Book 1 Module 11 P| Sen alent AERODYNAMICS & FLIGHT CONTROLS Licence By Post “The naples ia book a fingers Notable fr al children. Cae when handling. | Ee Licence By Post © copyright Bt 14.4.4 ISSUE 181AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study /training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority {the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation ete For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments. NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis. LBP 140 Narbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 1A UK Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871 Fax: (+ 44) 01296 330697 Email: www.info@licencebypost.com Website: wwwrlicencebypost.comACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE. BRITISH AEROSPACE for their permission to reproduce drawings.CONTENTS Basic flying controls Typical large aircraft The regulations Control surface theory Rod/Cable systems Control column Rudder pedals Detent struts Stick shaker Stick pusher Control stops Chains and sprockets Push/pull rods Cable support/Pulleys Turnbuckles Cable tension regulators Pressure seals Powered controls Feel systems Tabs Mass balance Aerodynamic balance Ailerons Tailplanes Spoilers Flaps Slats Vortex generators Wing fence Saw tooth leading edge Stall wedge Canard aircraft Delta winged aircraft Ruddervators Gust locks Position indicator systems Control rigging Rigging equipment PAGE wae 10 16 16 18 18 19 20 20 22 23 25 27 29 29 30 39 42 45 50 53 58 66 70 70 7m nm 72 72 14 75 75 75 79HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Specifically written for the B1 technician to level 3 standard. All the material applies to the A line mechanic but to level 1 - at this standard the knowledge required is an overall view of how the systems work and what effect their use as on the aircraft. For the technician he/she should be able to describe in detail the operation of the systems, their effect on the aircraft, the setting up, and the fault finding procedures. This book should be read in conjunction with the book in this series entitled Powered Flying Controls.FLYING CONTROLS In order to allow the pilot to control his aircraft in the air flying control systems are fitted. These consist of moveable surfaces fitted to the trailing edges of the fin (rudder), tailplane (elevators), and mainplanes (ailerons). These are often called Primary Flying Controls and are connected via a control system to the pilots controls in the cockpit or flight deck. The controls must be instinctive and work in the correct sense. Other flying controls include: tabs; moveable tailplanes; spoilers, and rarely, moveable outer wings similar to moveable tail planes. Instinctive The flying controls are said to be instinctive. This means that when the pilot pushes the control column forward the aircraft dives or pitches nose down; when he pulls the control column back the aircraft climbs or pitches nose up. When the pilot moves the control column, or hand wheel left the aircraft rolls to the left; when he moves the control column, or hand wheel right the aircraft rolis to the right. When the pilot pushes his left foot forward on the rudder bar the aircraft turns to the left; when he pushes his right foot forward the aircraft turns right. Sense The control surfaces should move in the correct relationship to the control column or rudder bar. This is called correct SENSE. (see Table 1). Elevators Hinged to the trailing edge of the tailplane and connected to the control column. Movement of the elevator gives longitudinal control about the lateral axis. May be interconnected with the tailplane. Rudder Hinged to the trailing edge of the fin and connected to the rudder bar. Movement of the rudder gives directional control about the vertical axis. Ailerons Hinged surfaces on the trailing edges of the mainplanes. Movement of the ailerons gives lateral control about the longitudinal axis. aeOn many civil aircraft are interconnected with the spoilers. May also be split into inboard and outboard ailerons with the inboard only operating at high speed. CONTROL COLUMN ELEVATOR Fig. 1 A SIMPLE ELEVATOR CONTROL ‘SYSTEM SHOWING CORRECT SENSE. Y TABLE 1 CONTROL SURFACE MOVEMENT - CORRECT SENSE COCKPIT CONTROL CONTROL SURFACE EFFECT MOVEMENT, MOVEMENT Control Column Elevator moves up ‘Airflow hits the control pulled back surface and produces a downward force, this is transferred to the tailplane causing the tail to go down and the nose to go up. Control column pushed | Elevator moves down | Similar to the above but forward in the opposite direction Control column or ‘Ailerons. Left one up. | The up going aileron (on | ~ handwheel to the left _| Right one down. the down going wing) experiences a down force which pushes the wing down. The down going aileron experiences an upward force therefore pushing the right wing up. Control column or ‘Ailerons. Right one up. | Similar to the above but handwheel to the right Left one down. in the opposite direction.TABLE 1 continued... | COCKPIT CONTROL [CONTROL SURFACE | EFFECT MOVEMENT MOVEMENT Rudder pedals. Right | Rudder to the right. The air flow pushes on foot forward. the rudder producing a force to the left, this pushes the tail to the left and the nose of the aircraft to the right. Rudder pedals. Left foot | Rudder to the left. Similar to the above but forward. in the opposite _ direction. RUDDER BAR nee ~~ _ \ RUDDER PIVOT ——. Fig. 2 A SIMPLE RUDDER CONTROL SYSTEM SHOWING CORRECT SENSE CONTROL COLUMN —_ PUSH/PULL ROD PULLEY AILERON \ PIVOT Fig. 3 A SIMPLE AILERON CONTROL SYSTEM SHOWING CORRECT SENSE -3-A Typical Large Commercial Aircraft ‘The following is a brief description of the flying controls and lift augmentation /drag systems of a typical large aircraft. For more detailed information you should refer to other sections within this book and refer to the book in this series "PFCUs, Autopilots’. Of course, for specific information on an aircraft's control system you should refer to the aircraft's AMM. Elevator Hydraulically powered and controlled by a dual cable control system from the flight deck. The system may have all or any of the following: artificial feel, autopilot servo, stick shaker/stick push, disconnect detents, and cable tension regulators. Tailplane Usually trimable using a hydraulic or electric motor with standard trim and mach trim inputs. May have elevator inputs. Rudder Hydraulically powered and controlled by a cable system from the flight deck. Usually fitted with yaw dampers, artificial feel, cable tension regulators, autopilot servos, and may have speed related range limiting devices. Ailerons May be organised to droop for take-off and landing (called flaperons on the 777) ~ to provide more lift, and are interconnected with the spoilers (asymmetric operation) to provide better roll control. Are powered hydraulically and operated by cables from the flight deck. Will usually have autopilot input, artificial feel and cable tension regulators. All the above controls will normally have automatic provision to give indication on the flight deck of their position and warning systems in the event of major component failure (PFCU etc).Spoilers Hydraulically powered to operate in the flight or ground mode. Designed to create drag and dump lift when operated. Slats Fitted to the leading edge of the mainplanes, are usually hydraulically powered and symmetrically operated to create lift and increase the stalling angle. Leading Edge or Kruegar Flaps Often used at locations inboard of the inboard engines and may be pneumatically powered. Symmetrically operated to give the same affect as slats. Flaps Usually of the Fowler variable area type. Are symmetrically operated to increase lift (and increase drag). RUDDER STARBOARD AILERON LEADING E06E rus Fig 4 FLYING CONTROL SURFACES AND HIGH LIFT DEVICES - TYPICAL AIRCRAFTTHE REGULATIONS An This section might be more easily understood if you read (and understand) the rest of this book first, and read the book "PFCUs and Autopilots". Even if you do read it now it is worth a second read after completion of the two books. All large aircraft must meet the regulations as laid down in JAR 25. Control Surfaces Must meet the airborne and ground gust loads specified for the airframe. Must be fitted with control stops, and hinges must have a factor of safety of 6.67 of the ultimate bearing strength. Control System For the lateral, longitudinal, directional control of the aircraft, and for drag control systems - the support structure must have a factor of safety of 1.25 of the control surface maximum moment load. ‘The system must operate easily, smoothly and be positive in operation. Have control stops fitted. Should be designed to prevent jamming by foreign objects. It should be so designed as to minimise the possibility of incorrect assembly, and must be capable of continued operation if:- (1) A single failure of a hydraulic, mechanical or structural element occurs. (2) Dual electrical or hydraulic systems fail. (3) A jam occurs in the system. (4) The system experiences a run away flight control. =) With the system operating at 80% specific limit load and on 100% powered load there should be:- (a) No jamming. (b) No excessive deflection. (©) No excessive friction. Structural deflection should not affect the system adversely. Minimum and maximum forces are specified for the pilots input, and minimum forces specified when pilots are operating in opposition on dual control systems.Rotary Control Joints Must have a factor of safety of 3.3 with a push/pull rod system and a factor of safety of 2.0 with a cable system. Cable System Cables used on aileron, elevator and rudder must not be smaller than 0.125” (3.17mm) diameter. Tensions must be kept reasonably constant. Pulleys must be fitted with guards to prevent cable displacement or fouling. A cable must not change direction more than 3° after passing through a fairlead. Specified parts of the cable system must have access for inspection. Gust Locks Must be fitted to a specification and provision made that they:- (a) Cannot be engaged in flight. (b) Cannot be engaged during take-off, and if they are, that take-off is not possible. Trim Systems Must meet minimum input force standards with loadings specified for:- (a) Trim tabs. (b) Balance tabs. (c)_ Servo tabs. They must operate in the correct sense and be designed to prevent abrupt changes of aircraft trim. Flight deck indications must be provided and the tab must be irreversible unless it is a balance tab.Stability Augmentation (This is Active Stability as fitted to some systems of some of the newer aircraft). Can be de-activated or over-ridden by the pilot without affecting safe control of the aircraft. It must be provided with a failure warning system. Configuration (Config.) Warning An aural warning is provided if, during the take-off run, the aircraft is not correctly configured. The configuration to include:- (1) Flap position. (2) Slat position. (3) Spoiler position. (4) Wheel brake configuration. The warning to be cancelled by eithier:- (a) Changing incorrectly selected system. (b) Abandoning take-off. () Aircraft rotation. (d) Pilot de-activation. Wing Flaps and High Lift Devices Minimum loads are specified with factors of safety for take-off, inflight, and landing conditions. Lift and drag devices must be selectable by the pilot at all times ezcept where they are designed to be used on the ground where provision must be made to prevent inadvertent flight operation. Flight deck indication must be provided with warnings of asymmetrical operation of a symmetrical system (e.g. flaps). Wing flaps must have a synchronising system strong enough to prevent asymmetric operation occurring with one side completely jammed and the other side under full operating power. PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS Control Surface Theory The control surface is said to work by a combination two theories - the mean camber line theory and the force theory. aoe@) (b) Mean Camber Line Theory When the control surface moves it alters the Mean Camber Line of the main surface to which it is attached. This alters the lift on that surface and it is caused to raise or lower. NEW MEAN iene CAMBER LINE FORCE Fig. 5 MEAN CAMBER LINE THEORY Force Theory When the surface moves into the airflow it experiences an aerodynamic loading, if it is held in that position then a component of this load (the vertical component) is transmitted to the main surface of the aircraft which will move in that direction. The horizontal component is drag. EFFECTIVE FORCE ON AIRCRAFT DRAG FORCE Fig. 6 FORCE THEORY USING VECTORS Movement of the pilots controls is transmitted to the control surfaces by a system of rods or cables, or a combination of both. Chains over sprockets are also used. The system must transmit the control surface loading back to the pilot (on non powered system). On some aircraft, such as the A320, transmission of control signals to the (powered) control surfaces is via a computerised fly-by-wire system. On some aircraft a fly-by-light system is used (also computerised). -9-These systems are covered in the book P.F.C.U.s and Autopilots. rN There are two basic types of mechanical systems: (a) (b) Rod System Light alloy push-pull rods, supported by idling links, bell cranks, roller bearings or graphite impregnated bushes, form a simple rigid link which is free from backlash. Changes in direction of the control run are obtained by the use of bell crank levers or torque tubes. The rods provide both a push and pull input. Not often used as a complete system. Cable System Non-corrodible extra flexible cables, tensioned to eliminate lag, form an effective continuous loop over pulleys and quadrants so as to provide a pull in both directions. Each length of cable has end fittings swaged in ~ position, some of which are drilled and tapped to accommodate the turnbuckles used to tension the cable run. On long straight runs tie rods may replace cables. The cables are supported on pulleys and fair-leads and pulleys are used to change the direction of the cable run. These pulleys and fair-leads must be kept clean to reduce system static friction. The cable systems are usually duplicated with ‘port and starboard’ systems interconnected via ‘disconnect’ rods that will disconnect should one side jam. Fig. 7 EXAMPLE OF A PUSH/PULL ROD SYSTEM (ENGLISH ELECTRIC LIGHTNING) -10-9vT OVE - WHLSAS TOULNOD owsnadno) \ ie wowswagne> 3 Ses ruonen anwwavno 3960 sina ounsy39 nteR INveov@ 700: +soTAap a0autoosta wolonoute *seTqeo sourTeg fowd cin sanage ueq0q + (9u0) oazes 30TTd oany sx03e[NBez uoysusa oTqeD (e) 230 woTaeD0T oUL “¢ + (9sues 3002709) ageT 243 03 yURq © 303 woashs oy; Jo yuewenow 943 MOUS sMoTTe UL “Zz swoasks peaezedo qea onzes pezemod uot © st 31° ‘aION Wousti¥ -1l-) ) Opt Ova - NALSAS T1IGVO NAGaNU 6 ha pacicotaateseor canal guzaN09 vszoduep mex *€ say6Tz 943 03 Saois Auvonoass gy a * Aeppnz - prenz0s 3003 aySTI - esues 3997709 *Z PSIG Dg Gos arm ‘seseez20p jueuenow jo ebuez 243 os sesvezoUT R peeds aya sy -a0d 0, © Aq peaezedo doas peddeys e 6uysn juswenou Jo abuez paonpez oul “T BION % ove Maus unaury FasuaATaE inghtav susanva wen tad roauv30 Hut Sanus syvntua inet inant ‘Swonvnsoy ‘woaey PeDNIDOU - WALSAS TONINOO YOLVAGTA OT “Fra = Siera2) aneuaene iawa NOILISod 1907 oe “waznies a Revs BANS, neve wannomuaLn! aarys—7 OP Spe (eurriae) (woe) Younioy _———4 ee _ eee [—~c5 | —wasanw >o11s OuANeS waMod (ga>nae) Onuas JouLNoo m4 ere sneer (@ anni Noises uaziievs_—___| rn @) nun sunseaud © TNA 4 (esovd2) souwinomy NoISNAL’ feyusunanion qouLNeo shor 2iLyHoLay ct wc aqncon maScare puna TS (eaend2) wanes 1s: Nouised 1978/emd poviiy do [Ny smeasks otTnerpéy oqeredes e Aq pazonod yes - Soares 3oTTd one ¢ - *szexeys xOTAS * *atnpow Buyuzem teas Aq perezedo rebpnu yOTIs * ‘epTz7ea0 uuMTOD TOI3UOD * tanduy ‘no-a'a yore ae soqaep peotzeno - swoqsks oyTnerpky oaezedes © Aq pozemod yes zozenots red s-n-O"g"d € “T aLON ( « 4 j 3 } i -13-Most aircraft have a combination system of push/pull rods and cables. The push/pull rods are used for the shorter runs (under the flight deck, in the tailplane etc) and cables are used for the longer runs - down the fuselage, along the wings etc. Advantages of Cable Systems The overall advantages of a cable system over a rod system are: (a) Weight reduction. (b) Cost reduction. However, the structure of an aircraft is continually changing it’s length due to temperature changes, and since the expansion rate (steel « ~ 23 x 10-of the light alloy (a « 15 x 10) in the structure is nearly twice that of the steel in the cables, cable tensions vary considerably. (a = coefficient of linear expansion) QUESTION: Explain what would happen to the tension of a cable system without any automatic adjustment when the aircraft increases altitude? (10 mins) ANSWER: As the aircraft climbs so the ambient temperature reduces (as low as -56°C if we climb high enough). This will cause the fuselage (and the rest of the structure) to contract in length quicker than the cables with altitude, so the pulley hinge points get closer and the cable tension reduces. To overcome this problem requires either very high tensions at ground level settings (as was used on some older aircraft) or the use of a tension regulator in the cable system. Most aircraft systems are now regulated by means of Cable Tension Regulators, which give a relatively constant system tension irrespective of changes in temperature resulting in much lower rigged tensions. (More of this later) CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS Flight deck controls usually consist of a control column or control wheel and rudder pedals. Where there are twin controls (pilot and copilot) they are interconnected with a spring link/detent or automatic disconnect link so that if one side jams the other can be operated. -14-On small aircraft disconnect/spring links are not usually fitted. On larger aircraft the control column is fitted with a "stick shaker". This is a small electric motor driving an out of balance wheel. When the aircraft approaches the stalling angle the motor is operated to cause the stick to shake and warn the pilot (with aural warnings as well). The warning signal comes from an angle of attack vane fitted on the side of the fuselage. On some aircraft a stick nudger may be fitted to push the control column forward when the aircraft approaches the stalling angle. The pilot can overcome this if he/she wishes. The rudder pedals are fitted with an adjustment mechanism to allow for adjustment to suit the leg length of each individual pilot. ‘The handwheel may have controls fitted to it such as: (a) Parking brake. (b) Auto pilot switch. (c)__ Intercom switch. (d) _ Elevator/tailplane trim switch. Fig. 11 CONTROL COLUMN -15-Control Column Usually fitted with a chain, sprocket, and cable system to transmit aileron control inputs to the system, and is connected under the floor to the elevator control system. May be fitted with a stick shaker, though this can be fitted further on in the system. On some aircraft (e.g. the A320) the control column has been replaced by a side stick fitted to the left hand console (for the captain) and the right hand console for the co-pilot. This is connected to the ‘fly by wire’ system. Rudder Pedals May be of the simple ‘rudder bar’ type or be supported on separate lever mechanisms. The foot pedals are adjustable to cater for different leg lengths and are usually fitted with wheel brake control foot motors. CABLES TO RUDDER Fig. 12 RUDDER BAR Detent or Disconnect Strut (Torque Limiter on the L-1011) Fitted on some aircraft where duplicate controls run from the flight deck to the control surfaces. It is fitted between the pilot's and co-pilot's controls so that should a jam occur on one system the other system can be operated normally - after the detent strut has "broken out”. These break out struts vary in design but the following description is typical of a modern airliner. Figure 13 shows the detent strut from the BAe 146 aileron control system. It is located under the flight deck floor and connects the pilots control column to the co-pilots control column. Effectively it is a rigid link as the rollers are forced into the detent grove by the action of the spring collate. -16-suner FORK Eno assemeur RETENTION CUP CTUMOER ASSEMBLY semns couet micno-Swiicn OUTER ‘SHAFT SpRTROL couse SPaaeRe CEN SECTION A-A tenconnect ocrent he SQNTROL cou SProcker tever RIGGING HOLES, Fig. 13 DETENT STRUT EXAMPLE - BAe 146 If one side of the control system becomes jammed and the other side is operated then (at a break out load of 35 Ib. force) the link "breaks out”. This allows one side of the system to be operated even though the other side is jammed. During this operation the inner shaft is allowed to slide in and out of the outer shaft as the rollers have been forced out of their detent positions. The break out of the strut operates a microswitch on the strut that releases the disconnect device on the aileron balance/interconnecting cable circuit, allowing movement of either aileron. -17-Stick Shaker This may be initiated by a; (a) Leading edge stall warning vane. (b) Rotating angle of attack probe. (c) Trailing angle of attack vane. ‘These may operate the stick shaker and stick pusher directly via a micro switch (a) or via the DADC (Digital Air Data Computer) (b) and (c). ‘The stick shaker is an electric motor driving an out of balance wheel attached to the control column, or close by on the system. When it is switched on, just before the stalling angle (12° to 14°), the out of balance wheel causes the control column to shake, warning the pilot of an impending stall. Stick Pusher If the pilot ignores the stick shaker and the angle of attack increases still further then the stick pusher system is activated. This system operates a jack, pneumatically on some aircraft, which is connected to the elevator control system. This gives a positive push to the control column and causes the aircraft to pitch nose down when the system is activated. It can be overridden by the pilot, if necessary, by the operation of a switch, which on the pneumatic system releases the pressure in the supply line to the jack. Even if this fails the system is so arranged that the pilot can manually overcome the force of the jack by pulling on the control column. When not supplied with pressure the jack moves freely when the controls are moved. The pneumatic system is supplied with air pressure from a tapping on the jet engine (typically 40 P.S.1.). The system usually has the following inputs: * Airspeed switch. Increases speed of operation with reduced airspeed. * Stick shaker relay, which receives the signal from the angle of attack indicator probe. * Flap and slat position. The deployment of these will affect the stalling angle. -18-Figure 14 shows the stall warning system for the BAe 146. Note the following inputs/outputs. * Weight on wheels (squat). * Flap position. * Test. * Power supplies. * Airspeed. + Fail. oe-ce anew Sensor ane sour et TOENTIFICATION 408 aervom secon we Pose MmcaTION |e wen staat sou -ARSPEED TRANSOUCER ONE CHANNEL SHOWN TWO CHANNELS PER SYSTEM AIRSPEED TRANSDUCER ‘AOA AIRFLOW SENSOR VANE POSH: waa: Fig. 14 STALL WARNING CIRCUIT - BAe 146 Control Stops Usually adjustable, and fitted to the front and rear of each system. Will control the range of movement of the system. Primary control stops are fitted to the control surface end of the system while secondary control stops are fitted to the cockpit or flight-deck end of the system. On some aircraft the range of movement is progressively reduced as the speed of the aircraft is increased -the BAe 146 for example. This is achieved by automatic moveable control stops or limiters. sigePUSH/PULL ROD Fig. 15 CONTROL STOPS Chains and Sprockets Cables may go around a pulley or be connected to the pulley end fittings. The cable may terminate at a chain fitting - usually a turnbuckle - and the chain passed around a sprocket. This provides a positive drive to the sprocket. Chains may be of the "non reversible type” which means that they are so designed that they cannot be put on the sprocket the wrong way round. (For more information on chains see the books in this series "Basic Engineering’). PUSH/PULL ROD Fig. 16 SPROCKET & CHAIN DETAIL Push/Pull Rod Support Push/pull rods may be supported on idling links or various types of bearings. Remember to keep the bearings clean and dry at all times. To change the direction of the run a bell crank lever, torque tube or pulley is used. -20-ROLLER BEARINGS INSPECTION HOLE ° a 5 ‘\ GRAPHITE INPREGHATED bust ADJUSTABLE END FITTING Fig. 17 PUSH/PULL RODS - SUPPORTS & END FITTINGS Fig. 18 BELL CRANK LEVER Fig. 19 FAIRLEADS -21-Cable Support Cables can be supported by pulleys and special quadrants where they can change angular direction - without limit, Where little or no change in direction is required various types of fairleads can be used. Fairleads are usually made of composite material and must not be lubricated. Pulleys Made from fibre, plastic or metal and are used to give a more abrupt change of direction of the cable run. Guards are usually fitted to retain the cable on the pulley and often a cover to keep out unwanted small items which might foul their operation. = GUARD PIN PUSH/PULL ROD’ Fig. 21 CABLE QUADRANTS ~22-Fig. 22 CABLE SUPPORT PULLEY Turnbuckles ‘These may vary in design and commonly may be of the Barrel Rod type or the Tension Rod type. In general they all have a left hand thread at one end and a right hand thread at the other. When the centre part is rotated - holding the two cable ends to prevent them rotating - then the cable tension will either be increased or decreased. It is important that, after adjustment and prior to wire locking that the threads are in safety. For the barrel type turnbuckle that means that all the threads must be buried in the barrel. For the tension rod type the threads must be screwed in deep enough into the fork ends so that a piece of locking wire will not pass through the inspection hole. The wire should be the same size as the inspection hole and not come out the other side. BARREL “N\A Zsa Fig. 23 BARREL ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE LOCKING WIRE TYPE ease‘TERMINAL LOCKING CLIP Fig. 24 BARREL ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE LOCKING CLIP TYPE INSPECTION HOLE RoW. THREAD Lock nur LOCKING WIRE Fig. 25 TENSION ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE Cable Connectors These are fitted to some cable systems at positions where the cables need to be disconnected. Each half of the connector is keyed in such a way that it can only be fitted back to its mating half. The connectors allow for quick cable disconnect and re- connect without the possibility of connecting two wrong cables together. They usually do not provide for any cable tension adjustment. Torque Tubes Used to change linear motion into rotary motion. -24-Cable Tension Regulators The majority of modern aircraft now use cable operated systems for their flying controls. This is due, in a large part, to the development of efficient Cable Tension Regulators. Cable tension regulators are mechanical devices and can be made in many configurations, for example, quadrants, bell crank levers, pulleys etc. For the purpose of a brief description, we will consider the quadrant type. PUSH/PULL ROD Fig. 26 QUADRANT TYPE CABLE TENSION REGULATOR SCHEMATIC ‘This consists of a pair of spring loaded quadrants with a pointer scale for recording the cable tensions. The cables are inserted through slots in the recessed ends of the V grooved quadrants and the cable ends are secured at the cable anchorages. When the cables are tightened equally (as with the fuselage getting longer as the aircraft descends) the quadrants rotate about the centre shaft and the links pull the cross-head freely along the locking shaft, compressing the springs and, in effect tensioning the cables. The springs react against the cross-head and, when the cables slacken (with an increase in altitude), push the cross-head back along the shaft, thus tightening the cables. -25-nN Te ER INSLONER To CROSSHEAD ——* castes stacken cquacty “capes ticten eauatty FUSELAGE TEMPERATURE REDUCING FUSELAGE TEMPERATURE INCREASING CABLE TENSION REGULATOR - NO PILOT INPUT CROSSHEAD MOVES FREELY WITH SPRINGS MAINTAINING TENSIONS CROSSHEAD. vy SHAFT ——™ controt aPpLied Crovsheed Ults and locks on ahatt, locking quadrants, (CROSSHEAD LOCKED ON SHAFT - UNIT BEHAVES AS A PULLEY CABLE TENSION REGULATOR- PILOT INPUT Fig. 27 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR - OPERATION AbisoWhen a control load is applied by the pilot only one link will tend to move, tilting the cross-head on its locking shaft (a very small amount) and locking it to the shaft, preventing movement of one quadrant relative to the other with the whole system now acting as a pulley. Both quadrants are, therefore, locked together and operate as a solid pulley until the control load is released. TEMPERATURE SCALE (Should read to within 5° of actual temperature. But check manual.) Fig. 28 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR Each tension regulator incorporates a scale and pointer which provides a visual tension indication at all times. When rigging a regulated cable system therefore, a tensiometer is not required, the cables being tensioned until the correct reading is obtained on the regulator scale. The correct reading depends on the ambient temperature and must be obtained form a special graph provided for each regulator in the aircraft. Pressure Bulkheads On pressurised aircraft the control run will have to pass out of the pressurised area to the unpressurised side of the cabin. -27-‘Thus control tubes and cables must pass through seals to prevent undue air leakage. The pressure bulkhead seal must allow freedom of movement, be self aligning, require little or no maintenance - and provide a good air seal. BULKHEAD \ BELLOWS SECURED TO BULKHEAD senio8ws asin arr Ticut sont Fig. 29 BELLOWS TYPE SEAL One such device consists of a rubber bellows which moves with the control. ‘This arrangement is used with control systems using twin cables (one up and one down), as the cabin pressure acting on the bellows causes a load on the control which must be balanced by an equal and opposite load - on the other cable. caste RUBBER FRICTION SEAL-———| Fig. 30 GLAND TYPE SEAL Alternative methods of permitting the control rods or cables to slide through ‘some form of gland are frequently utilised. Several types have been developed for this purpose, all of which rely on packing rings or silicon rubber composite to provide the air-tight joint. Remember, they should be kept clean and not lubricated. Improved sealing is effected if the movement through the bulkhead is rotary rather than linear. The typical arrangement illustrated consists of a rubber seal, clipped to and rotating with the control tube. Air pressure acting on the splayed outer end of the rubber seal forms an airtight joint. oeTnBULKHEAD RUBBER SEAL Fig. 31 ROTATING SEAL Powered Controls The control surfaces of many modern aircraft are subjected to very heavy air loads due to the airspeed and/or the size of the control surface. These loads are often greater than the pilot can comfortably overcome and he/she must therefore be assisted. It is usual to power the control surfaces hydraulically, using a basically simple hydraulic system, the control valve of which is moved by the pilot via the control system. However, to ensure that the surface moves only when, and as far as the pilot wants it to, a feedback from the jack to the control valve must be incorporated. (Negative feed back). The basic jack and control valve are incorporated in one unit called a Powered Flying Control Unit (PFCU or PCU), and may contain the autopilot servo. The usual type of P.F.C.U. feeds off an aircraft hydraulic system, but there are other types which are self contained hydraulic systems requiring only electrical power to drive their pump motors. (See the book in this series P.F.C.U.s and Autopilots). Feel Systems When a control system is powered in this way the pilot loses all sense of feel, since the work is done hydraulically. Since feel is essential for the pilot to fly the aircraft properly under adequate control, it must be provided artificially. FoorThe simplest form, a spring box in the control run, supplies a constant feel force irrespective of air load variations, and is therefore not completely satisfactory - but it is cheap. Another system measures dynamic pressure (q) and therefore surface loading, and varies the feel force accordingly. Feel force therefore increases as speed increases and vice versa and decreases with altitude and vice versa. It is Imown as a "Q Feel System’. (Again, see the book in this series "P.F.C.U.s and Autopilots’). TABS ‘These are ancillary surfaces attached to the rear of the primary flying control surfaces, A control surface may have several tabs attached to it although several functions may be built into one tab. Tabs can be fitted to non powered systems, and tabs (balance & anti-balance) may be fitted to some powered flying control systems. Fixed Tab This is adjustable only on the ground by maintenance engineers. It may be fitted to non powered controls and is used to correct for inherent flying faults. It may be an actual tab as shown or may be a metal strip attached to the trailing edge of the control surface. The tab as shown is adjusted by removing the fixing plate, repositioning the tab and refitting the plate. The metal strip type tab is bent into a new position usually using a special bending tool. Control Rod contgol Surface pivot tab Main Surface POE Fig. 32 FIXED TAB The tab is moved in the opposite direction to that which we require the control surface to move e.g. to correct for an inherent nose down attitude the elevator needs to be raised which means the tab on the elevator is adjusted downwards. -30-Controllable Trim Tab This is moved by the pilot during flight to allow the aircraft to be trimmed to fly straight and level, although it is sometimes used to trim the aircraft into a climb or a descent path. The tab may be manually operated using cables, chains and screwjacks, or it may be electrically operated with an electric actuator controlled from the flight deck. Fitted to non powered controls. QUESTION: Why should the pilot wish to trim the aircraft into straight and level flight during flight? (5 mins) ANSWER: ‘The trim of the aircraft might change due to fuel usage, one engine (multi-engined aircraft) shut down, and to save fatigue on the pilot the aircraft can be trimmed into an attitude where the pilot has to put little or no input into the system to keep his aircraft flying on the correct course and altitude. Fig. 33 CONTROLLABLE TRIM TAB Balance Tab This assists the pilot to move his controls on a non powered system, or relieve the load on a powered system. It is automatic in operation. The tab is fixed by a rod to the mainplane, tailplane or fin. When the control surface is moved by the pilot the tab is caused to move in the opposite direction. The airflow hitting the tab will cause a force to be created in the direction that the control surface has moved. This force (whilst small) is at some distance from the control surface hinge line - thus a turning moment is created which assists the pilot to move his/her controls. -31-Fig. 34 BALANCE TAB QUESTION: Could the balance tab also be used to function as another type of tab and if so what? (10 mins) ANSWER: If the attachment red is adjustable on the ground then it can be used as a fixed tab as well as a balance tab. If the ~ length of the attachment rod can be adjusted from the flight deck in the air then the tab can perform the dual function of a controllable trimming tab and balance tab. Anti-Balance Tab To make the controls more effective and to give the pilot more feel an anti- balance tab may be fitted. It is similar to a balance tab except that the linkage is so connected that the tab moves in the same direction as the control surface - but further. eee Fig. 35 SERVO TAB It is interesting to note that the anti-balance tab fitted to the rudder of the Canadian de Havilland Dash 8 has the same chord length as the rudder itself - presumably making for very effective directional control. aoeServo Tab This is similar to the balance tab in principle but it is operated directly by the pilot. The control surface is not connected to the control system but is free to move in any direction. Movement of the pilot's primary control moves the tab, aerodynamic pressure on the tab will cause a turning moment on the control surface, which will move in the opposite direction. Control, however, is still instinctive. Fitted to non powered controls. QUESTION: Which way would the tabs move on the ailerons to cause the aircraft to roll to the right? (5 mins) (Hint - In your mind move the primary control surface first - the tabs move in the opposite direction). ANSWER: The right hand tab will move down causing the right hand aileron to move up and the right hand wing to move down. The left hand tab will move up - and every thing else is vice versa. This type of tab works very well at reasonably high speed (all the primary flight controls on the Bristol Britannia are servo tabbed), but at low speed it has its problems. When the tab moves into low airspeed it produces little force and consequently poor control surface response. To overcome this problem Spring ‘Tabs were invented. SPRING pxLots Input Fig. 36 SPRING TAB Spring Tab This is similar to the servo tab but it only operates at the higher airspeeds. At the lower airspeeds the pilot operates the control surfaces as normal. The control linkage is connected directly to the tab with a connection to the control surface via a torsion bar (shown as a spring in the drawing). - 33 -At low airspeeds the loading on the control surface is insufficient to overcome the pressure of the spring/torsion bar, and the movement of the control system moves the control surface directly through the spring/torsion bar. At high airspeeds the aerodynamic loading on the control surface is sufficient to overcome the pressure of the spring/torsion bar. Movement of the link compresses or extends the spring/torsion bar and moves the tab. The tab in turn moves the control surface - acting as a servo tab. CONTROLLABLE TRIMMING TAB SYSTEM These are operated by the pilot independently of the main controls and are not fitted to powered flying controls. They are used to trim the aircraft to a particular flight attitude, e.g. to trim it to fly straight and level, allowing for changes in C of G position due to say changing fuel load. They may be operated from the flight deck by a mechanical system of cables and pulleys or they may be operated electrically. The cockpit controls are designed so their operation is "instinctive" - i.e. handwheel forward - nose trimmed down. The tab may be combined with say a balance tab and may be fitted to the rudder, elevator and, usually, one of the ailerons. SPROCKET TTURNBUCKLE CABLE CHAIN ELEVATOR FAIRLEAD ‘TRIM TAB SCREW JACK PUSH/PULL ROD Fig. 37 ELEVATOR TRIM TAB SYSTEM - MECHANICAL - 34-Direction of Movement The control run of the controllable trimming tabs is usually complicated, and because of the screw jack or other similar device, their operation may not be Teadily understood. Therefore, it is advisable to re-check that the movement of the cockpit control does result in the correct movement of the tab. Elevator Trimming Tab These are usually operated by a hand wheel mounted in the vertical plane fore and aft, so that when the top of the handwheel is moved forward, that is, wheel wound forward, the nose of the aircraft goes down, and vice versa. Markings on or near the handwheel, such as "Nose up" and "Nose down” indicate the direction in which to turn the handwheel. (Note the mechanical trim wheel on the centre pedestal of the Airbus A320). TABLE 2 ELEVATOR TAB MOVEMENT Aircraft Flying | Pilot's Tab Subsequent Fault Action Movement Primary Control Surface Movement | NOSE HEAVY CONTROL WHEEL DOWN UP REARWARD. [TAIL HEAVY CONTROL WHEEL uP DOWN FORWARD MOVEMENT OF TAB HAND WHEEL MOVEMENT EFFECT IN FLIGHT Fig. 38. MOVEMENT OF ELEVATOR TRIM TAB -35-Aileron Trimming Tab This is usually operated by a handwheel mounted vertically on a fore and aft spindle. As the ailerons are interconnected, a controllable trimming tab may be fitted to one aileron only. Markings on or near the handwheel, such as, "To correct for port wing low” and "To correct for starboard wing low” indicate the direction in which to turn the handwheel. TABLE 3 AILERON TAB MOVEMENT Aircraft Flying [Pilot's Action (RIGHT AILERON) [Subsequent Fault ‘Tab Movement —_| Primary Control Surface Movement. LEFT WING LOW [WHEEL TO THE RIGHT UP RIGHT 2 DOWN, LEFT DOWN RIGHT WING [WHEEL TO THE RIGHT DOWN LOW LEFT UP LEFTUP___| WAND WHEEL MOVEMENT go # Fig. 39 MOVEMENT OF AILERON TRIM TAB (FITTED TO THE LEFT WING) Rudder Trimming Tab These are usually operated by a handwheel mounted horizontally, though some aircraft may have the handwheel mounted vertically on a fore and aft spindle. Markings on or near the handwheel, such as "Correct for yaw to port” and "Correct for yaw to starboard” indicate the direction in which to turn the handwheel. -36-TABLE 4 RUDDER TAB MOVEMENT ‘Aircraft Flying | Pilot's Action [Tab Movement [Subsequent Fault Primary Control Surface (Movement. YAWS LEFT WHEEL LEFT [RoHT | CLOCKWISE YAWS RIGHT |WHEEL ANTI [RIGHT [err | [CLOCKWISE MOVEMENT OF WAND WHEEL MOVEMENT TOF TAB Se. oe ac= ec EFFECT IN PLIGHT Fig. 40 MOVEMENT OF RUDDER TRIM TAB Electrically Operated Trim Tabs Most of the electric trim systems are an extension of the manual system with provision to allow for manual trimming in the event of electric supply failure or electric actuator failure. The actuator is usually reversible and incorporates an overload clutch that will slip in an emergency. Cockpit control is usually through "thumb" switches that return to the centre off position when finger pressure is released. Pushing the switch one way will cause the tab to move, say, down, while pushing it the other way will cause the tab to move up. Again the system is instinctive. Operation of the switch will cause a d.c. voltage to be supplied to the motor. The motor will operate a reduction gearing or a screw jack to move the tab direct. -37-On smaller aircraft the d.c. motor is of the permanent magnet type with reversal being achieved by reversing the current in the armature. On larger aircraft the motor is a split field motor. Fig. 41 AILERON TRIM SYSTEM OF THE BAe 146 BALANCING OF CONTROL SURFACES Control surfaces are usually mass balanced and aerodynamically balanced. Mass balance is used to reduce the possibility of flutter and aerodynamic balance is used to assist the pilot to move the controls. QUESTION: Can you explain what is meant by the term "flutter"? (10 mins). - 38 -ANSWER: Like all things aeronautical, "flutter* is a complex subject and it comes in many forms. In general, however, it can be considered as a form of vibration which is induced by aerodynamic forces and is a function of the "stiffness" of the structure and the control system and surfaces. In its mildest form it may not be noticed, or may show up as increased wear in control surface bearings. In its more severe form it can cause the aircraft to disintegrate in flight with explosive force. Mass Balance Flutter can be reduced, or even prevented, by the mass balancing of the control surfaces. During the design stage the centre of gravity of the control surface is calculated to be within certain limits. This is usually achieved by the addition of carefully calculated weights (to be technically correct - masses) placed forward of the hinge line. This is done on control surfaces whether they are powered or not, and the C of G must be within a certain range in plan view and in end elevation, i.e. in two planes. G- = HINGE LINE Fig. 42 MASS BALANCE WEIGHT ee eee ee XX = C of G RANGE Fig. 43 C of G RANGE IN PLAN VIEW -39-‘The range of the C of G in end elevation may be such as to make the control a) surface nose heavy, tail heavy or either depending on the actual C of G position. Fig. 44 C of G RANGE ~- NOSE HEAVY CONTROL SURFACE Fig. 45 C of G RANGE - NOSE OR TAIL HEAVY Fig. 46 C of G RANGE - TAIL HEAVY Of course the designer will decide where the C of G is to be and a range is given to allow for minor repairs and paint finishes to be carried out without the need to continuously adjust the mass balance weights. ‘The mass balance and total weight of the control surface will be checked in accordance with the aircraft manual where the equipment will be specified and the calculations to be used will be shown. QUESTION: Can you specify 2 or 3 occasions when control surfaces should be weighed /mass balance checked? (10 mins) -40-As laid down in the maintenance schedule. On fitment of a new or replacement surface. After repair or modification to the control surface. After reported flutter. After aircraft/control surface respray. ANSWER: veer ‘The check may be done on the aircraft but the surface may have to be removed and the check carried out on a bench. The check may involve balancing the surface on it's hinge line by adding test weights to the leading or trailing edge. Calculations are then carried out, using this information on how much weight has to be added or removed to the mass balance weight. The mass balance weight is adjusted and the control surface retested, and the test weights removed. After adjustment, the new balance information (together with the total weight of the surface) is recorded in the aircraft log book. There may also be a record plate on the control surface which will need amending. The control surface may also be balanced in the spanwise plane - check the manual. QUESTION: What are the mass balance weights made of and how can they be adjusted? (15 mins) ANSWER: Mass balance weights may be made of: * Steel (density = 7800 kg/m’). * Lead (density ~ 11300 kg/m®). * Depleted uranium (DU) (density ~ 19000 kg/m®). Most of it phasec out now because of health concerns. * Tungsten (density = 19300 kg/m®). Replacing DU. Expensive. Note. In general the more dense a material the less space it requires in the structure for a given amount of weight. Adjustments will be carried out in accordance with the AMM, but may involve the use of the following: * Addition /removal of steel washers/bolts. * Addition /removal of mass balance weights. * Addition /removal of steel shims. * Re-location of mass balance weights - fore and aft. * Changing weights for different sizes. * Machining of weights - only if allowed in the manual, and remember DO NOT cut or damage depleted uranium. aeAerodynamic Balance ‘The force which is needed to move a flying control system in flight depends on: air density; aircraft velocity; control surface size, and angle of deflection. Fa 'y pV2S where F = force in Newtons p = air density in kg per m3 V = velocity in m/s? S = area in m? ( NOTE. The symbol "x", this means "is proportional to") On large/fast aircraft this force may become too much for the pilot to overcome = ~ so the controls may be powered and/or aerodynamically balanced. Aerodynamic balance can be achieved by: (a) Balance tabs. (b) Servo tabs. (c) Spring tabs. (@) Pressure balance. (e) Horn balance. () _ Inset hinges. (@) Balance panels. Having already dealt with the tabs-let us now have a look at the rest. Pressure Balance - With this system part of the control surface, in the formof =~ a beak, extends forward of the hinge line into an enclosed area within the main structure. When the pilot moves the control surface, say up, the air pressure increases above the surface and decreases below it. This differential pressure is felt across the beak thus assisting the pilot to move his/her controls. Sometimes the gap between the beak and the aircraft structure is sealed by a flexible apron (Westland /Irving Type) or hinged flap (balance panel system). -42-shroud Pressure Control surface movement Low pressure Small gap Beak Fig. 47 PRESSURE BALANCE CONTROL Horn Balance - This is where part of the control surface extends forward of the hinge line. When the surface is moved in one direction the horn moves in the other direction, but out into the airflow, thus it experiences an aerodynamic force which helps the pilot to move his controls: The horn may also house the mass balance weights. Horn ——~, Fig. 48 HORN BALANCE Inset Hinge - On this control surface the complete leading edge extends forward of the hinge line and the effect is similar to that of the horn balance. Again this area houses the mass balance weights. -43-Fig. 49 INSET HINGE Balance Panel - The balance panel is housed in a balance bay forward of the _» control surface. When the control surface is moved a pressure difference is felt cither side of the control surface which is allowed to pass through the vent gap and act on the balance panel. This action assists control surface movement. Figure 50 shows the elevator balance panel of the Boeing 737-400. staanuizen ELevaron REAR SPAR ose oS Levaton tae AbuUST VEINS eumce SBGE Chestutea tn eLevaton BALANCE. ‘WEIGHT 7 ‘NOSE IN BALANCE BAY MO. 2 wise Fane * rs REQUIIED. sea Fig. 50 BALANCE PANEL - EXAMPLE 737-400 AILERONS Most control surfaces work with little or no adverse aerodynamic affect - but the ailerons can be different. They can suffer from adverse yaw. StileWhen the ailerons are moved the down going aileron tends to produce more drag than the up going one. In a turn the down going aileron is on the up going wing. This wing is on the outside of the turn. If the down going aileron produces too much drag then it may tend to turn the aircraft in the wrong direction. To counteract this problem the aircraft may be fitted with: * Frise Ailerons * Differential Ailerons * Aileron Upfloat. Frise Ailerons ‘These are designed so that the up going aileron (on the inner wing of the turn) produces more drag than the down going one, thus the aircraft is helped to turn in the correct direction. The aileron has a low set hinge so that when it is moved up the leading edge of the aileron protrudes into the airflow and creates drag. When the aileron is moved down it produces less drag. a ee Nv LINE DRAG CAUSED \ AILERON NOSE Fig. 51 FRISE AILERONS Differential Ailerons ‘The aileron control system is designed so that the up going aileron moves through a greater range of movement than the down going one. Thus the aileron on the inside of the turn produces as much if not more drag than the one on the outside of the turn - thus preventing adverse yaw. -45-UP AND DOWN ANGULAR RANGE OF MOVEMENT CABLES! uP ACTUAL LINEAR MOVEMENT | ee ROD TO AILERON Fig. 52 DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS With reference to figure 52 and assuming a 45° angular range of movement of the pulley. It can be seen that the linear range of the push/pull rod is greater when it moves up than when it moves down. Thus the up going aileron (lower wing) moves through a greater range and produces more drag than the down going one. Aileron Upfloat On some smaller aircraft the ailerons may be rigged into their “neutral” position with a certain amount of “upfloat”. In other words the neutral position of both ailerons is set above the trailing edge of the wing (refer to the aircraft maintenance manual). This will mean that the up going aileron will move even higher into the airflow - with an increase in drag, and the down going aileron will not move so far into the airflow - producing little drag. QUESTION: This last method is an inexpensive way of counteracting adverse yaw, but it does have one disadvantage. Can you think what it is? (2 mins). ANSWER: You might have thought of several disadvantages, but one that springs to mind is the continuous drag penalty. When flying straight and level both ailerons are high in the airflow and creating drag - not a good idea. Another disadvantage is that they are both creating "negative lift". -46-Enhanced Roll Control On many larger aircraft the aileron system is interconnected with the spoilers to give better roll control. The spoilers are operated asymmetrically in conjunction with the up going ailerons to increase drag (and reduce lift) on the down going wing. The operation of the spoilers may be related to speed and/or range of aileron movement. SPOILER CONTROL MODULE (6 PLACES) INPUT RVOT CHARACTERISTICS Wie bs Fositron! SPOILER conTROL sPonten PANEL Conmano. RvB UHI @ PLACES) SPEEDBRAKE Lever wetrne | { s1ttox! ACTUATOR PISTON Roo npr Lor CHARACTERISTICS AWTERNAL Piston wor EHSY \L_ SPEEDBRAKE LvOT UNIT «3 PLACES) FEEDBACK LVOT CHARACTERISTICS, Fig. 53 ASYMMETRIC SPOILER CONTROL - EXAMPLE In some aircraft the operation of the asymmetric spoilers is by a direct link between the aileron system and the spoiler selectors/actuators. In other systems the spoilers are operated via a control module/computer (Figure 56). With reference to figure 53 - note the inputs to the control module - roll - speedbrake lever - feedback signal. WARNING 1, Spoilers operate quickly and can cause serious injury. -47-2. They also have a fail safe system which means that they will close automatically if either hydraulic pressure or electrical power is removed. (On some aircraft they will float upwards in flight if selected and the hydraulic power has failed. This is caused by the reduced pressure above the wing.) 3. With the hydraulic system pressurised and the aircraft on the ground the spoilers will operate automatically if reverse thrust is selected. Enhanced Lift Facility On some of the larger modern aircraft both ailerons will automatically set into the "droop " position for take-off and landing. This enhances the lift characteristics for that part of the wing because (in effect) the ailerons are acting similar to flaps - whilst still allowing the pilot roll control via the ailerons. ; Figure 54 shows the location of a typical droop actuator - it also shows the spring feel unit and the electrically operated trim system. As with most powered controls the trimming of the system is usually achieved by setting the system to a "new neutral" - except with many elevator systems where the tailplane is trimmed. Elevons Some aircraft such as delta wing aircraft (Concorde) are fitted with a set of control surfaces at the trailing edge of the wing. Having no tailplane these surfaces must do the job of elevators and ailerons - hence the term elevons. When the control column is pulled back all control surfaces rise (and vice versa). When the control column is moved to the left - the left hand elevons rise and the right ones fall (and vice versa). When the pilot puts both roll and pitch inputs in simultaneously the system “mixes the two signals" to give a combination of both: eg. Aircraft climbing and banking to the left. Control column back and to the left. Allelevons up but those on the left up further than those on the right. Flaperons Combine the function of a flap and an aileron. Fitted to the Boeing 777 (inboard aileron). Similar to droop ailerons. aticWALSAS WRIL ORILOG1A NOUAIV IVOIdAL $8 “31 +y30-0423 203 - z0aeng0e doorp uozeTte auz ‘z sajun Tees burids syz -T -49-‘TAILPLANES Tailplanes may be:- * Fixed - with elevators. On small aircraft. * Variable Incidence (V.L). Also fitted with elevators. The tailplane may be powered (electric or hydraulic) on some aircraft or manually operated (screw jacks) on small aircraft. * All Flying or Slab. Is used as the primary flying control surface and therefore has no elevators. Used in place of elevators and often used in place of ailerons on fighter aircraft (Tailerons). Will act together as elevators and differentially as ailerons - or a combination of both. Variable Incidence Tailplane Contollable trim tabs become less effective at higher speeds, and totally ineffective on fully power operated systems. A variable incidence tailplane overcomes these problems. The complete tailplane pivots about a main hinge and is usually moved by an electric or hydraulic actuator. An instinctive switch in the flight deck enables the pilot to increase or decrease the tailplane incidence. The VI. tailplane is more effective than a trim tab and produces less drag. On small aircraft the tailplane is moved manually. | ‘TAILPLANE /-—— acruator ELEVATOR Q ‘TAILPLANE HINGE Fig. 55 VARIABLE INCIDENCE TAILPLANE - 50 -All Flying or Slab Tailplane This is similar to the V.I. tailplane except that it does not have an elevator. The tailplane is operated directly by the fore and aft movement of the control column and on large aircraft it is fully powered. (Manually operated on small aircraft and may be fitted with a trim tab). Trimming of this system is by setting the tailplane to a new neutral - similar to powered control systems. Advantages of this tailplane are: (a) Less drag for the same control effect. (b) More rigid and less liable to flutter. (c) Simpler than an elevator and tab system. (@) More effective control. PIVvoT | ACTUATING MECHANISM (vanualy operated on amall A/c. Powered on, Inger Aver Fig. 56 ALL FLYING TAILPLANE QUESTION: As a general knowledge question, can you think why tailerons are not usually fitted to civil airliners? (5 mins). ANSWER: The twisting force would be too high on the fuselage because of: (a) Its length. (b) The high moment of inertia due to the engines being placed out on the wings (for most civil airliners). SieWALSAS WRIL ANVIdTIVL ‘TA TVOIdAL 29 “31d {woisds jouju09 on ewoine) JOJOWOAIS WHY on / youms oouuoasip g whip 2192) -52- jojow sojenyoe uleW anu- dois, -zoqou oazes utz3 aya eTA ae sandut joTTd oane pue wyr3 YORH sroqenq08 upew ay3 sqoeuuoos yp YOTUM Yep AYBTTE O43 UT TosyM pueY e woZz st UoTIeredo Tenuvy squouSuerze YosnT & BTA UTeT3 TeeB Oya Soqeredo ToRENIDe UFEU OUTSPOILERS ‘These may not be considered as primary flying controls but on some aircraft they are connected to the aileron system. They are normally situated on top of the mainplanes forward of the flaps. They may carry out more than one function but are generally classified as: Symmetrical; Differential; Ground Effect; and Gust Alleviation. When extended they dump lift and create drag. An aircraft may have 6 or 7 spoilers per wing and they may have collective and individual functions. They are power operated. Symmetrical Spoilers Operated symmetrically in flight to reduce the lift/drag ratio. This will increase the rate of descent and reduce the speed. Sometimes used on automatic landing approach runs. Differential Spoilers Used in conjunction with the ailerons to give improved lateral control. When the up going aileron is moved: (a) passed a certain angle, and/or (b) the aircraft is flying within a certain speed range the spoilers extend on that wing. This creates drag and dumps lift, hence increasing the desired turning effect. Figure 59 shows the spoiler arrangement of the BAe 146. The spoiler push/pull rod operating system is connected to the aileron cable control system at the first quadrant in the mainplane (cable quadrant). The push/pull rod connects the cable quadrant to the Spoiler Cam Box. From the spoiler cam box the pilot's input is feed to the servo valve of the spoiler hydraulic actuator - via a spring strut. During downward movement of the aileron the cam follower in the cam box moves in the non effective portion of the cam track, and the spoiler is not selected. After the first (approximately) 5° of cockpit handwheel movement to raise the aileron the spoiler is selected to give a non-linear movement in relation to aileron movement. Ground Effect Spoilers ‘These extend automatically on landing to dump lift and increase drag.‘They operate when the aircraft is configured for landing with the weight switch* am) operated on the landing gear; the throttles are in their correct (usually idle) position; the spoiler selector in the "arm" position; and the wheels are rotating (picked up by the anti skid transducer). *NOTE: The weight switch may be called (amongst other things): Weight on wheels switch (WOW) - Airbus. * Ground/Air sensor - Boeing. * Squat switch. * Weight switch. SPOILERS FLAPS ‘OUTBOARD ATLERONS SPOILERS = Or FLAPS. Fig. 58 CONTROL SURFACES - LOCATION -54-Obl 9Vd - SUATIOdS TOALNOD T10U 6S “3d yovniy wawoss Te tnvuavno 379¥9 -55-Example - A300 Ground Effect Spoilers Speed brakes and roll spoilers are used when landing as ground effect spoilers, Deflection angles being 50° for all surfaces. They automatically extend when: * they are selected. * the aircraft is on the ground. The ground effect spoilers are selected when the two following conditions are fulfilled: * speed brake control lever pulled upwards (when it is in RET position) or thrust reverser selected on one engine, and * both throttle levers in the idle position. ‘The “aircraft on ground signal” is sent when the following conditions are fulfilled: * two main landing gear aft landing wheels speed is greater than 70 kt. * or (for landing): boogie beam rotation shock absorber compressed (signal sent 3 seconds after touchdown) radio altitude lower than 5 ft (1.5m). Automatic extension is achieved for an aborted take-off only when two main landing gear aft wheels speed is higher than 70 kt. Ground effect spoilers will remain extended during bounces due to the ground conditions logic and as long as both throttles are in the idle position and preselection order fulfilled. Ground effect spoiler retraction is achieved: * either by pressing the SPEED BRAKE control lever down (preselection cancelled). * or by pulling one throttle lever out of the idle position. QUESTION With reference to figure 60. Can you work through the logic gates to check that the above text confirms the wiring diagram logic. Remember an AND gate must have ALL the inputs positive for there to be an output. An OR gate will give an output if ANY ONE input is positive. ANSWER Ifyou have problems contact your tutor. -56-LINOUIO 01007 ATTIOdS LOA GNNOYD OZE 09 “FtGust Alleviation Spoilers ‘These are fitted to the A320 and operate automatically to relieve inflight gust loads. They give a more stable and comfortable flight and reduce structure fatigue. When the aircraft is disturbed about the longitudinal axis, gyros sense the movement and send a signal to a computer. If the pilot has not commanded this movement the computer will know this (all pilot's control inputs being sent to one or more computers on the A320). ‘The computer will send a signal to a hydraulic control valve to extent the spoilers on the up going wing - thus dumping lift - lowering the wing, and helping to keep the aircraft level. This is really a form of Active Stability as it relies on the use of computers and gyros, and not on the aerodynamic design of the aircraft. HIGH LIFT DEVICES Strictly these are not classed as flying controls but are included in this section because they are moveable surfaces attached to the leading and trailing edges of the mainplane. When extended they increase lift and drag. Trailing edge devices are called flaps and leading edge devices are usually called slats, slots, and sometimes, leading edge flaps. FLAPS When extended they increase the camber of the mean camber line of the aerofoil. Thus they increase the amount of lift produced at any given airspeed. Many flaps also extend rearward when they are lowered which also increases ~ the effective wing chord length and effective wing area. Any protrusion into the airflow causes drag and flaps are no exception. In most cases it is an unwanted by-product of their use, but on some occasions the drag produced can be useful in slowing the speed of the aircraft. It is important that port and starboard flaps operate together (symmetrically). To this end they are connected together mechanically on most aircraft, though on a few they may be inter-connected hydraulically. QUESTION: What would happen if the flaps moved asymmetrically in flight? (10 mins) ESBANSWER: If one flap was to move into the airflow more that the other there would be more lift created on that wing than on the other. This would cause the aircraft to roll. The roll might be significant enough (depending on the amount of flap asymmetry) to be uncorrectable by the pilot - unless he/she can get both flaps up before total aircraft control loss. The flaps are operated:- (a) Manually. Being connected by rods and levers to a handle in the cockpit, similar to a car hand brake (light aircraft). (b) By electric actuators. () By a hydraulic jack or jacks (split and plain flaps usually). (@) By hydraulic motors - the Fowler type flap. A simple hydraulic jack or actuator connected to a split or plain flap will be capable of lowering or raising the flap, with the port and starboard flaps being connected together by a mechanical linkage to prevent asymmetric operation. Where Fowler type flaps are used (most large aircraft) the range of movement is such as to require the use of a large jack arrangement, this would be too heavy. In these cases it is common to operate the flaps using a drive shaft system driven by an hydraulic motor. The motor might be in the centre of the aircraft (or there might be more than one motor) with a drive shaft running along the rear of the port and starboard mainplane rear spars. At each flap location the lateral drive is converted into a longitudinal drive by a gear box arrangement. The flaps are moved by a rotating screw jack arrangement (ball screw jack) which moves them back and down along guide tracks which are covered by fairings when the flaps are retracted. Should asymmetry occur then detectors will operate a warning on the flight deck and automatically stop the operation of the flaps. Figure 61 shows the flap operating system for the BAe 146. For more detailed information on the operating systems you should refer to the book in this series entitled Hydraulics. -59-Obl PVE - WALSAS NOILVUAdO dvVTd 19 ‘31a yovr 349s WE 4 owt M3425. TWa— aun snow, | Ove MHDS TE onmvaa savais AIT. HOLIMS NollIsoe avs Yow Maus TE __ SLaYHS, snduoL auvug gum snout maannsy 'y"3aianonog iw wot sa4¥02 nie wna ONT Laat swe INA 7OULNOD ev auianse aime snout 2 SarwaNmoG aim" anowor 3 SanONMOO ONIM LHOTYFLAP OPERATION - GENERAL Take-off A “flap-less” take-off may be used on some aircraft such as the A300. This is employed when the runway length exceeds 2000m (allowing for certain weight and weather restrictions). On some aircraft there is a “long runway” flap position and a “short runway” flap position. Landing There may be 2 positions - one for approach and one for landing. Flight Deck Selector On older aircraft this is marked in degrees. On newer aircraft it is marked LANDING APPROACH, FINAL APPROACH, etc. Flight Deck Indication Flap position will be indicated either on a “clockwork” gauge ~ Dessyn system, moving coil, synchro system etc. or shown on a CRT screen. Asymmetric Protection Any flap asymmetry (leading edge or trailing edge) will induce a violent roll - the cause of several fatal accidents (with the aircraft impacting the ground). Asymmetry is prevented, by having the port and starboard flaps (leading edge or trailing edge) mechanically connected (cables, push/ pull rods, drive shafts etc). On some older systems they may be hydraulically interconnected. This means that both port and starboard flaps will move together. Should this system suffer a mechanical breakdown then a safeguard device is fitted to warn the pilot and stop the flaps moving. Asymmetric detectors are usually fitted to the outboard ends of the drive system (one port, one starboard) and monitor the revolutions/rate of movement of that side of the system. Their signals are sent to a comparator ‘unit. -61-Should this show a discrepancy between the port and starboard flaps (outside a specified tolerance) then the operating system is shut down and the pilot warned. (Refer to the book in this series entitled Hydraulics). Flap Load Relief Should the flaps be lowered at excessive airspeeds then structural damage will almost certainly result. The flaps will be damaged, the mechanism may also suffer, and any resulting debris may hit the fuselage, tailplane, and may be ingested into any rear-mounted engines. Also the aircraft may suffer from lateral asymmetry as well as loss of flaps for landing. This will result in a high- peed landing. Altogether a most unhappy state of affairs. With a simple hydraulic jack operated hinged type flap provision for “blow back” can be incorporated into the hydraulic system. This is in the form of a pressure relief valve in the flap down line ~ called a “blow-back” valve. This will allow the flaps to be blown back by the airflow (aerodynamic pressure) if left down after take-off. If the flaps are lowered during flight (at speed) then the relief system will prevent the flaps from going down too far and sustaining damage. With screw-jack operated flaps (Fowler type) the aerodynamic loads on the flap are not transmitted to the flap operating motors so the above solution will not work. For screw-jack operated flap systems the airspeed is sensed by the aircraft's Pitot system. This data is sent to the Digital Air Data Computer (DADC). it may also be sent to a flap load relief unit (airspeed unit). If the flaps are selected down and the airspeed is high then an electric load relief actuator is signalled to operate from a computer with air data sent to it from the DADC. (The signal may come from an airspeed unit dedicated to the flap load relief system — refer figure 62). This will change the geometry of the linkage between the flight-deck selector handle and the flap selector valve. This will cause the flap selector valve to move to the retract position. The flaps will retract (not necessarily fully up), and the pilot will get a warning. The flight-deck selector handle usually stays in the position selected. -62-FLAP SELECTOR ‘LOAD RELIEF LINKAG! LOAD RELIEF ACTUATOR ‘AIRSPEED UNIT PILOT'S WARNING Fig. 62 FLAP LOAD RELIEF SYSTEM -63-FLAP FULLY UP. FLAP TRACK FAIRING TAKE-OFF POSITION LONG RUNWAYS TAKE-OFF POSITION SHORTER RUNWAYS LANDING APPROACH POSITION LANDING POSITION Fig. 63 FOWLER TYPE FLAP - POSITIONS - 64 -TYPES OF FLAP Plain Flap - 50% increase in lift. The complete rear section of the wing moves down. —_—_ Fig. 64 PLAIN FLAP Split Flap - 60% increase in lift. The lower rear section of the wing moves down. — Fig. 65 SPLIT FLAP Slotted Flap - 65% increase in lift. The flap moves down and forms a slot between it and the wing. This allows some air through the slot from the bottom of the wing to the top of the flap keeping the top side clean from eddy currents and making the flap more efficient. _—. Fig. 66 SLOTTED FLAP Fowler Flap - 90% increase in lift. The flap moves down and back to effectively increase the wing area while producing a more cambered mean camber line. “XN Fig. 67 FOWLER FLAP ataible Slot er Flap - 100% increase in lift with an increase of stalling angle to 20°. The double slot allows air from under the flap to sweep the top surface clean of any turbulence. —_—-, Fig. 68 DOUBLE SLOTTED FOWLER FLAP Hinged Fowler Flap - 100% increase in lift. “ Fig. 69 HINGED FOWLER FLAP Krueger Leading Edge Flap - A leading edge flap which when hinged forward increases lift by 50% and stalling angle to 25°. Fe Fig. 70 KRUEGER FLAP SLATES/SLOTS On some aircraft they are held in a fixed position on the leading edge of the aerofoil. On most aircraft they are moveable. The moveable slats are interconnected to prevent asymmetric operation of the port and starboard sections. If asymmetric operation was to occur in flight then a violent roll would ensue - as would happen if the flaps were to operate asymmetrically. Detectors are fitted to stop the system if this were to happen. -66- ~TYPES OF SLATS/SLOTS Slotted Wing - A fixed slot in the wing. At high angles of attack air from under the wing rushes through the slot and sweeps the top of the wing clear of any turbulent airflow. Increases lift by 40% and increases stalling angle to 20°, EEE Fig. 71 SLOTTED WING Fixed Slat - Is similar in operation to the slotted wing, and fitted to some small aircraft. Lift increases by 50% and stalling angle increased to 20°. a Fig. 72 FIXED SLAT Moveable Slat - This may be automatic in operation or operated manually from the cockpit, or operated electrically, or hydraulically. In automatic operation the slat is spring loaded in the closed position. At high angles of attack the negative pressure being felt by the slat causes it to pull out on a system of levers from the wing. The slat then directs the airflow over the top of the wing to sweep it clean of any turbulence. When the angle of attack is decreased the negative pressure on the slat is insufficient to hold it out and the springs will pull it back flush fitting to the wing. When operated the increase in lift will be about 60% with an increase in angle of attack to about 22°. a Fig. 73 MOVEABLE SLAT -67-On large aircraft the leading edge slats are selected out for take-off and landing along with the flaps. They may be wound out using hydraulic motors and are fitted with asymmetric detectors that stop the movement immediately should asymmetric operation be detected. ‘The flaps and slats are usually operated together to increase lift (for that part of the wing) by up to 120% and increase the stalling angle to around 30°. FULLY EXTENDED IN TRANSIT Iding Nose Folding Nose Rod RETRACT POSITION Fig. 74 KRUEGER LEADING EDGE FLAP -68-WALSAS DNILVAGdO LVIS TVOIdAL SL Ha nwous OM ns INHOSH WaNVisN LVS - 69 -VARIATIONS IN AERODYNAMIC DESIGN Vortex Generators These are small flat metal plates fitted to some aircraft to mix high energy air into the (sluggish) boundary layer. They are usually arranged on the top surface of the wing at a small angle to the relative airflow. Usually they are all angled at the same angle but some aircraft may have each alternate plates angled in the opposite direction. ‘They stick up higher than the boundary layer (about 2in (50mm) and cause the high energy free stream airflow to become turbulent and mix with the low energy boundary layer ~ thus giving it energy and making it become more effective. They create form drag but reduce skin friction drag. They also tend to weaken shock waves and hence reduce shock drag. Fig. 76 VORTEX GENERATORS Wing Fence ‘These are flat metal plates (up to 12in [300mm] high) and fitted parallel to the free stream flow. They are fitted to help prevent spanwise movement of the air on swept wing aircraft, and may be found in front of control surfaces to increase their effectiveness. WING FENCE Fig. 77 WING FENCE -70-Saw Tooth Leading Edge Fitted to the leading edge of some swept wing aircraft. Sometimes called a Dog Tooth. It brings the centre of pressure forward on the outer part of the wing so helping to prevent the tip of the lower wing “digging in” during a turn. It also encourages the boundary layer to move in the direction of the free stream flow. It also helps prevent airflow separation at the tip - which is always a problem with highly swept wings. SAW TOOTH Fig. 78 SAW TOOTH OR DOG TOOTH LEADING EDGE Fig. 79 STALL WEDGE OR FIXED SPOILER -71-Stall Wedge or Fixed Spoiler During the stall it the outer part of the wing stalled at the same time as (or sooner than) the rest of the wing then there would be turbulent air over the ailerons and the pilot would loose lateral control. During a stall this can be dangerous as a spin might result. To prevent the outer part of the wing from stalling first, fixed spoilers are fitted to the inboard leading edges of the wing to cause that part to stall before the outer part of the wing - thus the pilot will still have some lateral control even though the aircraft is in a stall. Canard Aircraft Sometimes called tail-first aircraft as the tailplane (stabilizer) is fitted in front of the mainplane. The first powered flight by man was a canard aircraft and some modern high performance fighters are built this way as well. The foreplane (as it is called) acts similar to a conventional tailplane in providing longitudinal stability and control - if trimmable or fitted with control surfaces. It has many disadvantages including poor aerodynamic stability, but one advantage is that it may make the aircraft difficult to stall as the foreplane stalls before the mainplane, automatically putting the nose of the aircraft down before total lose of control occurs. Delta Winged Aircraft These may be divided into two categories (1) those with tailplanes and (2) those without. Those with tailplanes have conventional controls like other aircraft — flaps, ailerons, elevators, rudder etc. Those without a tailplane are different. Concorde is typical of a delta winged aircraft without a tailplane. It has one set of control surfaces at the rear of the mainplane that do the job of both the elevators and ailerons. They are called elevons. When the pilot pulls the control column back both elevons move up ~ and the aircraft climbs (and vice-versa). When he/she moves the hand-wheel to the right the right-hand elevon moves up and the left one moves down ~ and the aircraft rolls right (and vice-versa). B72eIf he/she pulls the control column back and moves the control wheel to the right then both elevons move up but the right-hand one moves up further that the left-hand one - the aircraft will climb and roll to the right. The pitch and roll controls are put through a mixing unit which sums (mechanically) the two inputs to give the required control surface response. On a fly-by-wire/fly-by-light aircraft this function would be performed by a computer. Figure 80 shows the principle of how the mixing unit works. rouweur { tLe) BELL CRANKA | ccc ea crac © p \ x2 ae pusiPuu Roos sums ar oe UerTELEVON FIGHT ELEVON Fig. 80 SUMMING LINK ELEVON SYSTEM When the pilot puts in a roll command input, bell crank A rotates about pivot X1 and causes bell crank B to pivot about X2. ‘rhis will cause Al to move down or up with A2 moving in the opposite direction - moving one elevon in one direction and the other in the opposite direction. The summing links pivoting about B1 and B2 respectively. When a pitch push/pull command is put in, the torque shaft is cause to rotate and move both BI and B2 push/pull rods in the same direction. (Each push/pull rod connection to the torque shaft is my means of a lever). This movement will cause both elevons to move up or down together, with the summing links pivoting about Al and A2 respectively. If the pilot moves both the pitch and roll controls together then both inputs will be summed by the linkage to produce the required control surface movements. -73-a Butterfly or Vee Tailplane Some (usually smaller) aircraft are designed with a tailplane/stabiliser with a very high dihedral angle (close to 45°). This means that it can double as a tailplane and as a fin for stability purposes and the control surfaces can double as an elevator and a rudder (ruddervator). RUDDERVATORS Fig. 81 BUTTERFLY TAILPLANE Figure 81 shows the butterfly tailplane of the French built Robin. When the ruddervators are both moved up (or down) together then they act as an elevator. When one moves up and the other one moves down then the effect is similar to a rudder. Symmetrical movement of the ruddervators (for pitch control) is caused by fore and aft movement of the control column. Asymmetric operation (for yaw control) is by movement of the rudder bar. When the pilots puts a pitch and yaw command in (control column and rudder bar), then summing links similar to those already described will ensure that LY both ruddervators will be displaced in the same direction but one will move further than the other - producing both a yaw and pitch change of the aircraft. It’s advantage is that there is less profile drag (there is no fin) and production costs are reduced - for the same reason. Of course, the aerodynamic efficiency in terms of stability and control is not as good as a conventional tailplane and fin assembly - but you can’t have it both ways. -74-INTEGRAL GUST LOCKS Some aircraft are fitted with a flying control locking system so that the controls can be locked for parking/picketing/mooring the aircraft. Usually operated by a handle fitted in the flight deck and connected to moveable locking pins by a cable system. When operated the pins are pushed into the locked position by passing through holes in pulleys/quadrants which lock the control system and prevents it’s movement due to wind loads. The system is so designed that take-off is impossible (by regulation) with the locks still in - sometimes by fitting the handle in such a position that the throttles cannot be moved forward unless it is released. CONTROL POSITION INDICATING SYSTEMS On large aircraft the position of the control surfaces are indicated to the pilot by an indicator gauge or a display on a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). The transducers can be a variable resistor (potentiometer) connected to the flying control surface. As the surface moves the transducer sends a dc voltage to the gauging system dependant on the surface position. This voltage can be used to move a moving coil instrument or a dc ratiometer type instrument, or it can be sent to a computer where it is converted to a digital signal and sent to a symbol generator to show a position display on the CRT. For more information on instrumentation you are advised to read the book in this series entitled Instruments. FLYING CONTROL RIGGING The flying control systems have to be rigged from time to time, ie set up and checked so that they carry out their function correctly. QUESTION: When would the controls be rigged? Try and think of at least 4 occasions. (5 mins) ANSWER: At manufacture. When stated in the maintenance schedule. When a component in the system is changed. After a heavy landing/flight through turbulent air. When any adjustment is carried out to the system. APOnE Ore‘The actual process of control system rigging will vary from aircraft to aircraft. It will vary on whether the controls are manual or powered. It will also vary on whether the system is operated by cables, push pull rods, or fly by wire. It is most important therefore to refer to the AMM for the actual procedure to be carried out. ‘The following paragraphs give a general outline concentrating on a manually operated cable system. Some variations are included but most systems rigging would be similar. The process is not too dissimilar to that used on trimming systems. ‘The general procedure is: Refer to the AMM. Set the control system to neutral. Check cable tensions. ~ Carry out sense check. Carry out freedom of movement check. Carry out range of movement check. Carry out any special checks. Carry out a duplicate inspection. Srausonr Do relate this process to your own aircraft. ‘The following paragraphs are notes expanding on the main headings above, and are a general approach. 1 Refer to the Aircraft Maintenance Manual - With some tasks this may not be the first thing to do - with control rigging it almost certainly should come first. It may specify the aircraft to be jacked and in rigging position ~ it may not. For powered controls it will specify hydraulic and electric power to be on and certain systems to be on - such as Air Data Computer, Flight Management Computer etc. Pitot static systems might have to be pressurised. It will list the equipment to be used. Check flying control systems and associated systems for completeness and serviceability. On large aircraft place warning notices that controls are being moved and check that servicing personnel are not working on or close to control systems. -76-Set the Control System to Neutral - This may mean slackening the control cables, and usually requires mechanical locks/pins/devices to be placed: fa) On the pilot’s control. (b) At the control surface end. (c) At intermediate links/ pulleys in the system. Check that the whole system is in neutral: (a) PFCUs and artificial feel (if fitted). (b) Flight deck indicators (if fitted). (c) Trimming systems. (@) Tabs and indicators. (e) Chains and cables are equally placed around sprocket wheels/pulleys. (9) Control surfaces align with trailing edge. NOTE: On some aircraft there may be upfloat or downfloat specified - check the manual. Check Cable Tensions - This may be carried out using a tensiometer (see following paragraphs) and adjusting the turnbuckles in the system. An alternative method is to read the tensions from the cable tension regulator while adjusting the turnbuckles. In this case reference must be made to the ambient temperature and a graph relating temperature to cable tension regulator reading. Visually inspect the lay of all cables that they are correct and not fouling anything. Check that all turnbuckles/adjusters are in safety. Remove all neutral setting pins/devices and re-check tensions and neutral settings. NOTE: Item 3 would not apply to a push/pull rod system - but push rod lengths may be adjusted. Carry Out Sense Check - This will require electrical and hydraulic power on a powered system. The flight deck controls are moved and a check is carried out at the control surface end to check that they move in the correct sense. Check flight deck indicators at the same time. Remember on some large aircraft the spoilers may move asymmetrically when the ailerons are moved. On other aircraft the tailplane may move in response to elevator movement. So when checking primary flying control movement do check related systems operation. Check correct sense under autopilot command (if fitted). -77-Carry out Freedom of Movement Check - In general this requires the control system to be pulled through its complete range of movement using, say, a spring balance attached to the control column/rudder pedals. The force required to operate the controls should not exceed that value laid down in the manual. If it does the system must be given a complete visual examination and the cause ascertained and rectified. If manual reversion is provided on a powered system, check the system in manual as well as in power. Check the manual on spring balance readings related to artificial feel inputs. Carry Out Range of Movement Check - In general the pilot’s controls are moved and the range of movement of the control surface is measured. It may be measured linearly using a rule or angularly using ainclinometer. If measurements are incorrect then range of movement may be altered using (usually) the primary control stops. If appropriate, check controls in power and manual and in autopilot mode, Check correct indications on the flight deck. Lock all system points where previous adjustments have been carried out. Special Checks - The manual will specify the checks to be carried out on all the equipment fitted to the controls. The aircraft may have to be configured so as to assimilate certain conditions, but checks are carried out on the following: Stick shaker. .- Stick push. Detent/disconnect systems. Artificial feel. Autopilot servo and system operation. Tab systems, trim, and Mach trim. Yaw dampers. Alternative power supplies /alternative operation. * System computer/s operation. * Flight deck indications/warnings. Carry Out a Duplicate Inspection - All the parts of a flying control system are generally classed as VITAL POINTS (as defined in BCARs section A A5-3) and if disturbed will require a duplicate inspection. Duplicate inspections are required by BCARs section A A6-2 which defines the following: -78-(a) (b) Control System - A system by which the flight path, attitude, or propulsive force of an aircraft is changed, including the flight, engine and propeller controls, the related systems controls and the associated operating mechanisms. Duplicate Inspection - An inspection first made and certified by one qualified person and subsequently made and certified by a second qualified person. NOTES NOTE: A duplicate inspection may be limited to that part of the system which has been disturbed. A duplicate inspection must be carried out as soon as possible after the first and before the aircraft flies. If the system is disturbed during or after the duplicate inspection then the part disturbed shall be subject to another duplicate set of inspections. All the work done must be recorded together with part numbers/serial numbers of components replaced. ACRS must be signed and entered/attached to the aircraft log book. EQUIPMENT TENSIOMETERS These are used for checking the tensions of cables in aircraft control systems, including engine controls. They are normally used on unregulated systems SME Type Tensiometer The SME Tensiometer is supplied in various marks to suit different sizes of cable. Each tensiometer will take two sizes of cable, the size being marked on the scale. It is important that the correct mark of tensiometer is used otherwise inaccuracies will result. -79-Fig. 82 SME TYPE TENSIOMETER Instructions for Use (a) Fit the instrument where there ig a clear run of cable. (b) Pull the pointer over to it's stop. ()__ Pass the cable under the right hand fixed pulley, then over the centre pulley then under the left hand pulley. (a) Ensure that the tensiometer hangs freely. (ce) Run the tensiometer along the cable a few inches and tap the cable until the reading settles down. The tension is indicated in lb on the appropriate scale. Check for Accuracy Before use, the position of the spring anchorage pin should be checked to sce that it has not moved outside its engraved circle. If movement has occurred the pin should be restored to its original position. The tensiometer should be checked at regular intervals by the manufacturer or at an approved standards room. = eon‘The Pacific TS Type Tensiometer This tensiometer is suitable for various sizes of cables. Fig. 83 FITTING A T5 TENSIOMETER TO A CABLE Instructions for Use (a) From the chart supplied find the correct riser to use for the size of cable. Fit the riser. (b) Check that brake is off. Move trigger away from case - this lowers the riser. () Place the cable under the sectors and over the riser. (4) Close the trigger - this raises the riser. (e) Note the reading on the gauge. (If the reading is to be held operate the brake lever). () Open the trigger and remove the tensiometer. (g) Convert the dial reading to Ib tension by reference to a calibration chart. NOTE: Each tensiometer has its own calibration chart. Make sure the calibration chart bears the same serial number as the tensiometer. -81-INCLINOMETER Can be calibrated to read to an accuracy of 1 minute (60 minutes = 1 degree) and used to measure the angular movement of the controls/ surfaces. It measures the angular movement in relation to the horizontal and therefor has a spirit level incorporated in the moveable head. For more information on the “clino" refer to the book in this series Basic Engineering. CONTROL SURFACE RIGGING BOARDS These are supplied by some aircraft manufacturers and fit onto the mainplane/tailplane/ structure and, using a scale, will indicate the range of movement of the control surface/control component. May be fitted with red warning flags to ensure their removal after use. RIGGING JIGS Often supplied to fit onto the controls in the cockpit to rig them into neutral. The jig is attached to the control column and the rudder pedals and a part of the cockpit structure. RIGGING PINS Supplied by the manufacturer to be fitted into components such as quadrants, pulleys, and idling links to lock them into the neutral position. Fitted with warning flags to ensure their removal after use. -82-