Fluid Friction between Rotating Cylinders. I.

Torque Measurements
Author(s): G. I. Taylor
Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 157, No. 892 (Dec. 2, 1936), pp. 546-564
Published by: The Royal Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/96648
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546 G. 1. Taylor
turbulent component of velocity at the centre of a circular pipe of radius
a and that at radius r,
a
rRu'dr- 0

where u'_= /u2 and u is the component parallel to the axis at radius r.
This integral forms a useful check on the accuracy of the methods used
in measuring turbulence. It is verified in measurements made at the
National Physical Laboratory by Mr. L. F. G. Simmons.

Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders

I-Torque Measurements
By G. I. TAYLOR, F.R.S.

(Received31 August, 1936)

The stability of fluid contained between concentric rotating cylinders

lhas been investigated and it has been shown that, when only the inner
cylinder rotates, the flow becomes unstable when a certain Reynolds
number of the flow is exceeded. When the outer cylinder only is rotated,
the flow is stable so far as disturbancesof the type produced in the former
case are concerned, but provided the Reynolds number of the flow
exceeds a certain value, turbulence sets in. The object of the present
experiments was partly to measure the torque reaction between two
cylinders in the two cases in order to find the effect of centrifugal force
on the turbulence, and partly to find the critical Reynolds numbers for
the transition from stream-line to turbulent flow.
The apparatus is shown diagrammaticallyin fig. 1.*

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

The outer cylinder was made of brass turned inside and out. It
measured 8*11 cm. inside diameter by 84*4 cm. long. The centre
portion was a brass casting which contained two circular brass trap-
doors made so that, when in.place, they fitted flush with the inside surface
* This sketch merely.indicates the general nature of the measurements. More
detailis given in fig. 1, Part II.
 Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders 547
without a break. The cylinder was balanced so that it could rotate
without vibration and was then fitted centrally on a turn-table which
ran between two ball-bearing collars and rested on a ball-bearing thrust

FIG. 1-Sketch illustratingmethod employed.

block. This table could eithe.r be rotated by means of a tight belt or

held against friction when the inner cylinder was revolving by a thread
which ran over an accurately made ball-bearing pulley and was attached
to a scale pan.
The inner cylinder was supported on a single steel ball rolating on a
 548 G. I. Taylor
flat,hard,bronze end-plate,being kept in position by a plain bearing
whichwas lubricatedby greaseforcedin from below.
The innercylinderwas madeof a pile of cylindricalblocksof ebonite
threadedon a turnedsteelrod. The blockswerekeptin placeby circular
end nuts so shapedthat they clearedthe bottom and top of the inner
cylinder by about 1 mm. As the experimentsproceeded,the inner
cylinderwas turneddown so that an increasingseriesof thicknesseswere
obtainedfor the annularspacebetweenthe cylinders.
The top of the inner cylinderwas slightlyconical in shape and the
coverof the outercylinderwas similarlyshapedon its underside. A hole
was boredhorizontallythroughthe cap to the highestpointof the cone,
andthishole was sealedwith a needlevalveas soon as the overflowbegan,
while the apparatuswas being filledwith fluid. To fill the apparatus,a
long funnelwas screwedto a cock at the bottom of the outer cylinder.
It was filled with the fluid while the cock was closed and all bubbles
allowedto rise to the surface. The cock was then openedand the level
of the fluidin the funnelwas keptup till overflowstartedat the top. The
needlevalvewas thenclosedand the cock turnedoff. The innercylinder
was set rotatingto free the bubblesat intervalsduringthe fillingprocess.
The upperbearingbetweenthe two cylinderswas a greasedball race,
set betweentwo narrowdiskswhichonly just clearedthe spindle.
The upper bearing between the fixed upper support and the inner
cylinderwas a ball-bearingcarriedon a brassplate. In settingup the
apparatusthe inner cylinderwas trued up. The brass plate and ball
bearingwere slippedover the top. The upperfixed supportwas then
broughtinto positionso that a hole in it was concentricwith the top of
the innercylinder. The plate containingthe ball-bearingwas then fixed
to the upperfixed supportby means of three bolts which held it firm
againstthreeadjustablepins. In this way the whole apparatuswas set
up true so that the frictionbetweenthe cylinderswhen emptywas very
small.
A drivingbelt or torquethreadcould be fitted to the inner cylinder
in the same way as to the outer one.
To make a measurement,the inner or outer cylinderwas drivenby a
tightbelt and its speedmeasuredby timinga revolutioncounterattached
to it. The torque requiredto hold the other cylinderin position was
measuredbyputtingweightsin the scalepans (a) till the cylinderwasjust
able to move in the samedirectionas the belt drivencylinder,and (b) till
it just movedin the oppositedirection. The differenceb,etweenthe two
was due to the frictionagainstfixed supports,so that the frictiontorque
betweenthe two cylinderswas takenas the meanof (a) and (b).
 Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders 549
The torque between the cylinders is due partly to friction between the
bearings and partly to fluid friction. The torque was measured both
when the apparatus was full and when it was empty. The difference is
due to fluid friction, nearly all of which was due to the tangential stress
on the cylindrical walls, though a small fraction must have been due to
fluid friction between the top of the inner cylinder and the top of the outer
cylinder and between the bottom of the inner cylinder and the bottom of
the outer cylinder.
Fluids Used-The following fluids were used: water, pentane, aviation
spirit, and various mixtures of glycerine and water. Their viscosities
depended on the temperature, and they were determined by means of
calibrated capillary tubes for a range of temperatures.
The relevant properties at 15? C. are given in Table 1.
TABLEI
Liquid Density Viscosity M
Water .................... 1 00 0-0114 0.0114
Pentane .................. 0*634 0*0024 0*00379
Glycerine and water ........ 1*120 0 0524 0.0468
,, ............ .. 1 171 0 153 0 131
,, ............. .. 1.083 0*0263 0-0243
,13, ............ .. 1.046 0.0174 0-0167
Aviation spirit (180 C.) ...... 0-729 0 00457 0 00625

With pentane great precautions were necessary to ensure that the

apparatus was full and that there were no bubbles.

DATA
The radius of the torque pulley on the outer cylinder was 9 78 cm
The radius of the torque pulley on the inner cylinder was 5 01 cm. As an
example of the action of the apparatus the results of a set of observations
made with water are given below.
Outer cylinder diameter 8 *11 cm.
Inner cylinder diameter 7 78 cm.
W = weight of scale pan 22 5 gm.
The tension in the thread round the torque arm is
W + load in pan - P1 when the pan is just falling
- P2 when the pan is just rising.
The weight which counterbalances the torque due to fluid friction is
taken to be
P i (P1 + P2)full a (P1 + P2)empty.
550 G. I. Taylor
G -torque expressed as Pg x (radius of torque pulley in cm.).
N = number of revolutions per second.

OBSERVATIONS
Outer cylinderrotating, water
N = 16, apparatus empty P1 -- W + 20
P2 = W + 10
lP 150 gm.
N-15 6, apparatus full P1 W + 170
P2 W + 160,
G-7.38 x 105
G/pN2= 3 03 x 103 N/v = 1'45 x 103.

N 224, full P1 W + 350 } 1 330 gi.

T 17-5? C. P2 W + 360
G - 16-23 x 105
G/pN2 - 3-2 x 103, N/v 2.17 x 103.

N 11 48,empty P1 W+10
P2=W+ 0 P 80 gm.
JN-11 28, full Pi W + 90
P2 W + 80
G --394 x 105

G/pN2 3-10 x 103, N/v = 1'04 x 103.

N - 15-0 P= 145, G= 7-12 x 105, G/pN2 3-17 x 103

N/v 1'37 x 103

N- 10-78 P 75, G- 3>69 x 105, G/pN2- 3 17 x 103

N/v I100 x 103

N =- 17*65 P 190, G- 9-33 x 105, G/pN2 3'00 x 103

N/v= 162 x 10C
N = 20 55 P 280, G - 13-7 x 105, G/pN2- 325 x 103

N/v- 196 x 103

N- 22 8 P-355, G - 17 5 x 105, G/pN2-3 36X 103

N/v = 2*23 x 103
 Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders 551
Jnnercylinderrotating,water
fNz 20, empty P1 O + 30
: 2=O+ iP 245+ W -15 253 gm.
N 21 K 1, full P1 W + 260
P2 W + 230
G -253 x 981 x 9'78 24*3 x 105
G/pN2= 5-45= 103, N/v7 192 x 103.
N= 17-58 P 185, G
17 8 x 101,G/pN2- 5.75 x 103
N/v 1-58 x 103
N= 24.4 P-323, G-31*0 x 103, G/pN2= 5.21 x 103
N/v -722 x 103
N 29*7 P -478, G 45*9 x 103, G/pN2= 5.21 x 103
N/v 2*7 x 103

Innercylinderrotating

Ciical valtue
1forinstability

3-0
1.0 i-5 2.0 z-5 -5
3.0~~~~~~~~~~~0
3 4-0 4-5
*
Log Np/,u
FIG. 2-R1 = 4 05, R2 = 3-94. Upper curve, inner cylinder rotating. Lower
curve, outer cylinder rotating. Full line, calculated critical line for inner cylinder
rotating. + v= 0131; 0 v=0-047; x v=0-024; EG v=0011; <
v = 0-0038.

COMPLETE
RESULTS
In representingthe results,it must be rememberedthat the theoryof
Dynamical Similaritydemandsthat for any given pair of diameters
 552 G. I. Taylor
5.C
Critical
value
L \> forinstability
4S.5

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T

4-0

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

3-5 N 'SP

10 15 Z5
2.0 30 345
Log Np/v
FIG. 3-R1= 4 05, R2= 3-89. + v==0131; V= 0-047; x v 0 024;
El V= 0-011; ? v= 0 0062; Av>V= 00038.

Criticalvalue
forinstability

0-

40
0

3r5

.0
3*0~~~

3C0
jo0 1-5 2-0 2-5 3- 1354-
Log Np/p
FIG. 4-R1= 4 05, R2= 3 83. + V 0K131; 0( V = 0 047; x V
0v==024;
v-=O0 11;I<3 V= 0 0038.
 FluidFrictionBetweenRotatingCylinders 553

l_
4~ 35 l_l_l_ _ _ _ _
+5~~~~~~~~~0

3o00 1-5 20 25- 350 3*5 4*0

Log Np/p
FIG. 5-R1-4-05; R2=-374. (9 v=0047; XV 0024; El V-0-011;
v = 00038.

40

XX
'C
3.0

1.0 1o5 20 Z.5 3-0 3S 4 0

Log Np/p
FIG. 6-R1= 4 05, R2-3-68. vv=0-047; x v =0024; L vO-O11;
<S>v = 0-0038.
554 G. 1. Taylor
4-5 \

4C0

0~~~~~~~~~~
3.0~~~~~~~~
xx

'0 15 2*0 25 3-0 3-5 40

Log Np/v
FIG. 7-R1 = 4 05, R2=3359. + v=-O131; (i) v=0047; x v=0024;
v O0011; <g>v- 00038.

30 ___X L____

4-0

3.5
+

3.0
0o

-.0 1.5 20o 3-0 354

Log Np/vt
FIG. 8-R1=4'05, R2 3-45. +V v =0K131; 0D v =0-047; x v 0-024;
Fv = 0'011; <~ v= 0-0038.
 Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders 555
G/pN2 must be a function of N/v. In each case, therefore, these two
quantities were calculated. In figs. 2-9 all the results are represented
on diagrams giving log1o(G/pN2) and log1o(N/v). A separate curve is
given for each diameter of the inner cylinder, namely 7 89, 7 78, 7 66,
7 48, 7 36, 7 18, 6 91, 6 40 cm. The outer one is the same for all,
namely, 8 11 cm. The points for both types of measurement, inner

40 i.

40

3-5

3-0~~~~~~~~~

2*5

Lowerlimit of- S- Upperlimit of

turbulence I steady flow

1.0 1t5 20 25 30 35 4.0

Log Np/,.
FIG. 9-R=4 05, R2= 3-20. + v= 0 131; Q V 0 047; x V= 0-024;
El v = 0 *011; V 0 0062; v = 00038;
0 A glycerineandwater,p = 1 046,
v = 0-017.

cylinder rotating and outer cylinder rotating, are given on the same figure.
The points corresponding with the former case are always above those
correspondingwith the latter except for the lowest values of N/v. When
there is any possibility of confusion the points are distinguished on the
diagram.
In order to see the effect of rotation on the turbulence, the theoretical
value of G for steady motion was calculated in each case. Since in that
case G is proportional to N, G/pN2 is proportional to 1/N, so that with
556 G. I. Taylor
the logarithmic coordinates of figs. 2-9 this theoretical curve is always a
straight line at -45? to the horizontal axis. The calculated value for G
is
G 27r2D12D22lIN
(D1 + D2) (D1-D2)
where D1 is the diameter of the outer cylinder, namely 8-11 cm., D2 is
the diameter of the inner cylinder, I is the length, namely 84 2 cm.
(1) may be written in the form
log (G/pN2) - log (N/v) log (27r2lD12)
+ log D2 -log (D1 + D2)- log (2t) =- C, (2)
where t = +- (D1 - D2) is the thickness of the annular space between the
two cylindersand C representsthe right-handside of (2).
Table II gives the values of C for the values of D2 used in the course of
the work
TABLEII
D2,Cm. 7-89 7.78 7-66 7.48 7-36 7X18 6 91 6 40
C* ....... 6X286 6X10 5-956 5.794 5.708 5.598 5*462 5.256
t(cm.) .... 0 110 0-165 0-225 0 315 0.375 0 465 0 600 0 855
log(t/Rl) ...2433 2 609 2 744 2 890 2 966 1f059 -1X70 1X324
t/R ....... 0-0271 0-0407 0-0555 0 0776 0 0924 0'1146 0-1480 0 210
Number in
fig.10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
* See equation(2).
Inner cylinder used for velocity distribution measurement (see Part II), t/Rj = 0-226.

OF TURBULENCE
CRITERION
1-Outer CylinderRotating-In all the results given in figs. 2-9 it will
be seen that for low values of N/v the observed values of G/pN2 are close
to those calculated on the assumption that the flow is steady. At a
value of N/v which depends on the ratio of the radii of the cylinders,the
observed values of G/pN2 begin to leave the straight'line which represents
the conditions in stream line motion. The value of N/v at which this
takes place is taken to be the critical value at which turbulence sets in.
In the neighbourhood of this point the flow can be either steady or tur-
bulent. In general there is a lower critical point below which the flow is
in all cases steady, and an upper critical point above which the flow is
always turbulent. At intermediate points the flow is usually stable if
the rotation of the outer cylinder is steadily increased through the lower
 Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders 557
criticalpoint, but a slightdisturbance,such as that producedby a slight
rotation of the inner cylinderin the opposite directionto that of the
outer one, will makethe flow permanentlyturbulent.
As an exampleof the limits found in this way, experimentswith the
innercylinder6 40 cm. diametermay be cited. The fluid used was a
mixtureof glycerineand water of density 1 046. The relevantobserva-
tions are given below:

ApparatusEmpty
P- - 10
N = 21 {p 8 mean 9 gm.

ApparatusFull
Speedincreasedgradually pi W + 1} P = 22' + 71-9 = 21 gm.

Speedincreasedgradually4p1 = W + 10 P 22gm.
N - 21 0 P2- W+ 7
After turninginner cylin- Pj W1-+25
der backwardsto start P2 W+0P 36 gm.
turbulence, N 210 = W + 20

The points correspondingwith these observationsare marked with

points A in fig. 9. The value of log Ut/v correspondingwith N 21 .0
rev. per sec. is markedat D in fig. 11. It will be seen that it is in the
middleof the rangebetweenthe points A and B.
The criticalrangein whichturbulentand steadyflowwereboth possible
could not alwaysbe determinedfrom the torquemeasurements.A pair
of glass windowswas thereforefitted to replacethe brass windowsin
the outer cylinder. The inner surfaceof the glass was ground to the
same radiusas the inside of the outer cylinderand was fitted flush, so
that there was no obstructionto the flow. The steel axle of the inner
cylinderhad a hole down the centreso that a thin film of colouredfluid
could be spreadover the innercylinder.* The upperand lower criteria
found in this way with the smallestinner cylinder(6 -40 cm. diameter)
are shownin fig. 9, and are markedin fig. 11 by the pointsA and B.
* This method is describedin " Stabilityof a Viscous Liquid ContainedBetween
Two Rotating Cylinders,"' Phil. Trans.,'A, vol. 223, p. 289 (1923).
558 G. I. Taylor
2-Inner CylinderRotating-The stability of the flow when the inner
cylinderis rotating was discussed by the present writer* some years ago,
and it was shown that when the speed of rotation is gradually increased
instability sets in as soon as the calculated criterion of instability is
reached.
This criterion is
P =0 .0571(1 - 0 652 R)+ 0 00056(1 - 0 652 R ) (3)
where
- r4v2(Rl + R2) (4)
(4
2Q2t3R 2

and t is the thickness of annulus.

When t/R2 is small, P 0 0571 and R1 ?- R2 may be taken as 2R, so
that (4) may be written approximately
0-0571 74(5)
(U2t2) t(
or
log t/Rj + 2 log Ut/v = 4 log c - log 0 0571 - 3 232, (6)
where
U QR = 27NR1 (7)

is the velocity of the outer cylinder relative to the inner one and N is the
number of revolutions per second. Another expression equivalent to
(6) is
I log R1 3
[log (N/ v)]crit-0- 818 - - log t, (8)

and when R, = 4 055 this becomes

[log N/v]crit 0 *514 -
O log t. (9)

In most cases the lowest speeds of rotation were above the critical speed,
but in the cases D1 --- 7 89 and R1 = 7 78 cm. the critical value of N/v
falls within the range of observations. Values for [log (N/ v)],rIt given
by (9) are:
TABLEIII
D, t [log N/v] rit
7.89 O11 1 95
7.78 0165 1*68

* Loc. cit., p. 318, equation (7.11). In the present paper R1 is the outer cylinder
and R2 the inner, whereas in the paper here referred to RI was the inner cylinder and
R2 the outer cylinder.
 FluidFrictionBetweenRotatingCylinders 559
These values are marked by broken lines in figs. 2 and 3. It will be
seen that they correspond with the points where the observedpoints leave
the calculated curves for steady motion.

EFFECT OF ROTATION ON TURBULENT STRESSES

The effect of rotation on the Reynolds stress which causes the torque
between the cylinders can be seen by comparing the values of G/pN2 at
the same value of N/v (a) when the inner cylinder is revolving, and (b)
when the outer cylinder revolves. Up to the critical value in case (a)
the torque in the two cases is identical for a given speed of rotation (see
fig. 2). Above that the torque becomes greaterin (a) than in (b). Above
the critical speed in case (b) the ratio of the torques in (a) and (b) may
decrease, though that in (a) still remains greater than that in (b). The
ratio G (case a)/G (case b) may be taken to represent the effect of rota-
tion on the Reynolds stress in turbulent motion.
To comparethe effectsof rotations for various thicknessesof the annulus,
the results have been plotted in fig. 10 so as to show log r/pU2 as a func-
tion of log Ut/v for each value of t/R1. Here X is the tangential stress on
the outer cylinder, and U 2irNR1 as before. In fig. 10 the curves are
traced directly from figs. 2-9, and in each case the origin shifted by the
amount necessary to make the curves represent r/pU2 and Ut/v instead
of G/pN2 and N/v. The correspondencebetween the data given in Table
II and the numbers of the curves in fig. 10 is given at the foot of Table II.
The full lines represent observations taken with the inner cylinder
rotating. The dotted lines with the outer cylinder rotating. It will be
seen that the full lines are close together, whereas the dotted lines show a
rapidly decreasing friction as t/Rj increases. It seems, therefore, that
rotation does not very greatly affect the Reynolds stresses when the inner
cylinder rotates, but has a large effect when the outer cylinder rotates.
The former of these effects might have been expected because it has
been shown that when t/R=0 049 and the inner cylinder rotates, the
distribution of velocity is such that over 83% of the thickness of the
annulus Ur is constant.* In that region, therefore,the effect of rotation is
likely to be small. The effect of decreasing t/Rj might be expected to
reduce the proportion of the whole volume of the annulus in which
Ur constant without affecting very greatly the transition layers close
to the surfaces of the cylinders.
* " Distribution of Velocity and Temperature Between Concentric Cylinders,"
' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' A, vol. 151, p. 494 (1935).

VOL. CLVII.-A.
560 G. 1. Taylor

Ln

~~~ LA~~~~L

4-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

7/~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

U) 0 Ln~~~~~~I II )I

FIG. 10-Results compared in non-dimensional form.

 FluidFrictionBetweenRotatingCylinders 561

The distributionof velocitywhen the outercylinderrotateswill form

the subjectof the secondpart of this paper. It seemsthat the distribu-
tion is then of a typewhichmightbe expectedto be greatlyinfluencedby
rotation.
E
50 .~ E

4-5 Xn

*B

4'0

(b)Outercylinder
rotating

3.0

(a) Innercylind Calculated

rotating

Experimental

-3-5 -3X0 -2-5 -2-0 -1.5 -10 -0 5

Log (t/Rl)
FIG. 11-Critical speeds.

EFFECT
OF ROTATION
ON CRITICAL
SPEEDS
The observed upper and lower critical speeds for the case when the
outer cylinder is revolving are shown in fig. 11. The ordinates represent
the criticalvalues of log (tU/v) or log (tQR1/v). The upperand lower critical
values are shown joined by a line to representthe range of states at which
the change from steady to turbulent flow can take place. The abscissae
are log (t/R1).
The calculated critical speeds (see equation (9) ) when the inner cylinder

2P 2
562 G. I. Taylor
is revolving are also shown, and an experimentalpoint in one case, namely
when R2- 8-11, R1 -- 7 89, t 0.11.

COMPARISON
WITHCOUETTE'S ON THECRITICAL
OBSERVATIONS
SPEED
The smallest ratio t/R1 used in the experiments here described was
0 0271. The experiments were not carried to a lower value because it
was thought that if t were less than 1 mm. difficultywould be experienced
in securing accuracy and uniformity in the thickness of the annulus and
at the same time preserving sufficient freedom from non-fluid friction
between the cylinders. The apparatus of Couette* had a larger radius
and less length than mine. This is permissible when small values of
t/R1 are being used, and Couette's value of t/R1 was only 0 01685. His
experiments were designed primarily to measure viscosity, but he mea-
sured the critical speed of the outer cylinder when turbulence set in. He
found it to be N' 55 69 rev. per minute at a temperatureof 16. 3 C.
Taking p= 0 01108 at this temperature, t 0 2465 cm. R2
14 639 cm., [log (Ut) /v]crit 3 28, and log (t/R1) - 1 77.
The point corresponding with Couette's experiments is shown in
fig. 11. It will be seen that it fits in well with the present results.

TO CASEOF Two PARALLEL

EXTRAPOLATION PLATES
The limiting critical value tU/v when t/R1 is very small, must be that
corresponding with the case of two parallel planes distant t apart and
moving tangentially with relative velocity U. In fact, the critical values
for the two cases shown in fig. 11 must ultimately coincide for large
negative values of log t/R1. If we consider the course of the upper
curve (b), fig. 11, it will be seen that it descends rapidly till about
log t/R1 = - 1 .3. At that point it flattens out, gradually descending.
This flat part of the curve (from Couette's log t/R1 = -- 1 77 to
log t/R1 = - 1 3) indicates that the critical value of log Ut/v for parallel
plates must be less than 3 28, i.e., [Ut/ v]crit < 2000. On the other hand,
it hardly seems likely that the effect of a very minute curvaturein the flow
will be felt, so that it is unlikely that the critical value of Ut/v will fall
very far below 2000.
Now consider the lower curve (a), fig. 11. It seems that steady motion
will break down into cellular vorticest as soon as Ut/v exceeds the values
on the line (a). If, however, this line is produced till it cuts the pro-
* 'Ann. chim. (Phys.),' vol. 21, p. 433 (1890).
t Loc. cit., p. 327.
 Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders 563
longation of (b) it seems certain that the line will no longer represent the
critical condition for values of Ut/v which are lower still. In fact, tur-
bulence due to another cause, the cause which causes turbulence in
case (b), must now set in before tU/v has risen to the value necessary for
the cellular vortices. Since the curve (b) is descending slowly towards
the rising line (a) their point of intersection* must fall in the limited range
between the points X1 and X2 where the line (a) cuts (1) the prolongation
of (b) produced as a straight line with the same slope that it had in the
lowest part of the observed range of t/R1; (2) a horizontal line through
the lowest observed point on (b), namely log (Ut/v) 3 28. In this
way X1 corresponds with t/R1 0 001, and X2 corresponds with
t/R1 '000045.
It appears,therefore,that in order that curvaturemay have no effect on
the critical Reynolds number of the flow between concentric rotating
cylinders, t/R1 must be less than 1/1000.
The corresponding limits to the critical value of Ut/v for flat parallel
plates are, for X1, tU/v 1260; for X2, tU/v = 2000.

COMPARISONWITH COUETTE'STORQUE MEASUREMENTS

In Couette's apparatusthe outer cylinder rotated and the inner cylinder
was held in position by a load P. Couette measured the number of
revolutions N' per minute so that N' 60N. Some of his observations,
for values of N' above the critical value, are given in columns 1 and 2 of
Table IV.
TABLE IV
N' P/N' log (T/pU2) log (Ut/v)
56-08 0.3067 4-916 3*297
71-56 0.4704 4.996 3.398
107.9 0-6883 4 993 3.581
249.7 1 327 4.903 3.929
453 3 2.111 4.846 4.192

Using the dimensions of Couette's apparatus, I find that

log (</pU2) = log (P/N') -log N' + 1 *1777 }

log (Ut/v) log N' - log v + I *5773

The values of </pU2 and Ut/v calculated from (10) are given in columns
3 and 4 of Table IV and are marked in fig. 10. It will be seen that they
compare very well with the present results for larger values of t/R1.
* Loc. cit., p. 327.
564 Fluid Friction Between Rotating Cylinders

STRESS CALCULATEDFROM VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

In Part II of this paper the distribution of velocity is given when the

outer cylinder rotates and the inner cylinder has a diameter of 6 27 cm.,
the outer one being 8 11 cm., so that t/R1 0 227. The tangential
stress at the outer surface was calculated from the velocity measurements
and the results shown in fig. 10. It will be seen that the stress is very
low, being rather lower than the lowest stress observed directly
with the slightly larger inner cylinder 6 40 cm. diameter. This might
have been expected because the direct measurementsare necessarily too
high owing to the fact that the fluid friction on the ends of the inner
cylinder was not allowed for. On the other hand, the friction deduced
from velocity distribution measurements taken near the middle of the
cylinders is likely to give too low a result. It seems, therefore, that the
true values </pU2 for the values of t/R1 less than 0 227 are not likely to
be very much in error.

SUMMARY

The torque between concentric rotating cylinders was measured in two

cases, (a) inner cylinder rotating, outer cylinder fixed, (b) inner cylinder
fixed, outer cylinder rotating.
It was found, as was to be expected, that the critical speed at which
turbulence begins is very much lower in case (a) than in case (b). The
difference between the critical speeds in the two cases becomes rapidly
greater as t/R1 increases, t being the difference between the radii, and R1
the radius of the outer cylinder. When t/R1 0 38 the ratio of the
critical speeds in the two cases exceeds 1000, when t/R1 0 1 it is about
50, when t/R1 0 017 it is 6. It appears that t/R1 must be less than
0 00I before the effect of rotation on the critical speed disappears.
When the flow is turbulent the effect of rotation on the torque is small
in case (a) but large in case (b).