in stone, rectangular chambers with tall corbelled
stuccoed and painted. Some have figures roofs are known. A few years ago in
painted on their sides. Several tombs Camlibel a small tumulus, about 35 m in
(Amphipolis, Philippi and Lefkadia) have diameter and 5 m high was discovered: the
wall niches to house the ashes of the dead. In chamber was built of limestone blocks, with
a few instances the burial is in a sarcophagus a dromos as well (Smith and Ratte 1996, 25).
set below the floor of the tomb. At Vergina, This tumulus and a similar one found in 1993
in addition to a kline the chamber contained a near Aphrodisias (Smith and Ratte 1995, 36
throne. Some chambers were floored in 7) are similar in plan and construction to
pebble mosaic. Other Macedonian tombs Lydian tumulus tombs of the sixth and fifth
are simpler: flat roofed, rock-cut or made of centuries BC (Ratte 1992; cf. Gates 1995,
slabs. Their stepped dromoi are short and the 240; 1996, 322; Ratte 1994). In Lycia more
chambers and antechambers smaller. It is than 1085 tombs are known. These may be
very important to mention that at Vergina divided into four types: monumental or
small chambers made of mud-brick were heroon type;39 pillar tombs; gothic
found. Tombs with chambers made of mud- sarcophagi; and rock-cut house tombs (Zahle
brick are known from Scythia as well as the 1983, 1423; Kjeldsen and Zahle 1976; Keen
necropoleis of Greek cities of the northern 1992). The most interesting is the last type,
Black Sea (Koshelenko et al. 1984, 2224). which was also widespread in Paphlagonia
To answer the question of who built the (cf. Akurgal 1970, 2634). Rock-cut tombs
Scythian and Thracian royal and elite tombs have klinai (Xanthos and Kalekapi). A late
we must also examine evidence from Asia Archaic tomb chamber at Elmali in Lycia
Minor (Kurtz and Boardman 1971, 2789; contains wall paintings (Kurtz and Boardman
Fedak 1990, 65102; Akurgal 1961). The 1971, 2789). The entrances to the Lycian
royal cemetery at Gordion yielded wooden rock-cut tombs (at Massikytos, Pinara and
tomb chambers without dromoi, all dating Limyra) resemble the doors and entrances to
from the ninth/eighthsixth centuries BC the Thracian royal tombs (Shipka) (Kitov
(Young 1981, 47, 85100, 194200; see 1995a, 911) there are considerable
also Kohler 1980). Recently, a tomb was similarities in the decoration of their
found near Daskyleion which resembled pediments.
Thracian vaulted tombs with an 8 m In Asia Minor in the fourth century and
dromos and an open antechamber at the Hellenistic period there are tombs built
entrnace. Probably, it had been robbed by above-ground. The tombs of the Lycian

dynasts of the Persian period were decorated whilst the tastes of the various royal and elite
by Greek artists (Xanthos) (Kurtz and families were very similar and became more
Boardman 1971, 2789; cf. Keen 1992). so as they became ever more Hellenized
The important role of Ionian craftsmen and under Greek influence.
artists in the creation of the elite culture of
the Anatolian native kingdoms, as well as the
Achaemenian Empire, is discussed through- GREEKS AND SCYTHIAN AND THRACIAN RU-
LERS
out the literature. They were working for the
local rulers, adapting their craftsmanship to The first Ionian settlements in the Black
the tastes and demands of their clients Sea appeared in the second half of the
(Boardman 1994, 2148).40 seventh century BC (Tsetskhladze 1994, with
This brief survey41 of the distribution of bibliography) (Fig. 15). The relationship
chamber tombs shows that this type of grave between the first colonists and the local
was widespread throughout the whole Greek population was quite peaceful. If we accept
world, including the Greek mainland. But the that the handmade pottery found in the Greek
greatest variety and density is in Asia Minor, settlements of the northern Black Sea is an
and in the territories of the native kingdoms indication that the local population lived in
of Anatolia, particularly in Phrygia and those settlements, the proportion of all
Lycia. The architecture and decoration show pottery represented by it (1223%) is quite
clearly that Greeks participated in their high; and this could be evidence of a pacific
construction. Ionian features are especially relationship.42 Speaking generally, the
noticeable, which is no surprise since the seventh and sixth centuries BC saw no
Ionians, Lycians and Phrygians were neigh- complications in the relations between the
bours and it was quite easy for the Ionians to Greeks and the local populations of the
become familiar with the practice of building northern and western Black Sea only a
chamber tombs. Scythian, Thracian and few Scythians, for example, used to live there
Bosporan (and also Macedonian) royal tombs and they were busy with their own internal
have many architectural features in common affairs (Marchenko 1996, 701). The
with their Phrygian and Lycian equivalents. excavations of the last ten years in the Kerch
Were the dromos to be removed from a Peninsula have revealed traces of fire and
Thracian tomb the resemblance to the rock- destruction in some Greek cities and
cut tombs of Lycia would be even more settlements, dating from the middle-second
striking: the same design of door, same half of the sixth century BC. At this stage it is
decoration, etc. And there are many newly- too early to say whether this was connected
found examples of Thracian tombs without a with the opposition of the Scythians to Greek
dromos, particularly in the Shipka region. cities: the evidence still needs to be examined
The landscape of these vairous states was thorough (Vinogradov Y.A. 1995).
similar hilly, with plenty of building- From the end of the sixth/beginning of the
stones, fertile valleys and a royal family fifth century BC the situation altered
living in the hinterland. Even the political completely after Darius Scythian campaign
structures of these Black Sea states have (Tsetskhladze 1996, 9667, with literature).
many parallels with those of Anatolia: the This is the time whent he Scythians felt
principal figures was the king and everything strong enough (as I mentioned previously) to
was done according to his wishes and tastes; establish two political centres one not far

Figure 15
Map of the Black Sea with major Greek colonies. (After Tsetskhladze 1994, 116, Fig. 7.1)
from the Bosporan Kingdom and the other matter of debate, many scholars link it to the
near Olbia. At the same time, the Odrysian need to combat increasing Scythian pressure
Kingdom was coming into being in Thracia. on the cities situated in the Kerch and Taman
There was immediate conflict between these Peninsulas (Tsetskhladze 1996, 967, with
two, newly-formed political entities, which literature). To the west of the Black Sea
concluded in a peace at the beginning of the pressure on the Greek cities came from the
fifth century BC (Yordanov 1991, 745). Odrysian Kingdom. The relations between
Thereafter, the Scythians directed their atten- the Odrysian kings and the Greek cities have
tions towards the Greek cities Olbia, and been well studied in the literature. The nature
the cities of the Kerch and Taman Peninsulas. of the relationship is very well described by
The theory put forward by Y.G. Vinogradov Thucydides (2. 97) in these words:
(1989, 90109) has gained increasing
acceptance. According to this, the Scythians The tribute that was collected from the
established a so-called protectorate over the Greek cities and from all the barbarous
Greek cities (cf. Marchenko 1993). Although nations in the reign of Seuthes . . . was
the reasons for the unification of the Greek valued at about four hundred talents of
cities of the Kerch and Taman Peninsulas coined money, reckoning only gold and
into a single state, the Bosporan Kingdom silver. Presents of gold and silver equal in
with its capital at Panticapaeum, remain a value to the tribute, besides stuffs

embroidered or plain and other articles, residences of the local elite were built after
were also brought, not only to the king the Greek manner examples are at Vani in
himself, but to the inferior chiefs and Colchis (Lordkipanidze 1991, 18595; 1994,
nobles of the Odrysae. For their custom 83123; cf. Wasowicz 1992 and Braund
was the opposite of that which prevailed in 1994, 14551), Scythian Neapolis (of the
the Persian kingdom; they were more Hellenistic period) in the Crimea
ready to receive than to give; and he (Vysotskaya 1979, 5772, 15588) and
who asked and was refused was not so Seuthopolis in Thrace (Dimitrov and
much discredited as he who refused when Cicikova 1978, 615, 4356; etc.). As in
he was asked. The same custom prevailed Anatolia, these Greek craftsmen were
among the other Thracians in a less employed by local kings to produce objects
degree, but among the Odrysae, who were for them in the Greek style but adapting their
richer, more extensively; nothing could be work to the tastes of the local elite
done without presents.43 (Tsetskhladze forthcoming).
As I have already mentioned, Scythian and
Archaeological material also illuminates Thracian royal tombs have many similarities
this relationship based on tribute and the with those of Anatolia. The key to unlocking
giving of gifts. The best example among the answer of who built these tombs is their
many is the Rogozen Treasure (Archibald, close parallel with the royal tombs of the
Fol, Hind and Hoddinott in Cook 1989; Greek Bosporan Kingdom. All the evidence I
Nikolov 1989; Marazov 1989).44 have presented here shows that all of these
If we turn to the northern Black Sea, Strabo tombs were indeed built by the same
may be cited. He says that land for settlement architects, namely Ionian Greeks, who were
and agriculture was given by local tribal familiar with such kind of chamber tombs
chiefs i.e. Scythians either by special through their neighbours in Asia Minor and,
agreement or in exchange for a moderate indeed, were also constructing such tombs for
tribute (7. 4. 6). One inscription of the late themselves (Ta Marmara, Diocaesarea tower
fifth century, from Kerkinitis in western tomb, Heroa at Miletus, Termesos, Golbasi,
Crimea, indeed mentions the payment of etc. Fedak 1990, 87101).45 At the same
tribute to the Scythians (Solomonik 1987, time, the Scythians were familiar with these
126; cf. Vinogradov Y.G. 1994, 66 = Bull. ep. tombs from the time they spent in the Near
1990, 566; 1995, 16; see also Molev 1986). East, with the same neighbours. Then they
From the cultural point of view, the saw the same practices among their new
political difficulties between the Thracians, neighbours in the Crimea. One fact is
Scythians and Pontic Greek cities resulted in noticeable: chamber tombs appear in both
the creation of a unique phenomenon: Scythia and Thracia from the second half of
Graeco-barbarian art. The Greeks produced the fifth century BC. As we saw, this is the
many highly artistic objects for the local period when both began to exert political
royal family and elite. From the fifth century pressure on Greek cities, demanding tribute
BC, these local upper classes were and gifts from them (cf. Yordanov 1994). At
Hellenized a process which went further the same time, Greek craftsmen were actively
in the fourth century. Greek craftsmen were participating in the creation of local elite
employed at the courts (Boardman 1994, culture. From employing Greeks to build
183224; Tsetskhladze forthcoming). The their local residences, it was but a short step

to employing Ionian architects to build their shows exactly the same practices: a chamber
residences for the afterlife.46 tomb constructed of stone blocks under an
The similar chronology and type of earth mound, with a dromos, antechamber
architecture of Thracian and Bosporan tombs and chamber. The chamber is rectangular
could also have a political explanation. In with a flat roof supported by a pillar
c.438 BC there was a change of dynasty in (Dominguez Monedero 1988, 15).
the Bosporan Kingdom from the Similarities in the chamber tombs of
Archaeanactidae to the Spartocids. The latter Macedonia and Phrygia have been con-
were of Thracian origin (Hind 1994, 491 sidered an argument for Phrygian migration
502) and could have brought this practice from Macedonia to Asia Minor. At the same
from Thrace, where such tombs had begun to time, to demonstrate the kinship between
appear slightly earlier than in the Bosporan Thracians and Phrygians, as well as the
Kingdom and, consequently, in Scythia. In information of Herodotus (7. 73), close
general, the relationship between Thrace and parallels in Thracian and Phrygian tumuli
the northern Black Sea was very close, at are cited (Vassileva 1994a, 63). As in Lydia
least from the sixth century BC. Thracian so too in Thracia some tumuli played the role
ethnic groups used to live in the northern of sanctuaries at particular times (Vassileva
Pontus, including the Greek cities there 1994a, 63; cf. Kitov 1990/91, 367). To use
(Melyukova 1979; Fol and Ognenova- the type of chamber tomb found in Thracia,
Marinova 1975; Krykin 1991; 1993). I have Macedonia, Phrygia and Lycia as an
underlines that the vast majority of these argument to support migration between these
tombs date from the fourth century BC, territories seems to me unconvincing. There
especially from its first half and middle. This are differences, not just similarities and these
is a period of economic and political strength have been examined recently by M.
in the Bosporan Kingdom, when, during the Vassileva (1994a, 635; see also Vassileva
reign of Leukon I (389/8349/8), Theodosia, 1994b; 1995ab). It was quite easy for
Nymphaeum and the local population of the Thracians to be familiar with this type of
Taman Peninsula were incorporated within grave one of the Thracian tribes having
the kingdom, and very close economic links lived south of the Black Sea, close to
with Athens were established (Hind 1994, Phrygia. On the other hand, two published
495502). A similar prosperity was experi- graves from Apollonia Pontica can be used to
enced at this time in the Odrysian Kingdom show that the idea of building chamber tombs
during the reigns of Kotys I and Seuthes III was familiar to the Greeks living in colonies
(Archibald 1994, 45765). Prosperity pro- on the Thracian Black Sea coast. One grave
vided the financial means for the construction (No. 368) has been cut into the ground a
of these huge, expensive tombs. stone box. The second grave (Nos. 376 and
If we go to another area of Ionian 376a) (Fig. 16, 2) is more important, being a
colonization, the Iberian Peninsula, we can stone structure in the middle of which two
see exactly the same situation. Thanks to the stone boxes built from blocks have been cut
Ionians, the Iberians began to build their into the ground (Venedikov et al. 1963, 423,
tombs in the Anatolian manner (Almagro- figs. 2526; see also Panayotova 1994). This
Gorbea 1991; Ramos 1990; Harrison 1988, grave is reminiscent of a multiple tomb with
11420; cf. Dominguez Monedero 1994). an archiectural facade in Arcadia (Kurtz and
Grave No. 75 at Galera is very important. It Boardman 1971, 281, fig. 65. Cf. Fig. 7, 1,

Figure 16
1. Chamber tomb from Vetren. (After Domaradzki 1995, 6970) 2. Apollonia Pontica, grave No. 376-376a. (After
Venedikov et al. 1963, 43)
1012). Furthermore, rock-cut graves and this city are completely Greek and beehive
simple tumuli (with dromos, antechamber chamber tombs were found in the citys
and chamber) existed in Thracia long before necropolis (Dimitrov and Cicikova 1978,
the appearance of the royal tombs. Thus, this figs. 8498). But this city existed at the time
shape of chamber tomb was not completely of Seuthes III, whereas the other tombs date
alien to the western Black Sea. from the fifth /fourth centuries BC. Another
The question of where the Greek architects candidate is the city-site at the village of
building the Thracian royal tombs in The Vetren, not far from Plovdiv, discovered
Valley of the Thracian Kings (Kazanluk- relatively recently (Domaradzki 1993;
Shipka Region) lived is very important. There 1994ab; 1995; Bouzek et al. 1996). This
is no doubt that some lived in the capital of city had a very strong Greek community, and
King Seuthes III, Seuthopolis. Town chamber tomb with rectangular chamber was
planning, architecture and other features of found not far from the settlements

Scythian royal and elite tombs were built by

Ionian Greeks,47 who had also built the
residences of the local rulers and, at the
same time, participated actively and directly
in the creation of elite culture and art in the
Black Sea area. The adaptation of Hellenic
art and craftsmanship to the tastes of the
rulers and local populations of the Black Sea
is one of the impressive aspects of Ionian
colonization. Ionians, fleeing to the Pontus
from the political disasters of their homeland
(Tsetskhladze 1994, 1236), to maintain the
living standards they left behind them in Asia
Minor and survive amidst the local
population had to adapt to the conditions
they found in their new homeland but they
never lost their Hellenic identity, propagating
Greek art in a barbarian milieu (Tsetskhladze
forthcoming).
Figure 17
Acknowledgements
Sveshtari tomb. Greek letters on entrance to lateral
chamber. (After Fol et al. 1986, 55) The idea of writing on this question came to me in
September 1996 when Prof. Sir John Boardman and I
(Domaradzki 1995, 6970) (Fig. 16, 1). The went to Bulgaria on Pontic Congress business. Our
wonderful hosts took us to see the spectacular Thracian
city existed in the fifth/third centuries BC, tombs in the Shipka area. I am most grateful to Prof. A.
had stone architecture and a system of Fol, Dr V. Fol, Prof. M. Lazarov, Mrs C. Angelova, Mr
fortifications (Domaradzki 1995, 4750). In M.M. Yordanov, Dr G. Kitov, Mrs M. Krasteva, Dr C.
1990 a Greek inscription was discovered there Panayotova, the National Museum of History, Institute
which indicated that this city-site was a Greek of Thracology, Varna Archaeological Museum, Varna
University, the local museums in Veliko Tirnovo,
emporion by the name of Pistiros. The Burgas, Sozopol and Nessebur, the Centre of
inscription dates from the mid-fourth century Underwater Archaeology and many other Bulgarian
BC and originates from the court of the friends, colleagues and institutions for their hospitality
Odrysian king (Domaradzki 1994a; 1995, 74 and help, and for opening up Thracian culture for me. I
85; Velkov and Domaradzka 1994). Thus, in should like to thank Prof. Sir John Boardman and Prof.
A. Dominguez Monedero, Madrid (who also guided me
this Greek settlement in the hinterland, under through the National Museum of Archaeology in
the control of the Thracian kings, not only Madrid, May 1997) for their comments on earlier drafts
traders but also craftsmen and architects of this paper. I am deeply grateful to Dr Z. Archibald for
could live, employed by local rulers. allowing me to use a chapter from her forthcoming book
after we had discussed the subject of this article and
found common ground. Versions of this paper have
CONCLUSIONS been given at ancient history and archaeology seminars
in Oxford (26 November 1996) and the Institute of
All the material I have presented above Archaeology, University College London (20 January
leads me to believe that the Thracian and 1997), and at a One Day Conference on Black Sea

History and Archaeology, Department of Classics and by permission of J. Davis-Kimball, V.A. Bashilov and
Ancient History, University of Liverpool (29 January L.T. Yablonsky (eds.), from Nomads of the Eurasian
1997). I should like to thank the organisers for their Steppes in the Early Iron Age (Zinat Press, Berkeley,
invitations and the various audiences for their questions California) (1995); and Figure 9 by permission of Zofia
and discussion. Last but not least, I am grateful to the Archibald, from Cambridge Ancient History VI
students who have attended my course on Black Sea (Cambridge University Press) (1994).
Archarology and Art, as well as my Bulgarian Ph.D.
student Ms N. Gueorguieva, for their patience and Department of Classics
willingness to discuss difficult academic questions with
their teacher.
Royal Holloway and Bedford New College
I should like to thank Mrs Alison Wilkins for University of London
redrawing the line illustrations. Figure 1 is reproduced Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX
1995; Olkhovsky 1995; Piotrovsky et al. 1987;

NOTES Sulimirski 1985; Sulimirski and Taylor 1991; Taylor
1 The tombs were discovered mainly in the nineteenth 1994; Petrenko 1995; etc.
century. Unfortunately, most were destroyed 5 According to E. Chernenko (1994, 45) about 3000
especially in the northern Black Sea littoral without Scythian graves had been discovered in the steppes of
being recorded, either at all or properly (Rostovtsev the northern Black Sea littoral from the middle
1914, 10025; 1925, 470530; Blavatskii 1964, 78). eighteenth century to 1990, of which 500600 had been
Throughout the article the slavic names kurgan and found in the 1980s alone. Modern analyses tends to
mogila are translated as tomb or tumulus. postulate earlier dates for these tumuli, so that most are
2 J. Fedak rightly questions this opinion and notes: now seen as of the 4th c. BC or earlier, whilst 3rd c. BC
Among other arguments against it is the fact that in datings are accepted for only a very few. (Chernenko
Lycia and elsewhere, the change from wooden to stone 1994, 45).
architecture regularly left recognizable timber forms 6 Criteria for identifying Scythian royal and elite
petrified in the stone, even when the stone structures tombs (mainly height of the mound, character of grave
were modified and adjusted to the technical require- goods, etc.) have been discussed many times in the
ments of the new medium. In the stone chambers of the literature (Bunyatyan 1985, 91101; Melyukova 1989,
kourgans, in contrast, there are no such reminiscences 217; Galanina 1994; etc.).
of wooden prototypes; the stone chambers appeared 7 Mantsevich 1987.
rather suddenly, and in a developed form, without 8 Cherednichenko and Murzin 1996.
evidence or previous experimentation in the medium. 9 Mozolevskii 1979.
(1990, 232, note 19). 10 Alekseev et al. 1991; see also Mozolevskii in
3 Herodotus, Book 1. 2, 6, 1516, 7274, 103106, Chernenko 1987, 6374.
110, 130, 153, 180, 189, 194, 201216; Book 2. 22, 11 Terenozhkin and Mozolevskii 1988.
103105, 110, 167; Book 3. 36, 9294, 97, 116117, 12 Boltrik and Fialko 1991.
134; Book 4. 1144, 172, 204; Book 5. 24, 27, 49, 52; 13 Melyukova 1981.
Book 6. 5, 9, 26, 40, 41, 84, 113; Book 7. 910, 18, 20, 14 Boltrik and Fialko 1989; 1991.
52, 59, 62, 64, 6668, 7273, 7879, 86, 96, 147, 184, 15 In 1990 a new Scythian elite tomb was excavated
193, 197; Book 8. 113; Book 9. 31, 71, 113. The best in the Kherson Region, probably belonging to
translations with detailed commentaries and exhaustive Alekseevs chronological group A (Kubysev 1991;
literature are: Dovatur et al. 1982 and Corcella 1993. 1993). For the possible existence of another (fourth
See also Neikhardt 1982 and Levi (The Scythians of century) royal tomb not far from Chaersonesus, see:
Herodotus and the Archaeological Evidence) in Genito Shcheglov and Kats 1991. See also Skoryi 1991. On the
1994, 63342. Sladovski (group A) and Zhitkov II (group B) tombs in
4 See in Russian: Grakov 1971; Artamonov 1966; the Don/Azov area, see Batey 1996, 202. Thus about
Alekseev 1992; Melyukova 1989; Andrukh 1995; 40 Scythian royal and elite tombs dating to the end of
Shramko 1983; Kuklina 1985; Bessonova 1983; etc. the fifth/fourth century BC are currently known. The
In English: Minns 1913; Rolle 1989; Archibald 1994; overall number of sixth/fourth century elite tombs is
Jacobson 1995; Boardman 1994, 192217; Melyukova about 50. To give exact numbers is very difficult in
view of the disagreements between scholars on how to

categorize the tombs. For example, in the literature chamber of the Royal Kourgan [Tsarskii Kurgan] is
Solokha 1 and Solokha 2 can often be found, but it is designed to carry a great load and represents a technique
very difficult to judge whether these are one tomb or of construction the possibilities of which were not
two because most of the burials were found in the realized until Byzantine times, when pendentives of
nineteenth century (as I have already mentioned) and brick began to be widely employed in the Mediterranean
the documentation, where it exists, is very difficult to area. Curiously enough, prior to the building of the
use. Furthermore, materials from one tomb have been Pantikapaion tomb, structures of pendentive type seem to
dispersed between different museums without proper be found only in the peripheral regions of old Greece.
documentation (cf. Minns 1913, 149240; Mantsevich 26 This type of tomb is characteristic of the
1987, 529; etc.). There is a current tendency to connect Hellenistic period in the eastern Mediterranean (Fedak
tombs to known Scythian kings, which seem to me 1990, 170).
premature in view of the frequent changes of 27 In the Greek settlement Berezan, situated in the
chronology of the tombs and the nature of information region where the vast majority of Scythian royal tombs
given by ancient authors. See: Alekseev 1994, 1416; were found the Lower Dnieper moulds were
Boltrik and Fialko 1991; 1994, 4952. discovered in which metal objects in Scythian Animal
16 The best recent study is: Boardman 1994, 192 Style were produced. See: Ostroverkhov 1996;
217; see also Minns 1913, 26192; Koshelenko 1993; Vinogradov and Kryzickij 1995, tabl. 100. This
Perevodchikova 1993. I shall address this question in question will be discussed in Tsetskhladze forthcoming.
Tsetskhladze forthcoming. 28 Z. Archibalds forthcoming book (1997) has a
17 According to B. Mozolevskiis calculations and chapter dedicated specifically to Thracian royal and
survey, 14 large Scythian royal and elite tombs (height elite tombs. This chapter has an exhaustive bibliography
of mound varying between 8 and 22 m) have been of literature in Bulgarian as well as a catalogue of the
excavated between the Don and the Danube from the best known (and most extensively published) tombs. On
Black Sea coast to the forest steppe zone (and excluding Thrace, in English and with bibliography, see:
the Crimea); still to be excavated are 23. They are Archibald 1994; Hoddinott 1975; 1981; Fol and
concentrated in three compact zones: the Crimean Marazov 1977; Mihailov 1991; Taylor 1994; Venedikov
lowlands; along the River Visun; and (the vast majority) and Gerasimov 1975; etc.
on both banks of the Dnieper around the Kamenko- 29 The best work on Thracian royal and elite tombs is
Nikopolskaya passage (Mozolevskii 1993, 478). Venedikov and Gerasimov 1975, 5363. This chapter
18 Herodotus 4. 71: The burial places of their kings has drawings and descriptions of most of the tombs
are in the country of the Gerrhi, the place up to which found in the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth
the Borysthenes is navigable. At this place, when their century. See also Fedak 1990, 16572 and Domaradzki
king dies, they dig a great four-cornered pit, and, having 1988.
made it ready, they take up the dead man . . . 30 There are more than 15,000 tumuli of the first
(translation by D. Grene). The location of the Gerrhi millennium BC in Thrace. Most of them date from the
is the subject of scholarly debate but most academics Hellenistic period (Hoddinott 1975, 28; 1981, 11926).
place it on the Lower Dnieper, where the vast majority On Thracian burials, see: Kitov 1993a; 1994d; 1994e.
of Scythian tombs are situated (see Mozolevskii 1986). Archaeologically the most comprehensively studied and
19 They are allegedly considered as royal or elite ones published are tumuli of the Classical and Hellenistic
(only three are known) (Mozolevskii 1979, 152). periods. Burial rites varied from region to region, which
20 Melitopolskii 6 m. could be an indication of the borders of different
21 Tolstaya Mogila 8.6 m; Gaimonova Mogila Thracian tribes (Fol 1972; 1990 passim). See: Gergova
8 m. 1989; 1992b; Mateva and Valcheva 1992; Radev 1992;
22 Aleksandropolskii 21 m; Chertomlyk 19 m; Resumes 1993; Stoyanov 1992a; 1992b; Theodossiev
Oguz 20 m; Bolshaya Tsimbalka 15 m; and Kozel 1995; Zarev et al. 1994; etc.
14 m. 31 Ganina Mogila is situated in Getic land and it was
23 On the Bosporan Kingdom, with literature, see: probably the tomb of a Getic prince. Other tombs are
Gajdukevic 1971; Hind 1994. also situated near fortified or large settlements.
24 These wooden sarcophagi (shape, style, painting, Probably, the Thracian elite used to live in these
decoration) are the same as in Scythian tombs. See: settlements and the nearby tombs are not royal but elite
Sokolskii 1971, 11323; cf. Fedak 1990, 17380. ones. See: Chichikova 1994; Chichikova et al. 1992;
25 J. Fedak (1990, 169) states: The roof of the Dimitrov 1991; Domaradzki 1991; 1992; Draganov

1994; Mateva and Valcheva 1992; Gergova 1992a). human figure. A form painted in red falls from the left
32 Z. Archibald (1997) classifies chamber tombs as shoulder of the man, which may also be the lion skin
follows: 1) beehive (tholos) tombs (Karakochkoy, Kirk- worn by Herakles. (Kitov and Krasteva 1994/95, 18).
Kilise, Valchepol, Mal-tepe, M. Belovo, Kirklareli B, The female already mentioned has brown hair, lovely
Lyaskovo, D. Levski, Strelcha, Ravnogor 2, Kazanluk, expression, gold earrings and a gold necklace, of which
Koprinka 3, Yankovo 1, Muglish) (on tholoi tombs in only small flakes have been preserved (Kitov and
Thrace, see also: Venedikov 1974; 1976). 2) brick-built Krasteva 1994/95, 18).
tholoi and related tombs (Kazanluk, Koprinka 2 and 3, 38 This is a unique tomb for Thrace, not just as the
Muglish). (I myself would include these tombs in first with polychrome decoration, but for its shape, a
category No. 1 both categories are tholoi type tombs pointed arch. This tomb has a dromos and two
with diversities.) 3) orthogonal tombs (Rouets, chambers. The stone door (without any decoration) to
Tatarevo, Kaloyanova, Vetren, Filipovo, Starose 1, the first chamber is preserved completely, even its iron
Ruen(?)). Classification and dating of all tombs is very hinges survive in working order. A horse was buried in
difficult because not many are published and fewer are the dromos and a man buried in one of the chambers.
properly published. For the same reason it is impossible Both the chambers and the dromos were painted from
to give the exact numbers. Altogether we know now of floor to ceiling (Kitov and Krasteva 1994/95, 26).
about 55 royal or elite tombs in Thrace. The number has 39 On the Heroon in Thrace, see Ovcharov 1974.
doubled in the last seven years thanks to the discovery 40 On this question in relation to the Black Sea and
of tombs (which can be dated preliminarily to the fourth other regions of Ionian colonization, see Tsetskhladze
century BC) in the Shipka area not far from Seuthopolis forthcoming.
and Kazanluk. This valley is now known in the 41 On the chamber tomb in Italy, Sicily, Albania,
literature as The Valley of the Thracian Kings. For North Africa and the Near and Middle East, see: Fedak
preliminary publications, see: Kitov 1979; 1990/91; 1990, 10959.
1992; 1993ab; 1994ag; 1995ab; Kitov and Krasteva 42 Vinogradov Y.A. 1995, 1589, etc. Interpretation
1992/93; 1994/95; Kitov and Theodossiev 1995. (See of the handmade pottery is a very complex matter. It
also: Getov 1994; Gergova and Stoyanov 1992; Ivanov would be more reasonable to suggest that Greeks
1992; Lilova 1994; Tacheva 1994; Moutsopoulos 1989). commissioned its production by the local population (in
33 The doorways have a slightly trapezoidal shape. A detail, see Tsetskhladze forthcoming).
Macedonian type bronze door was found at Mal Tepe 43 Translation by Jowett. See also Xenophon,
and, possibly, at Kazanluk, Kirklareli B and Zhaba Anabasis 7. 3. 1520, 2632 and Hornblower 1991,
Mogila (Archibald 1997, chapter 12.4). 3723.
34 In Strelcha Region the architectural details from an 44 In the literature the Thracian system of gift-giving
unfinished tomb were found (Kitov 1979, 202). is compared with the Achaemenid system. There is
35 They [Sveshtari women] are dressed as Greeks in discussion of whether Thracian kings were only
an archaizing style. The Thracians no doubt identified receiving gifts or giving them as well (as was
them as goddesses of fertility or death related Achaemenid practice) (see Briant 1986; 1989; 1991;
functions, familiar also to Greeks but to us they are cf. Briant 1996, 31435, 399422). Perhaps the
nameless. (Boardman 1994, 192). Odrysian kings did not give gifts? It was not necessary
36 A mausoleum-like tomb was previously found in for them to do so because Greek cities situated on the
the Strelcha Region, dating from the middle of the fifth Thracian Black Sea coast were under pressure from
century BC. The facade of this tomb was decorated with local kings, who obliged them to give gifts (the same
relief of a lion, strongly reminiscent of Phrygian lions situation existed in the northern Black sea see
(Kitov 1979, 1213, fig. 15). The building of below). If indeed the Thracian king had to give gifts it
mausoleums continued in Thrace down to and through was probably to the chiefs of the other Thracian tribes
the Roman period (Ivanov 1988). and not to the Greeks. We have no evidence of Thracian
37 Here was also a damaged and fragmentary male kings giving gifts to Greeks but plenty of evidence of
image, wearing a gold wreath on his head (similar to the converse. In Colchis, for example, the Colchian elite
the dynast buried in the Kazanluk tomb) as well as was receiving lavish gifts from Achaemenid kings
a recumbent warrior with a large shield. Two seated because they needed its support. We know also that
figures, apparently engaged in conversation, fill a third Colchians were paying some tribute to the
one . . . a man resting on a club . . . turned to the right, Achaemenians as well. For the situation in the eastern
probably in conversation with an unclear standing Black Sea and a collection of ancient written sources on

gift-giving, see: Tsetskhladze 1993/94, 249. Interesting JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies
observations can be found in Miller 1997, 10934. PAV Peterburgskii Arkheologicheskii Vestnik
45 The system of measurement used in Thracian (Petersburg Archaeological Herald) (in
tombs also demonstrates the very active involvement of Russian)
Greeks in their construction. See Ognenova-Marinova RA Rossiiskaya Arkheologiya (Russian
1977; cf. Valeva 1995. Very strong evidence that the Archaeology) (in Russian)
Greeks built the Thracian chamber tombs comes from SA Sovetskaya Arkheologiya (Soviet
Sveshtari. There are large Greek letters H, , A Archaeology) (in Russian)
placed vertically at a distance of 23.535.5 cm from SGMII Soobshcheniya Gosudarstvennogo Muzeya
each other on the southern lateral frame of the entrance Izobrazitelnykh Iskusstv imeni A.S. Pushkina
(Fig. 17). The publication does not give details of the (Bulletin of the Pushkin State Museum of
size of the letters. Other letters were also found. The Fine Arts) (in Russian)
information given is: There is another letter above VDI Vestnik Drevnei Istorii (Journal of Ancient
them, on the lintel, but it is not clearly discernible and History) (in Russian)
may not be in association. The number 115 is chiselled
again (according to the Greek acrophonic system) on
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Tsetskhladze G - Who Built The Scythian and Thracian Royal and Elite Tombs

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GOCHA R.

WHO BUILT THE SCYTHIAN AND THRACIAN ROYAL AND

To my Bulgarian friends and colleagues.

Summary. This paper discusses the complex and controversial problems of

the wooden roof and earthen pit with a

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classified by V.S. Olkhovsky (1991). cosmological significance of the cross, these

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chamber it is covered by a corbelled vault Melek-Chesmenskii Kurgan represents a

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Bolshaya Tsymbalka tumulus (which

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Tsanova 1994; Vasileva 1991). Although

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Scythian royal and elite tombs were built by

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1995; Olkhovsky 1995; Piotrovsky et al. 1987;

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