ACIDS

An acids is a substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a

solution. The concentration of hydronium ion is known as acidity. If a solution has a
higher concentration of hydronium ions than pure water, it has a pH lower than 7.0.
A solution which pH is lower than .07 is called acid. As the hydronium ions increases
the pH level decreases. Do you ever taste a vinegar? Like other acids, it taste sour.
Stronger acids can be harmful to organism.

Bases
If a solution has a lower concentration of hydronium ions than pure water then
it has a pH higher than 7.0. A solution with a pH higher than 7.0 it is called base.
Bases, such as baking soda, have a bitter taste. Like strong acids, strong basis can
harm organism and damage materials.

Importance of Acids and Bases in Organism

- Most enzyme in an organism can do the job in a certain level of acidity
- Cells secretes acids and basis to maintain the proper pH of enzymes
- The acidic environment in the stomach helps in digestion of food
- The enzyme pepsin, which help breakdown protein can only perform
optimally in low pH level.
- Stomachs secretes strong acid enables pepsin to work. However when
stomach contents enter small intestines, the acid must be neutralize.
Pancreas secrete strong base into small intestines to
neutralize the acid
pH Scale
The term pH (power of hydrogen) measures the concentration of Hydrogen
Ion in a solution. Non-neutral pH readings result from dissolving acids or bases in
water. The pH scale goes from 1.0-14.0 A pH of 7.0 is neutral, water has a pH of 7. If
a pH is less than 7 it is acidic, while higher than a pH of 7 is basic.
Buffer System
The buffer system exist to neutralize the pH level in an organism. The buffers
help to keep the pH in normal range by taking up (combining with) the excess
hydrogen or hydroxide ion. If something wrong with the buffer system, an organism
can develop acidosis if the pH drop too low or alkalosis if the pH gets too high.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate are one of the four major classes of organic compound in a
living cells. They are produce during the photosynthesis and are the main sources of
energy for most of the plants and animals. The term carbohydrates is based on its
components carbon (carbo) and water (hydrate). It is the most abundant organic
substances in nature, and they are essential constituent of all living things.
Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are molecular compounds made from just three elements:
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose) and disaccharides (e.g. sucrose) are
relatively small molecules. They are often called sugars. Other carbohydrate molecules are very large
(polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose).
Carbohydrates are:

a source of energy for the body e.g. glucose and a store of energy, e.g. starch in plants

building blocks for polysaccharides (giant carbohydrates), e.g. cellulose in plants and glycogen in
the human body

components of other molecules eg DNA, RNA, glycolipids, glycoproteins, ATP

MONOSACCHARIDES are simple sugars. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and are
often called single sugars. They are the building blocks from which all bigger carbohydrates are made.

Monosaccharides have the general molecular formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3, 5 or 6. They can be
classified according to the number of carbon atoms in a molecule:

n=3 trioses, e.g. glyceraldehyde

n=5 pentoses, e.g. ribose and deoxyribose ('pent' indicates 5)
n=6 hexoses, e.g. fructose, glucose and galactose ('hex' indicates 6)

There is more than one molecule with the molecular formula C 5H10O5 and more than one with the
molecular formula C6H12O6. Molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae are called structural isomers

Glucose is a common monosaccharides and an important source of energy. During

the cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose occur in order to release its stored
energy. And that energy is used to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants
synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water, and glucose, in turn, is used for
energy requirements for the plants.
Galactose is a milk sugar and fructose (found in fruit) are other common
monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose and fructose have the same
chemical formula they differ structurally, this make them different molecule.
Glucose and galactose are aldoses, while fructose is a ketose.
Aldose carbonyl group at the end of carbon chain.
Ketose carbonyl group at the middle of carbon chain
Ribose and deoxyribose
Ribose and deoxyribose are pentoses. The ribose unit forms part of a nucleotide of RNA. The
deoxyribose unit forms part of the nucleotide of DNA.

Disaccharides
Monosaccharides are rare in nature. Most sugars found in nature are disaccharides. These form when
two monosaccharides react.

A condensation reaction takes place releasing water. This process requires energy. A glycosidic
bond forms and holds the two monosaccharide units together.

The three most important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose. They are formed from the
forms of the appropriate monosaccharides. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. Lactose and maltose are
reducing sugars.

Disaccharide Monosaccharides
sucrose from -glucose + -fructose
maltose from -glucose + -glucose
-lactose * from -glucose + -galactose

Disaccharides are soluble in water, but they are too big to pass through the cell membrane by diffusion.
They are broken down in the small intestine during digestion to give the smaller monosaccharides that
pass into the blood and through cell membranes into cells.

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

This is a hydrolysis reaction and is the reverse of a condensation reaction. It releases energy

Monosaccharides are used very quickly by cells. However, a cell may not need all the energy immediately
and it may need to store it. Monosaccharides are converted into disaccharides in the cell by condensation
reactions. Further condensation reactions result in the formation of polysaccharides. These are giant
molecules which, importantly, are too big to escape from the cell. These are broken down by hydrolysis
into monosaccharides when energy is needed by the cell.

Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides can undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding one unit after another to the
chain until very large molecules (polysaccharides) are formed. This is called condensation
polymerization, and the building blocks are called monomers. The properties of a polysaccharide
molecule depend on:

its length (though they are usually very long)

the extent of any branching (addition of units to the side of the chain rather than one of its ends)

any folding which results in a more compact molecule

 whether the chain is 'straight' or 'coiled

Example of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin.

Lipids

Lipids are very diverse in both their respective structures and functions. These diverse
compounds that make up the lipid family are so grouped because they are insoluble in
water. They are however soluble in other organic solvents such as ether, acetone, and
other lipids. Major lipid groups include fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes

Lipids: Phospholipids

A phospholipid is composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol unit, a phosphate group and a
polar molecule. A phospholipids is an amphipathic molecule which means it has both a
hydrophobic and a hydrophilic components. The phosphate group and polar head
region of the molecule is hydrophilic (attracted to water), while the fatty acid tail is
hydrophobic (repelled by water).

When placed in water, phospholipids will orient themselves into a bilayer in which the
nonpolar tail region faces the inner area of the bilayer. The polar head region faces
outward and interacts with the water. Phospholipids are a major component of cell
membranes which enclose the cytoplasm and other contents of a cell.
Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine are example of two phospholipids that are
found in plasma membrane.