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, a branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering
(stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and
layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy includes two related subfields:
lithologic or lithostratigraphy and biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.

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WHATc
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RAPHY?c
Walking along cliffs that were cut by ocean waves or rivers have always
made humans wonder how they were formed. The time required to create
such majestic towers has created serious debate, both scientific and
religious.c

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Games Hutton wondered about the rocks from the Dorset, United Kingdom coastline

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was very difficult for scientists to "discover." It was not until the mid
18th century that Games Hutton, a Scottish geologist, realized that the Earth was
many millions of years old. This was an unimaginable idea because people in his day
believed the Earth was only a few thousand years old. Hutton tried to develop
scientific methods to determine the time required for every day geologic processes
and compare with the past. For example he tried to calculate mud accumulating in
the ocean today, to figure out h ow much time had passed since the formation of the
Earth. He used the term " 


 

" to compare the present day rock cycle
with the past rock cycle. From these comparisons you can interpret how rock layers
or
  were formed but not the length of time. You can determine which stratum is
younger or older, just by the position of the strata.

Games Hutton
Since most rocks on the surface of the Earth are sedimentary, early geologists used
them to look for answers to the age of the Earth. The birth of 
 
 has its
roots in scientists trying to determine the age of the Earth. They made simple
predictions by looking at sedimentary processes going on today.

Geologists started to realize that you can trace certain strata by comparing the fossils
that it contains. The use of fossils became an important tool to unravel the history of
the Earth.c

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Vicholas Steno, a Danish physician living in Italy in 1669 proposed that the Earth¶s
strata accumulated with three basic principles. Steno pointed out obvious, but
overlooked principles of sediment accumulation. They included the 



 


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If sediments accumulate in a large basin, the laws of gravity will deposit the beds,
horizontal to the surface of the Earth. Beds can "pinch out" along the sides of the
basin as in the figure below. c

The Principle of Superposition states that in a sequence o f sedimentary rock layers,

the bottom layers are older than the top layers. The bottom layers were deposited
first. In the figure below A is the oldest bed and G is the youngest. c

The Principal of Original Continuity states that the beds can be traced over a long
interval if the basins were open. For instance, Bed F can be traced continuously to
the smaller basin in the figure below. The other beds below F can then be correlated
to Beds A-E.

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Stratigraphy is important to understand events that happene d over time and over a
large area, However, to interpret these events you require slices of rocks through
time commonly referred to as or 

. Ships can core rock layers from the ocean
bottom. Cores would be taken at intervals that can help us correlate and interpret
how the rocks were laid down. c

In the figure of cores, each core represents a slice of the Earth. In "A," the green
shells are the oldest and the blue seastars are the youngest. You can see that as
you go from cores A to D the fauna adds snail s to the region. A 
 

would
determine what caused this sequence of events. Stratigraphers also look at the
rocks, the fossils, and other evidence to make these conclusions. c

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Interpreting how the Earth¶s sedimentary layers have formed, is difficult. Cores taken
on land and from the ocean are not only expensive to retrieve, but represent a small
percentage of the Earth¶s surface. Methods using  
   developed in the
1960's help to observe the crust¶s layers in detail  ‘ 
 
 
 is when
energy waves are used to bounce off the different layers of the Earth. These layers
provide us with data that a seismic stratigrapher can then interpret. For example, in
the seismic profile below we show the results of waves bouncing off the different
layers and then recorded on the surface of the Earth. These "wavy" images can then
be used to reconstruct the area in rock units, as shown in the interpretation of
the  
 

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These advances have allowed geologists to map more area than ever before. Prior
to these advances, only
 

 and geologists walking and recording on their
maps could be used. c
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Seismic profiles can be used to help calculate and create three -dimensional models
of the Earth¶s layers that are hidden from view. Vew advances in other methods such
as

 profiles and other  


   technologies, will allow us one
day to see what the crust looks like.c

Stratigraphy has evolved from an observational science into a high tech search for
tools to help us explore what our world looks like. All these new techniques that we
are developing will help us find resources like oil and metals. This technology can
also be used to learn about the surface of other planets. c

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Engraving from William Smith's monograph on identifying strata based on fossils

 aock layers were studied since the time of Avicenna (Ibn Sina), a Muslim
geographer who wrote Jhe Book of Healing in 1027. He was the first to outline
thelaw of superposition of strata:
"It is also possible that the sea may have happened to flow little by little over the land
consisting of both plain and mountain, and then have ebbed away from it. ... It is
possible that each time the land was exposed by the ebbing of the sea a layer was
left, since we see that some mountains appear to have been piled up layer by layer,
and it is therefore likely that the clay from which they were formed was itself at one
time arranged in layers. One layer was formed first, then at a different period, a
further was formed and piled, upon the first, and so on. Over each layer there spread
a substance of different material, which formed a partition between it and the next
layer; but when petrification took place something occurred to the partition which
caused it to break up and disintegrate from between the layers (possibly referring to
unconformity). ... As to the beginning of the sea, its clay is either sedimentary or
primeval, the latter not being sedimentary. It is probable that the sedimentary clay
was formed by the disintegration of the strata of mountains. Such is the formation of
mountains."
The theoretical basis for the subject was established by Vicholas Steno who re-
introduced the law of superposition and introduced the principle of original
horizontality and principle of lateral continuity in a 1669 work on the fossilization of
organic remains in layers of sediment.

The first practical large scale application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the
1790s and early 1800s. Smith, known as the Father of English Geology, created the
first geologic map of England, and first recognized the significance of strata or rock
layering, and the importance of fossil markers for correlating strata. Another
influential application of stratigraphy in the early 1800s was a study by Georges
Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart of the geology of the region around Paris.

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Chalk Layers in Cyprus - showing sedimentary layering

Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, is the most obvious. It deals with the
physical lithologic, or rock type, change both vertically in layering or bedding of
varying rock type and laterally reflecting changing environments of deposition, known
as facies change. Key elements of stratigraphy involve understanding how certain
geometric relationships between rock layers arise and what these geometries mean
in terms of depositional environment. One of stratigraphy's basic concepts is codified
in the Law of Superposition, which simply states that, in an undeformed stratigraphic
sequence, the oldest strata occur at the base of the sequence.
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ëhemostratigraphy is based on the changes in the relative proportions of trace
elements and isotopes within and between lithologic
units. Carbon and oxygenisotope ratios vary with time and are used to map subtle
changes in the paleoenvironment. This has led to the specialized field of isotopic
stratigraphy.

ëyclostratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes in the relative proportions

of minerals, particularly carbonates, and fossil diversity with time, related to changes
in palaeoclimates.

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Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on fossil evidence in the rock

layers. Strata from widespread locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora
are correlatable in time. Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle
of faunal succession, which predated, and was one of the first and most powerful
lines of evidence for, biological evolution. It provides strong evidence for formation
(speciation) of and the extinction of species. The geologic time scale was developed
during the 1800s based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal
succession. This timescale remained a relative scale until the development
of radiometric dating, which gave it and the stratigraphy it was based on an absolute
time framework, leading to the development of chronostratigraphy.

One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts to define a global
historical sea-level curve according to inferences from wo rld-wide stratigraphic
patterns. Stratigraphy is also commonly used to delineate the nature and extent
of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rocks, seals and traps in petroleum geology.

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Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the relative, not

absolute, age of rock strata.
Chronostratigraphy is based upon deriving geochronological data for rock units, both
directly and by inference, so that a sequence of time relative events of rocks within a
region can be derived. In essence, chronostratigraphy seeks to understand the
geologic history of rocks and regions.
The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of depos ition and
the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the
entire geologic record of the Earth.




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Magnetostratigraphy is a chronostratigraphic technique used to date sedimentary

and volcanic sequences. The method works by collecting oriented samples at
measured intervals throughout the section. The samples are analyzed to determine
their detrital remnant magnetism (DaM), that is, the polarity of Earth's magnetic field
at the time a stratum was deposited. This is possible because when very fine -grained
magnetic minerals (< 17 micrometres) fall through the water column, they orient
themselves with Earth's magnetic field. Upon burial, that orientation is preserved.
The minerals, in effect, behave like tiny compasses.

Oriented paleomagnetic core samples are collected in the field; mudstones,

siltstones, and very fine-grained sandstones are the preferred lithologies because the
magnetic grains are finer and more likely to orient with the ambient field during
deposition. If the ancient magnetic field was oriente d similar to today's field (Vorth
Magnetic Pole near the Vorth aotational Pole) the strata retain a normal polarity. If
the data indicate that the Vorth Magnetic Pole w as near the South aotational Pole,
the strata exhibit reversed polarity.
aesults of the individual samples are analysed by removing the natural remnant
magnetism(VaM) to reveal the DaM. Following statistical analysis the results are
used to generate a local magnetostratigraphic column that can then be compared
against the Global Magnetic Polarity Time Scale.
This technique is used to date sequences that gener ally lack fossils or interbedded
igneous rocks. The continuous nature of the sampling means that it is also a
powerful technique for the estimation of sediment accumulation rates.
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In the field of archaeology, soil stratigraphy is used to better understand the

processes that form and protect archaeological sites. The law of superposition holds
true, and this can help date finds or features from each context, as they can be
placed in sequence and the dates interpolated. Phases of activity can also often be
seen through stratigraphy, especially when a trench or feature is viewed
in section (profile). As pits and other features ca n be dug down into earlier levels, not
all material at the same absolute depth is necessarily of the same age, but close
attention has to be paid to the archeological layers. The Harris-matrix is a tool to
depict complex stratigraphic relations, as they are found, for example, in the contexts
of urban archaeology.

ë RREDAT

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Correlation of cores from the Earth can be easy if you match them up unit by unit.
Geologists would map an area and collect samples to confirm the units connected.
For example, in the cores to the right, "a" has brown pebbles so you can correlate
across the three cores.c

In the following exercises you are looking at cores or outcrops and trying to see
similarities. You look at similar rock types in one section and then connect it with the
appropriate area. Colo ring the units, one color helps to visually see the units easily.
In the next exercise, follow the instructions for each activity.

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The Earth is more than 4.5 billion years old. This is a very large number. One way to
understand this amount of time, is to use seconds instead of years. If you looked at a
watch, it would take a little more than 11.5 days for a million seconds to go by. Vow
remember that a billion is one thousand times one million. This means that it takes
almost 32 years for a billion seconds to go by! Even if you can¶t visualize the time,
just remember the Earth has existed for a long time. c

This picture shows the history of the Earth as if it took place in 24 hours. The creation
of the major types of animals was not until 20:0 0. Humans have only been on the
Earth for a very short period, only 30 seconds before 24:00! c
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The age of the Earth was determined by using 
   of meteorites and
moon rocks, which gives a date of 4.5 billion years old. The oldest known Earth rocks
are younger, at just more than 4 billion years in age. Older Earth rocks have been
destroyed by


 impacts, weathering, or metamorphism. c

The oldest known fossils are almost 3.8 billion years old. The oldest fossils, however,
are from very simple, single-celled forms of life. They are far removed from the
complex life forms of the present. Multi-celled organisms (our likely ancestors) did
not appear until approximately 650 million years ago. These creatures likely gave
rise to animals with hard body parts (skeletons) about 560 million years ago.
Evolution of organisms has taken place in the last quarter of Earth¶s history, which
includes the 

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Fossils from Bitter Springs Formation
in Australia, oldest fossils known
Geologic time is so different from the time that influences our lives. Geologic time
refers to long periods of time measured in millions to billions or years in the rock
record. However, geologic time can also record events that might be only a few
hours or minutes in duration, like a catastrophe. Throughout geologic time, volcanic
eruptions have caused ash to mix with snow causing an avalanche of mud. This wall
of mud can cascade over towns and bury all forms of live. This event would be
recorded in the rock. The bodies of organisms might not be there when uncovered by
future generations, but the mud that accumulated will turn into mudstone. You can
sometimes accumulate tens of meters of material in less than a day¶s work. Time is
odd, and it is the job of a geologist to unearth the truth.

Paleontologists have made a detailed record of the evolution of life through Earth¶s
history. This record is the basis for the geologic time scale and is referred to
as
  
. The geologic time scale subdivides the 4.5 billion year history of the
Earth into shorter time periods, based on changes in fossils. c

The broadest division of geologic time is the ÿ
. There are two Eons, the
PrePhanerozoic (or Precambrian) and 


 . The 


 stretches
from the formation of the Earth 4.5 billion years ago until the start of the Phanerozoic
Eon, about 560 million years ago. There are many fossils in PrePhanerozoic rocks,
but they are almost all microscopic. Phanerozoic means "visible life." The rocks o f
the Phanerozoic Eon, which covers about the last 560 million years of Earth history,
are characterized by abundant visible fossils

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The use of fossils in stratigraphy is referred to as 

 
 . It is more
accurate than absolute dating which has large margins of error. Biostratigraphers are
still refining how the fossils can be used, but its use in relative dating is powerful. c

It has been noted that species have a life span. If the species is sh ort lived and
abundant over a large area, it is called an index fossil. So if you find these fossils you
can correlate time events. Marine organisms are the best because they can be found
in large geographic environments and are deposited in many rock unit s.c

Below are some examples of index fossils. Their time range is graphically displayed
in a general manner. Biostratigraphers use much more detailed information.

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