Licence By Post "Te saps in is ook ean ich finger, Not sutuble for small clr, Care when handling Licence By Post © Copyright B1 11.5.1 ISSUE 112-_ AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study /training purposes onl When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With special thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE BAE SYSTEMS SMITHS INDUSTRIES for permission to reproduce drawings.CONTENTS Chapter 1 Miscellaneous Instrument Systems Direct Reading Instruments Moving Coil Instruments Ratiometers The Desynn System Synchros The Wheatstone Bridge Dead Weight Tester Chapter 2 Pitot Static Systems Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Machmeter Systems & Maintenance Chapter 3 Gyroscopic Instruments Gyro Principles Properties Artificial Horizon Rate Gyros ‘Tum and Slip Indicators Direction Indicator (Compass) Chapter 4 Compass Systems The Earth’s Magnetic Field Magnetic Variation Direct Reading Compass Remote Reading Compass Compass Compensation Chapter 5 ADI and HIS Attitude Direction Indicator Horizontal Situation Indicator Checking Instruments - General Chapter 6 AoA Probes and Stall Warning Answers to SAQs and Activity Page mune 14 16 17 19 20 20 26 28 30 34 50 50 Sl 57 59 63 67 67 68 68 69 al 73 73 76 78 81 84HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK ‘The instrumentation in this book is that associated with the airframe and its systems. When dealing with systems instrumentation you should cross refer to the appropriate book on those systems, eg Hydraulic Systems etc. For engine instruments and other ‘avionic” instrument systems you are advised to read the books in this series entitled Engine Instruments module 15, Digital Systems module 5 and Avionic Systems module 11, however this book deals with module 11.5.1 in its entirety. ‘There is a chapter on Angle of Attack indication/Stall Warning. It is included in this book because it is in this section of the JAR syllabus. The book is divided into chapters and at intervals there are self-assessment questions the answers to which are at the back of the book. When dealing with Pitot static instruments it might be a good idea to refer to the module dealing with Basic Aerodynamics and also the book in this module entitled High Speed Flight. Objectives After studying this book you should be able to: * Demonstrate the difference between remote and direct reading instruments and describe their operation. * Explain the operation of moving coil instruments and de and ac ratiometers. Describe the operation of a desynn and synchro system. Describe how a dead weight tester is used. Explain the principle of operation of a Wheatstone bridge. Define the term’s Pitot and static pressure. Explain the principles and operation of Pitot static instruments and systems. Define the terms rigidity and precession with respect to gyros. Explain real and apparent wander. Explain the operation of gyroscopic instruments. Define the terms variation and deviation. Explain basic and slaved compasses. Explain the details of both the ADI and HSI. Describe the maintenance (and any precautions) associated with all the above systems. + Explain the operation of an AoA indication and stall warning system.Chapter 1 MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS Aircraft instrumentation can be divided into two categories: * Those instruments that the flight crew use to let them know the aircraft attitude and let them know where they are in relation to the ground at any particular point in time. Airspeed indicators, Machmetres, attitude reference systems, turn indicators, slip indicators and the like. Sometimes called Primary Instruments. * Those instruments sometimes referred to as Secondary Instruments that allow the flight crew to monitor the aircraft systems - engines, cabin conditioning, electrical supplies, hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems etc. During this part of the book we shall take a look at instrument systems that can be used to transduce parameters such as pressure, temperature and position - flap etc. ‘The principles on which they work are common - irrespective of the actual system to which they are fitted. These instruments include Direct Reading instruments, Moving Coil instruments, Ratiometers, Desynn systems, Synchros and the like. All instrument systems can be divided into Direct Reading and Remote Reading systems. * Direct reading are those that show information on a gauge which is connected directly to the system without any provision for transducing the measured signal to an electrical /electronic signal. * Remote reading is where the parameter to be measured (pressure, temperature, rpm, position etc) is transduced (changed) into an electrical/electronic/light signal. This signal is then transmitted to an indicator. Where each is used, depends on the design and age of the aircraft. Direct reading flight deck instruments are fitted to older aircraft; are less expensive but have drawbacks such as the safety implications of running high pressure pipelines containing flammable liquids (fuel and hydraulic fluid) up to the flight deck for pressure measurement in Bourdon tube type pressure gauges. These systems can also be heavy due to the length of pipe work used.TRANSDUCER TRANSMISSION LINE INDICATOR 2 (electrical, electronic, ight) i Z PARAMETER TO BE MEASURED (rpm, pressure, temperature, flow rate position, current, voltage etc) Fig. 1 REMOTE READING SYSTEM Remote reading instruments are much more common and these can use similar transducer principles to direct reading systems but use a safer, lighter method of data transmission. ‘The electrical /electronic transmission system for flight deck instrument is currently the preferred choice but light systems are starting to be used as they are less prone to suffer from atmospheric electrical disturbances. Direct reading systems are still in use on older aircraft and are also fitted to newer aircraft for maintenance purposes. DIRECT READING INSTRUMENTS ‘The parameters that use direct reading instruments are confined pressure, position and rpm. Engine rpm is covered in the Engine books in this series so here we shall consider pressure and position. The Bourdon Tube Possibly the most common of all the direct reading instruments, and also used in the remote reading systems as a pressure transducer. The Bourdon tube itself is of oval cross-section and is usually curved in the shape of a letter C. In some engine oil pressure transducers, however, the shape is similar to a letter S. Fig. 2 CROSS SECTION OF BOURDON TUBE ‘The Bourdon tube is closed at one end and the other end is connected to the pressure supply of the system. As this pressure increases the tube tries to straighten by the action of the oval cross section trying to change to a round cross section. -2-This action puts tension in the outer circumference wall of the tube and compression in the inner ~ thus straightening occurs, though the actual amount is just a few millimetres. When the pressure is removed the natural elasticity of the metal tube will cause it to return to its original shape and the pointer will return to zero. The closed end of the tube is connected to a pointer via a quadrant gear and pinion and the pointer gives a reading on a calibrated scale. 7 GRCIMEERENCE ‘connecrion ro PORTER MECHAM (NNER CIRCUMFERENCE Fig. 3 BOURDON TUBE TYPE GAUGE ‘The connection from the pressure line to the instrument usually contains ~ restrictor to prevent surge pressures damaging the tube. Fairly accurate for measuring high-pressures, such as hydraulic and engine oil pressures but not so accurate at the lower pressures. Lower pressure direct reading instruments would use a capsule method instead - much like the airspeed indicator that we shall see later. One of the problems associated with direct reading pressure gauge systems it that a long length of pipeline is required from the system (usually near or on the engines, or in the centre section of the aircraft) to the flightdeck. This not only represents a weight penalty but also increases the length of pipe-work with a subsequent higher leak risk. Should a leak occur in this line then there is the possibility of the whole system loosing fluid with subsequent system failure. To prevent this a “pressure transfer” system may be used.This gauging system may have a bellows type transducer or a pressure transfer valve fitted close to the main system with a pipeline running the whole length to the flight deck where a Bourdon tube type gauge is fitted. This system is a closed system with fluid pressure transfer only passing between the main system and the gauge system. Should a leak occur in the gauging system then no fluid will be lost from the main system. BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE, BELLOWS OR PRESSURE MAIN TYPE GAUGE ‘TRANSFER TRANSFER UNIT SYSTEM \ BV Fig. 4. PRESSURE TRANSFER SYSTEM ‘The pressure transfer valve, which is more common, employs a sliding piston with suitable seals within a cylinder. Pressure from the main system moves the piston to transfer the pressure, but if a leak on the gauge side of the transfer valve should occur the piston will move to the end of its travel and no fluid will pass through. SEALS GAUGE SIDE CYLINDER PISTON ‘SYSTEM SIDE \ ft ZL Fig. 5 PRESSURE TRANSFER VALVE Provision is made to allow for bleeding of the system. A special clamp (with a warning flag attached) is placed around the cylinder that deforms the walls of the cylinder just sufficiently to clamp the piston in position [the unit is about 1” (25mm) in diameter]. Fluid under pressure is pasted through special ports in the piston. After bleeding the clamp is removed and the system tested for correct pressure indication. Pressure transfer systems are not common. ‘The bellows type of instrument is more sensitive to the lower pressures and is used extensively in Pitot static instruments. Pressure acting on the thin walled capsule causes it to deform causing the mechanical linkage to move and thus moving the pointer against the fixed scale. When the pressure is removed the natural springiness of the metal capsule causes it to regain is shape and the pointer returns to zero.Fig. 6 CAPSULE OPERATED INSTRUMENT Mechanical Positional Indication Early flying control systems used to use a mechanical feedback system to allow the flight crew to see where the flying controls were positioned. Other examples include flap and undercarriage systems. In both these system a selection by the crew resulted {through control cable movement) ina selector valve being moved. This would port hydraulic fluid to jacks or actuators and cause the system to move. As the (flap) moved this would move an extra set of control cables that went back to the flight deck to back off the signal (negative feed-back) and provide the crew with visual indication of position. Used on older aircraft. Direct reading systems are often fitted to landing gear systems of modern aircraft as emergency indication of landing gear position - indicators in the wings for example which can be viewed by the aircrew through the passenger windows - should other indicators fail. REMOTE INDICATING SYSTEMS The Moving Coil Instrument (figures 7, 8, 9 & 10) If a coil carrying current is placed in the field of a permanent horseshoe magnet, the magnetic field due to the current interacts with the permanent magnet field in such a way that the coil turns. When conventional de current flows in a wire and the wire is going into the page away from the reader, current flow direction is indicated by the symbols © and © . © represents the current flowing towards the reader (ike the point of an arrow coming towards you) and the symbol © represents the current flowing away from the reader (like the flights of a departing arrow).a PL LINES at current a going towards @. @ fate Fender conoucror page Fig. 7 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR When current flows in a wire a magnetic field is set up around the wire. For a dc current flowing away from the reader the direction of the magnetic field is clockwise (the corkscrew rule) and for a current flowing towards the reader the field direction is anti clock-wise. FLUX LINES Tbe ES RESULTANT FORCE ON CONDUCTOR Fig. 8 FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR Magnetic lines of force flowing between the poles of a magnet are said to flow from north to south. If the lines of force, called flux lines, meet other flux lines moving in the same direction then they are strengthened. If they meet flux lines moving in the opposite direction then they tend to cancel each other and become weaker (figure 8). The flux lines tend to behave as if they are elastic. They try to straighten and will exert a force on the copper conductor (as shown). If the conductor is wound in such a way as to form a loop within the permanent magnet field then when current flows, the loop will try to tum. (figure 9). PIVOT LINE (7 wxnecrz0n oF no7nt108 conpuctor \ FLUX LINESIn the moving coil instrument the loop is repeated many times to form a coil, It is wound on a former with a soft iron core which is hinged and connected to a pointer. The coil is connected to a de supply and the turning torque of the assembly is resisted by the hair-springs (figure 10). (COUL VOUND OM FORMER SOFT TRON CORE Fig. 10 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT ‘The drawing shows the construction of a basic moving coil meter. When the meter is connected to a supply, current flows through the hair-springs to the coil and the coil turns in a direction dependent upon the direction of current through it. Thus to get the pointer to move over the scale the meter must be connected the right way round in the circuit. ‘As the coil turns, moving the pointer over the scale, the hair-springs tighten and oppose the movement. When the deflecting force due to the current in the coil is exactly balanced by the controlling force of the hair-springs, the pointer remains steady at this reading. An increase in current increases the deflecting force and the pointer moves further over the scale before it is balanced by the controlling force. ‘The coil is wound on an aluminium frame which rotates with the coil. This frame, moving in a magnetic field, has voltages induced in it and the resulting eddy currents produce a force tending to oppose the motion producing them. This gives a damping force to the meter and the pointer takes up its final position quickly without oscillation.The instrument in the flight deck would be connected to a variable resistor type transducer fitted to the equipment to be monitored, eg a pressure indicator system on a hydraulic/oil system would have a transducer made up of a variable resistor connected to a pressure operated bellows or Bourdon tube. This would send a de supply proportional to the pressure. The system could be used for positional indication and quantity indication using a float. DC Ratiometer (figures 11, 12 & 13) A Ratiometer - whether ac or de - works on the principle that two coils are supplied with current. They are both fitted to the same shaft but oppose each other so the stronger one prevails. As the assembly rotates (usually no more than about 90°) so the stronger coil becomes weaker and the weak coil becomes stronger. When their strengths match the unit stops. The principle can be used for transmitting temperature, pressure and positional data. Figure 11 shows a system for the indication of pressure and figure 12 shows the basic layout of the instrument. A permanent U shaped magnet has a pivoted coil assembly within it with two coils 'A' and 'B’ wound as shown. ‘FRANSDUCER Iusmunewr [|__ 28 va.e. = soppy VARIABLE RESISTOR (noves up with an Gnerease in pressure) * PRESSURE. Fig. 11 DC RATIOMETER SYSTEM - PRESSURE INDICATION The gap between the core and the magnet is narrowest at the centre, increasing towards the tips. The strongest magnetic field is at the centre of the magnetic poles, and it is also more effective as the magnet flux lines are at right angles to the line of travel of the wires in the coil.At ‘top dead centre’ and ‘bottom dead centre’ the direction of the magnet flux lines is in line with the direction of travel of the wires in the coil and have no turning effect on the coil). The coils, wound onto the core in opposite directions, result in opposing torque's being produced when an electrical current flows in them. When the current in both coils is the same, the torque's are equal and the pointer attached to the core assembly will read zero, If the current in one coil is increased then the torque’s will be unequal and the pointer will move in the direction of the highest torque coil. PERMANENT MAGNET ‘TORQUE DUE 70 con a ‘TORQUE DUE TO corn 8 Fig. 12 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF INDICATOR Movement of the core and pointer due to the unbalanced torque’s will move the coils in the magnetic ‘ield, the stronge: coil moving so .nat its gap increases and it moves into and area where the effectiveness of the flux lines is less. The weaker coil moves to reduce its gap and moves into an area where the flux lines are more effective. The effect of this is that the stronger coil is getting weaker and the weak coil is getting stronger - this will continue (for a fraction of a second) until the opposing torque's balance, the assembly stops and the pointer will indicate the new condition. For example, if the pressure increases (figure 11), then the resistance values change in such a way that more current flows in coil A than coil B. Coil A has the greater torque and turns the instrument clockwise (against the torque of coil B). But as the instrument moves so coil A is moving into an area of weaker magnetic flux (therefore its torque is reducing), and coil B is moving into an area of stronger magnetic flux - increasing its torque. When the two torque's are equal the instrument stops moving.2m de SUPPLY Fig. 13 TEMPERATURE INDICATION USING A DC RAIOMTER Its reaction time is quick. The instrument moves at the same speed as the transducer. In case of supply failure a weak spring is fitted in the instrument to pull the pointer off-scale. Figure 13 shows the system as used for transducing temperature. The temperature sensor changes its resistance with temperature change so changing the ratio of currents to the coils. AC Ratiometer (figure 14) The transducer is supplied with an ac supply ~ in this case 26V 400Hz. It has two coils and two soft iron cores. The cores are moved against a spring by a pressure operated capsule stack. The current supply is divided between the two coils depending on their impedance. (impedance is the total resistance in a coil carrying an ac supply. It is measured in ohms and is the total resistance in an ac circuit.) The impedance of a coil is increased when the soft iron core is moved into the coil (it causes a greater rate of flux line cutting). This increased impedance reduces the current in that coil. If the core is removed from a coil then its impedance drops and its current rises. ‘The indicator consists of two shaded pole motors (cam discs and coils) mounted on the same shaft with a pointer. Each motor is wound in such a way that its turning effect is opposite to the other. oesor TRON con ™~ in . on . . Fig. 14 AC RATIOMETER SCHEMATIC When a current supply is sent to the two motors the most powerful one dominates and this will cause the complete assembly to rotate (no more than about 90°) in its direction. In so doing, however, less of the cam disc is affected by the motor and its torque decreases. The less powerful motor, however, is having more disc area placed underneath it and therefore its torque is increasing (in opposition to the most powerful motor). When their torque's balance the discs, shaft and pointer come to rest. ‘A weak spring is fitted so that in the event of power failure the pointer is pulled off-scale. Operation As pressure increases so the impedance of coil A is increases while that of coil B is reduced. Therefore more current flows in coil B. Shaded pole motor B has more current than A and discs and pointer are rotated clockwise. Motor A tries to rotate the assembly anti clockwise but has insufficient power. As the discs rotate so the torque of motor B decreases while that of A increases. When the torque's are the same the discs and pointer come to rest. eeOne advantage of the ratiometer type system (ac or dc) over the moving coil is that if the supply voltage varies for any reason the instrument is un- affected as any change affects both arms of the system equally. UL TEMPERATURE INDICATION ‘The temperature probe measures che Cemperature of the of] at che outlet of the efl/fuel heat exchanger, i.e, after cooling. Filter Exchanger Tabrieacion ‘The reeterante of the probe varies vith che temperacure if \ ee decceatseapine bean Feet Ka doo onsen ta doe 654. at + 100 C le the prot ae a eater The variation of resistance of the probe induces « variation of current detected by the receiver Which de a gelvancaeter connected tts a Wheatatone bridge in rei to the probe. The receiver needle displaces proporeionally to tion of tenperscure on # praduaced in degr Envelope Nut PLU. Fig. 15 EXAMPLE OF ENGINE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT aoeSome Examples Figure 15 shows an example of an oil temperature indication system for a jet engine - which could be similar to any gas or air system. It uses a temperature sensitive probe that varies the resistance (and current) in the circuit to a galvanometer type instrument (moving coil, or moving iron which is similar). ESSURE INDICATION ‘Lubrication Measurement of she pressure. ‘The measuring systen consists in « tranmitter electrically comacted too receiver located on the panel. Raging harness plog Elecerieal viriag 3 vires im = Sonam | ame Receiver supplied én direct current chrough the indicating circuit breaker. Indicator Pr x ‘able induction aaa ==» Oncsiiacor Te is of induction type and transforms che pressure anto eueccras Cust dot seat VO the receiver. Fig. 16 EXAMPLE OF OIL PRESSURE INDICATION -13-Figure 16 shows the pressure measuring system for the same engine ~ equally suitable for any pressure system. It shows that the 24V dc supply is inverted to ac which is used in a pressure operated variable inductor (variable transformer). This is then rectified to de to operate the flight deck indicator (moving iron or moving coil). An unusual approach. Desynn System (figures 17 & 18) The Desynn system is de powered and is a relatively simple low torque system which lends itself to such aircraft applications as the remote indication of flap, rudder and elevator position, oil and fuel pressure measurements etc. INDICATOR 28 V dic. SUPPLY ‘TRANSDUCER Fig. 17 DESYNN SYSTEM - GENERAL ARRANGEMENT -14-At the transducer, the position of a potentiometer wiper (the rotor) is controlled by a linkage from the appropriate moving part, the displacement of which is to be measured. One arm of the wiper is connected to de +ve and the other to de -ve (earth), the two being insulated from each other. The voltage at three equi-spaced tapings on the fixed toroidal potentiometer (the stator) is dependent upon the position of the rotor. These voltages, via the three interconnecting leads, cause a magnetic field to be set up by the coils of the stator in the indicator, these being 120° apart. ‘The rotor, which carries the indicating pointer, is a permanent magnet, the field of which reacts with that of the stator. This reaction produces a torque on the rotor, unless the two fields are in alignment. Any displacement of the transmitter rotor changes the stator voltages and the resultant change in the flux path of the indicator status causes the indicator pointer to be similarly displaced. This means that the rotor will take up the same position as the wiper arm. INDICATOR ‘TRANSDUCER Fig. 18 DESYNN SYSTEM - OPERATION -15-A weak circular magnet which plays no part in the normal operation of the indicator, will return the pointer to an "OFF SCALE" position if the power supply fails or is switched OFF. Desynn systems may be linear and are similar in principle to the one described except that the toroidal resistor is cut and formed into a linear resistor. With reference to figure 18 the first picture shows the wiper arm at the 12 oclock and 6 oclock position (vertical). This means that all the current goes to the top coil (A) in the indicator effectively producing a North pole magnet. The current then splits equally at S (there is the same resistance in B and C arms) so effectively producing two half value South pole magnets. This means that the rotating indicator magnet will align its South pole to the coils North pole. Figure 18 is a simplified schematic showing three separate coils. In fact the coils are wound as shown in figure 17 and produce a directional magnetic field which is movable through 360° with an infinite number of steps following the wiper arm position exactly. Synchro System A torque synchro system can be used for the indication of movement (flaps etc) and pressure using bellows. The system consists of a transmitter or transducer (TX)* and a receiver or indicator (TR)*. They are both similar in design but the TR has a damping mechanism. The TX is fitted to the system parameter to be measured and is the instrument in the flight deck. (* TX = Torque transmitter. TR = Torque receiver.) “ont Fig. 19 SYNCHRO CIRCUIT iceFigure 19 shows the circuit with the TX and the TR (in reality they would be many metres apart) connected together by three cables. Each unit is made up of a moving rotor coil and three star wound stator coils at 120° to each other and single phase ac is supplied to each rotor via slip rings. The units work similar to variable transformers. The ac supplied to the rotor acts like the primary winding of a transformer and emfs (voltages) will be induced into the stator windings. The actual voltages will depend on the position of the rotors. Assuming the rotors are both in exactly the same position then the induced emfs in the stator windings will be the same and no current will flow between the stators of the TX and TR. This is called the Null Position. When the TX is moved (flaps moving or pressure capsule movement) the TX rotor moves (say 20° clockwise) and the emfs in the TX stator will change which will then be different from the emfs in the TR and current will flow. This flow of current will cause a resultant magnetic field in the TX and RX stators. As the TR rotor is free to move it will line up with this resultant field (20° clockwise) and move to this position - the new Null Position - and current flow ceases. The TR rotor will stop and the instrument pointer will indicate the new reading. While it is called a torque synchro (there are other types of synchro) it should be noted that the torque is small and only sufficient to move the pointer of the TR. The Wheatstone Bridge Another method of measuring pressure, temperature or position is by the use of a Wheatstone bridge. ‘The principle of the bridge is covered in module 4 but we will cover it here for the sake of completeness ~ and its good revision. With reference to figures 20 and 21. Treating the current flow as fluid flow and fluid pressure as voltage the bridge can better be understood. If all the restrictors/resistors are the same and if fluid/current flows from the left of the bridge to the right, the fluid/current will divide equally between the top and bottom arms of the bridge and no flow will pass through the centre of the bridge, so no pressure/voltage will be registered. In this condition the bridge is said to be Balanced. In fact one of the resisters/restrictors is made variable and the rest are known fixed values. EeFig. 20 HYDRAULIC EQUIVALENT WHEATSTONE BRIDGE When the value of the variable resister/restrictor is changed then the current/flow will not be equal in the two arms of the bridge and flow/current will want to pass through the centre creating a pressure drop/voltage drop which can be measured. Unknown Resistance Fig. 21 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE If the value of resister R4 is increased then more current will pass through R1 and the voltage between 1 and 2 will change and current will flow through the voltmeter. This voltmeter can be a moving coil meter and used as a flight deck instrument. ‘The variable resister can be a thermister, that changes resistance with a change in temperature, placed in a sensing bulb in the flow of liquid/gas to be measured. The variable resister can be a potentiometer with the wiper arm being moved by an input link from, say, a moving flap or a pressure operated bellows. -18-The Dead Weight Tester (figure 22) Not an aircraft instrument system but a reliable piece of equipment used to calibrate direct reading pressure gauges - which the CAA ask questions on from time to time. In use the gauge under test is fitted, the cylinder filled with oil and bled, masses as required are added to the platform and the piston screwed in until the mass carrier floats (and spins freely). The gauge reading should then tally with the test masses or the calculated pressure (Pressure = Force per unit Area P= F/A). Masses may be marked with the pressure that should be indicated on the gauge. The mass platform piston has a cross-sectional area of 1/8 sq inch, and the total mass of the piston and platform is 1/8 Ib. The effect of this will be F=PxA Where —_-F = force or mass (Ibs) P = pressure (psi) A = area (sq inch} MASS) 0.125 So pressure = AREA = 0.125 =! psi- So if no correct test masses are available, correct gauge pressure may be worked out with any known masses, eg, mass on platform = 3lbs, P = F/A 3.125 P= 0,125 = 25 psi gauge reading In other words always multiply the weight by 8 and add 1 for pressure. purer omer wie Fig. 22. DEAD WEIGHT TESTER -19-Chapter 2 PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS These systems are used to measure the air pressure around the aircraft (ambient air pressure). Static air pressure is the pressure of the non moving ambient air at any particular altitude. As the aircraft increases altitude so the air becomes less dense and static pressure reduces. At sea level the static pressure is about 14.7psi (1013.25mb) ISA. If we use an instrumentation system that measures this, and knowing the relationship between static pressure and height then we can measure the aircraft height above sea level. Pitot pressure (Henri Pitot French physicist 1695 - 1771) is made up of static pressure and dynamic pressure which is the pressure felt at the front of a moving object. The greater the forward speed of an object the greater is the dynamic and hence Pitot pressure. Dynamic pressure is proportional to the square of speed of the aircraft and static pressure is related to the height of the aircraft. Notice here that static pressure drops with increasing altitude and dynamic pressure increases with increasing speed. SAQ 1 As revision from module 8 Basic Aerodynamics how does atmospheric pressure change with height? ALTIMETER Sometimes called a sensitive altimeter it consists of an aneroid capsule housed in an airtight instrument case connected to static. An aneroid capsule is a sealed thin metal container which has had most of the air removed. ‘The case of the capsule is ribbed and shaped from a metal with resilience, hence it will in act like a spring. Air pressure on its outer surface will cause it to be compressed, but, should the air pressure reduce, the capsule will sense the reduction, and its spring-like action will cause the capsule to expand. Once the spring force of the capsule and the effort of the outside atmosphere are balanced, further expansion of the capsule is arrested. -20-AT SEA LEVEL AT ALTITUDE Fig. 23 THE ANEROID CAPSULE The amount of capsule movement available from a single capsule as it responds to changing atmospheric pressure, will be small. In order to obtain a wider range of movement, identical capsules are mounted to form a capsule stack. Movement of the capsule stack in response to changes in air pressure, is further magnified by using levers feeding a quadrant gear which itself is used to drive additional pinion gears meshed with spur gears and coupled to pointers. ‘The atmospheric air pressure for the operation of the altimeter is obtained by feeding turbulent free air from the aircraft's ‘piped’ static air supply system. This static system senses air pressure at vents fitted on the fuselage skin of the aircraft or in the heated pressure head mounted in turbulent free area of the air surrounding the aircraft. as OPUS CaS sano Fig. 24 THE SENSITIVE ALTIMETER -21-Operation 1. Atmospheric pressure falls with altitude. 2. As aircraft climbs reduced static air pressure is fed into the instrument case. 3. ‘The capsule stack expands. 4. Linear capsule stack movement is converted into angular motion using levers and gears. These levers and gears magnifying the movement sufficiently to allow pointers to be driven around a dial face calibrated in feet. iS When the aircraft loses altitude, the action is reversed. To allow for the reduced capsule sensitivity at altitude due to the cold a temperature compensating device is fitted in the linkage between the capsule and the pointer. To cater for changes in barometric pressure which will cause inaccuracies, and to enable the altimeter to be adapted to reading aircraft height above any given datum position (such as an airfield), a ground pressure setting mechanism consisting of a baroscale graduated in millibars, a pointer moving mechanism, and a setting knob are fitted. Movement the pressure setting knob allows the altimeter 'zero' be shifted without the capsule itself being compressed or expanded. Thus calibration is maintained with the altimeter indicating PRESSURE ALTITUDE if the baroscale setting is returned to the calibrated setting of 1013.25 mbs 100 ft. POINTER COURSE HEIGHT INDICATOR 1000 €t. POINTER BAROMETRIC SCALE BAROMETRIC SCALE ADJUSTER Fig. 25 ANALOGUE ALTIMETER -22-As the instrument is a pressure instrument, a datum setting of the capsule is required. A datum setting knob is included in the instrument which when rotated will datum the capsule in relation to the pressure set on the millibar scale. As the instrument is a pressure instrument, a datum setting of the capsule is required. A datum setting knob is included in the instrument which when rotated will datum the capsule in relation to the pressure set on the millibar scale. ‘The capsule is set to a datum based on a Q code (Q codes are used for radio transmissions with a Q code to cover almost any eventually associated with aircraft flying - it saves transmission time). QFE Setting airfield atmospheric pressure so that the altimeter reads zero on landing and take-off. QFE is obtained from air traffic control and is used for take-off and landing. QNH: This is the millibar setting issued by the regional controlling airfield. It actually gives the height of that controlling airfield above local mean sea level. All aircraft that are flying in the controlling airfield’s ‘area’ of coverage will set this figure on the altimeter. This allows them the vertical separation required. For information, aircraft flying under visual flight rules use heights of flight depending on headings, this helps to prevent collision situations developing. For regional flying and is used after take-off. QNE: This setting and it is based on ICAO mean sea level pressure which is 1013.25 millibar. This is set as the aircraft climbs through the transition layer. am womens Eero er TRAST ALTO — Fig. 26 ALTIMETER SETTINGS -23-The QNE setting sometimes referred to as the Pressure Altitude, ensures that in flight, all aircraft will be flying above a common datum (as with QNH). This means that all the aircraft have the correct vertical separation distance though they all may be a few feet nearer or farther away from sea level. ‘The QNH and QFE setting of the instrument are the settings the engineer is required to know, and are illustrated in figure 26. SAQ 2 Referring to figure 25 what altitude is the instrument reading? Servo Altimeter Because of the smaller pressure differences with increasing altitude causing minute capsule deflections the mechanical altimeter tends to become inaccurate. Also there is a need to have a digital readout to provide a clearer indication to the pilot. These requirements, and others, led to the development of the servo altimeter ‘This means that the small defections of the capsule are sensed through electrical contacts which energises a motor to drive the pointer and at the same time presents a digital display of the height above the datum in steps of 50 feet (figure 27). ‘OFF' FLAG MILLIBAR ADJUSTMENT KNOB Fig. 27 SERVO ALTIMETER As this is an electrical instrument power must be selected ON before it will indicate. A tell tale flag will appear on the instrument face if power is switched off. It must be on when being adjusted. -24-‘The servo altimeter can also be used as an encoding altimeter for altitude data to be sent to the aircraft transponder when required by the secondary surveillance radar. Figure 28 shows an encoding altimeter. The disc converts the analogue data (the rotating shaft) into a digital readout (a series of 1’s and 0’s). The disc is made of glass, is coated and etched in such a way as to form a pattern of light transparent and opaque segments. This pattern consists of 11 concentric rings and designed to give readings in 100ft increments. ENCODING DISC Fig. 28 ENCODING ALTIMETER On one side of the disc is a light source and lenses, and on the other side is a bank of photo electric cells. The light will pass through any transparent segment but not through any opaque areas. Thus the photo electric cell will either pick up light or not pick up light. When it picks up a light signal it will produce a voltage (logic 1). When it does not pick up a light signal it will not produce a voltage (logic 0) At any one point in the disc’s position a certain number of transparent and opaque areas will be presented to the light source which will be converted to a logic word (eg 10100110) by the bank of photo electric cells either receiving or not receiving light through the disc. This word, which represents an altitude is sent to the transponder, oseChecking In general altimeter checking is carried out in three parts. The instrument is checked for security, damage etc. The ambient pressure is set on the millibar scale, ie set QFE and the pointer should indicate zero, any deviation being checked against the Maintenance Manual. The system should be checked for leaks and sense of movement of the pointer by carrying out a static test with the leak tester. (To be covered later). Remember, for a servo altimeter the power must be on before any settings /checks are carried out. VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI) This instrument indicates the aircraft's rate of climb and descent. LU It measures the rate of change of ambient pressure and indicates on a scale marked to give climb and descent rates in feet per minute. An airtight case contains a differential capsule connected through levers to a pointer. The capsule is subject to ambient pressure internally and restricted ambient externally. As internal capsule ambient pressure varies the restricted external ambient will vary but at a slower rate (figure 28) so the capsule will deform. Fig. 29 THE VSI - 26 -Consider an aircraft in a climb with ambient pressure decreasing. The pressure in the capsule will be reducing allowing the capsule to collapse. The pressure around the capsule will be reducing through the bleed but at a slower rate, therefore this pressure will be higher tending to collapse the capsule. Movement of the capsule will be transmitted to the pointer which will move across the scale indicating a rate of climb. when the aircraft levels off the pressures equalise, the capsule reverts back to its original shape and the instrument will read zero. On descent with ambient pressure increasing, the effect on the capsule will be to expand. The increasing pressure will also be sensed through the bleed but, at a slower rate. The capsule will expand and indicate a rate of descent in feet per minute. ‘The faster the rate of pressure variation the greater the pressure difference across the capsule and the greater the movement of capsule and pointer. ‘The Instantaneous VSI (IVSI) Some aircraft are fitted with an IVSI. This is similar to the VSI except that it has a small mass (or masses) which moves a small piston (or pistons) in a cylinder/s to give a more immediate increase/decrease of pressure (due to the vertical acceleration) in the capsule. This causes the capsule to respond "instantly" to altitude changes which gets round the lag problem associated with the ordinary VSI. It is still connected to the static system - the same as the VSI. atin) pny) Fig. 30 THE VSI DIAL OTEAIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI) Airspeed Indicators indicate the aircraft speed of travel relative to the air. The indication it supplies is given in terms of KNOTS through the air. The term knot means one nautical mile per hour. A nautical mile being the navigational measure equal to 6,080 ft. Since the speed that an aircraft travels through the air is tied to the fact that the air itself may also be moving with or against the aircraft direction of travel, the knot is a measure of airspeed only and cannot be used to indicate aircraft speeds relative to the ground, to do this, airspeed must be computed with wind speed and other factors. ‘There are many forms of air-operated ASI, each employs various constructional features leading to a wide selection of dial and pointer presentations, but in each case, the principles of operation are the same. Fig. 31 ASI DIAL Principle An aircraft, stationary on the ground, is subject to normal atmospheric pressure or static pressure which acts equally on all parts of the aircraft. In flight, the aircraft experiences an additional pressure on its leading surfaces due to a build-up of air pressure through which the aircraft is travelling. This additional air pressure is known as dynamic pressure and is dependent upon the forward speed of the aircraft and the density of the air. This dynamic pressure is sensed by a probe called a Pitot tube, this tube being mounted to directly sense the pressure immediately ahead of the aircraft without being affected by turbulence. Air at pressure which enters the tube is called Pitot pressure and the air forms the aircraft Pitot pressure supply, - 28 -This Pitot pressure is fed to the inside of the ASI capsule by pipes and tubing coupled together to form an unobstructed and leak proof pipeline. The pressure fed into the capsule will cause the capsule to expand and drive the pointer over its calibrated scale. To remove the static pressure element of the Pitot pressure the outer surface of the capsule is surrounded by static air fed from static vents or slots mounted in the slipstream and at right angles to it. This means that Pitot pressure minus static pressure = dynamic pressure, which is the pressure we want to measure. ‘The movement of the capsule is therefore proportional to the dynamic Slipstream Air 2 Static Tube DIFFERENCE = DYWAMIC PRESSURE ONLY pressure only. Fig. 32. DIFFERENTIAL CAPSULE PRINCIPLE stan OrnaMic arsine Fig. 33 THE ASI -29-So on face value, all that need be done in order to measure airspeed is to measure the difference in pressure between Pitot pressure (dynamic and static pressure) and static pressure using a simple differential capsule as shown in figure 32. However, one major problem still exists. Dynamic pressure varies with the square of the speed, hence to overcome this and avoid a scale which would be non-linear and difficult to read or calibrate, the capsule to pointer drive must be designed with built-in compensation. This compensation may be achieved in a multitude of ways and varies between manufacturers - further details relative to square law compensation can be determined by reference to the publication for a particular make and type of ASI. A refinement on the system is to correct for temperature. By placing a temperature sensitive aperture in the line to the Pitot chamber the amount of Pitot pressure can be altered. This is called True Airspeed (TAS). In the types of instruments described here it would be done by way of a bi- metallic strip that constricts the flow to the capsule. More modern systems tend to do the same job electronically. ‘Some displays may be colour coded to show such things as top speeds for flap operation and aircraft top speed. Sometimes the instrument uses the principle of ‘blanking’ where-by the needle actually goes around the instrument twice, but on the second pass it is partially blanked. Digital style readouts are fitted to newer aircraft - EFIS etc (check module 5). THE MACHMETER At sea-level, the speed of sound is 660 knots (760 mph) but this reduces gradually with rising altitude until at an altitude of 30,000 feet, the local speed of sound is 590 knots (679 mph). A pilot does not talk in terms of the speed of sound, but refers instead to "MACH". Mach (Ernst Mach Austrian physicist 1838 - 1916) is a ratio of true air speed to the local speed of sound and is normally described as a decimal number. True Air Speed Mach Number = Local Speed of Sound Mach 1.0 is true air speed equal to the local speed of sound. Mach 2.0 is air speed equal to twice the local speed of sound; and 0.5 Mach refers to a speed half that of the local speed of sound. -30-Many military and some civil aircraft operate at air speeds in excess of Mach 1.0. For subsonic aircraft in particular, it is important that the pilot knows his/her speed relative to the local speed of sound so that Mach 1 is not approached, as this would cause severe buffeting and stability problems. The onset of these conditions occurs at just before Mach 1 and this speed is called Mcrrt (refer to the book in this series entitled High Speed Flight). Mach is indicated to a pilot using a Machmeter which is an air operated instrument. The meter illustrated has an adjustable lubber mark to show the Critical Mach Number (Mcan). This mark is adjusted to the indication stated in the Pilot's Handling Notes when the meter is fitted to a particular aircraft type, and this should not be altered. ADJUSTABLE, LUBBER LINE” Fig. 34 MACH METER DIAL Since a Machmeter must indicate the speed of the aircraft in relation to the local speed of sound, and the speed of sound varies with altitude it follows that the meter must employ an airspeed mechanism and an altitude mechanism. ‘The principle of operation is therefore that of the ASI and an altimeter, these two mechanisms working together to provide a resultant pointer indication which is an integration of air speed and altitude. The resulting pointer indication being calibrated to indicate in terms of Mach number. Since the Machmeter must employ an air speed mechanism, advantage has been taken of its presence in modern aircraft instruments to produce a meter capable of providing air speed indications and corresponding Mach readings in a single instrument. esi‘These instruments are constructed as Combined Speed Indicators, a single pointer is used to indicate air speed on an outer scale, and corresponding Mach on a calibrated scale which rotates anticlockwise with rising altitude. ‘The Mach scale is marked onto a rotating disc set behind, and viewed through, an aperture in the fixed dial. upper SETTING NOB, Fig. 35 MACHMETER - OPERATION This instrument is fed with Pitot and static air supplies so that the pointer is driven by an air speed mechanism and is therefore calibrated as an accurate ASI. The instrument also contains an altimeter mechanism the function of which is to cause the Mach scale disc to rotate anti-clockwise as altitude increases, thus providing an altitude corrected Mach indication for a wide range of indicated air speeds. In keeping with modern instrument practices, these Combined Speed Indicators employ integral dial and pointer illumination from small low voltage lamps of 5-7 watt rating, the lamps being fed with an ac or de supply. -32-In addition to clearly identified Pitot and static inlet connections, these units also embody a multi-pin electrical connector to provide the connection of the lamps external circuit. In addition to simplifying the panel layout and meter installation, a small but valuable saving is made in weight by using a single instrument rather than two instruments. Using the illustration (figure 35) the Machmeter operation is as follows: (a) Air speed section (holding the altitude section stationary). Pitot pressure is fed to the airspeed capsule and static is fed into the meter case to act on the opposite face of the capsule. With rising airspeed, the capsule will change its shape to measure pressure differential due to the dynamic pressure. This movement of the capsule rotates layshaft 1, moving arm 1 towards the reader and arm 2 likewise. Following the movement will show that an increase in airspeed will result in the pointer indicating an increase in Mach number, Movement of layshaft 2 rotates the quadrant gear. This gear is meshed to a pinion gear attached to the pointer spindle to drive the pointer over a scale calibrated to show Mach number. (b) Altimeter section (holding speed section stationary) ‘The static air pressure fed to the instrument case will influence the aneroid capsules which are formed into a stack. The capsule will expand for rising altitude, and compress with reducing altitude. The resulting movement moves arm 1 to the left or right of the reader. ‘The relationship of arm 1 with arm 2 will depend on the actual altitude. These arms form the movement magnification of the airspeed capsule as it transmits movement to the pointer. With an increase in altitude the altitude capsule expands pushing arm 1 to the right and causing arm 2 to move towards the reader - with a consequent increase in Mach number. ‘The arms and layshafts work to form a compound mechanism which adjusts airspeed capsule movement magnification to provide an altitude compensated indication of airspeed in terms of Mach. Movement of the lubber setting screw will rotate a pinion gear meshed with the wheel and this rotates the lubber mark to the required setting. -33-Fig. 36 COMBINED SPEED INDICATOR PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS Pitot static systems are made up of pipelines (usually Al alloy), probes, manifolds, drains, selector vales, transducers and instruments. Though not all aircraft will have all these components. The system is designed to provide clean dry air at Pitot pressure and static pressure to all air operated instruments and transducers. Transducers include: Altitude switches (S) Air speed switches (P and S) Mach switches (P and S) Pressure control systems Cabins/Cockpits (S) Air Data Computer (P and S) Stall warning detection (P and S) etc The complexity of the Pitot/static system will vary as dictated by the aircraft requirements with regard to size, use of pilot and co-pilot stations, and use of other crew member stations. The pipework system is tending to get smaller as some modern aircraft have the pressures transduced into digital signals nearer the probes. These signals are then sent by ARINC data buses to all those system computers that require the information. Details of systems used on any particular aircraft will be found in the aircraft's maintenance manual. -34-Figure 37 shows a typical Pitot static system for a large aircraft. Note that there are two systems, one for the first officer and one for the captain. ‘There is also a back-up Pitot probe. Each pilot also has a dedicated static system also with a back-up and also a system for the autopilot. Notice also the connections to transducers from the static system to Cabin Pressurisation control, Pitch trim, Autopilot etc. It has selector valves which are not in common use. Fig. 37 TYPICAL PITOT STATIC SYSTEM ‘There are two basic forms of Pitot-static system used on aircraft, and there are variations to the basic form in order to cater for system duplication Such as when a co-pilot station and other crew stations must be supplied in addition to the pilots panel. ‘These two basic forms are: (a) Combined system - where the Pitot and static pressures are sensed from the same Pitot static probe. (b) Independent system - where the Pitot pressure is sensed from the Pitot probe and the static pressure is sensed from separate static ports in the fuselage. -35-In the combined system, a Pitot static probe is placed into the slipstream in an area free from turbulence. It is mounted at a precise angle to the aircraft structure so that the open tip is facing the direction of the aircraft flight. It may be mounted on the end of a long probe fitted to the wing or fuselage or fitted close to the fuselage as on many commercial jet aircraft. - Fig. 38 PITOT HEAD LOCATIONS prtor/eraric [LINE ComencrTONS Fig. 39 TYPICAL LARGE AIRCRAFT PITOT HEAD Several probes may be fitted and systems interconnected, though there is usually two independent systems — one for the pilot and one for the co- pilot. As seen from the illustration, the pressure head will detect the air pressure due to the slipstream which contains atmospheric pressure and dynamic pressure and called Pitot pressure. At the same time, slots cut into the side of the probe body will detect static pressure. -36-Maltiple slots to balance static pressure during airoraft sideslip WO Fig. 40 PITOT STATIC HEAD CONSTRUCTION ‘The probe is heated for anti-icing purposes using single phase ac which may have some control from the aircraft weight switch. Because the probe combines the jobs of detecting Pitot pressure and static pressure, it is called a combined system Pitot head. ‘The Pitot pressure is passed to the Pitot pipeline on the aircraft. This pipeline being coupled by a threaded coupling similar to a low pressure Coupling unit. Both the Pitot and the static tubes in the probe are fitted with water drain holes to prevent the orifices becoming blocked or obstructed by water. Static pressure is coupled to the aircraft static pipeline in a similar way to that used on the Pitot outlet. Should water collect in the probe, or in the static slots, it may freeze and cause blockage due to ice. To protect against this happening, these probes are fitted with an electrical heater which is usually switched on for the entire flight and switched off on landing. Pressure heads which combine Pitot and static pressure detection are favoured for aircraft which have high speed performance since at high speeds, the airflow around the aircraft surfaces becomes less predictable. ‘At 0.78 Mach, the pressure surrounding the aircraft structures may cause considerable pressure errors; these becoming worse as speed increases through the transonic range. On such aircraft, the combined pressure head js mounted on a long probe so as to project well ahead of the likely areas of slipstream turbulence. Slower aircraft tend to favour the use of a probe which carries a Pitot head only. BagOn this form of system, static pressure is sampled by static vents mounted at selected sites on the aircraft structure. The position of the Pitot probe and the static vents is selected so that a minimum of turbulence and hence pressure errors are picked up. KO, =. TE VL ~ Ar TEAL «= EXT, ERA RDerr RADY DAI CABLES Fig. 41 PITOT HEAD CONSTRUCTION ‘The actual pressure errors for any aircraft Pitot static system will be stipulated in the particular aircraft Pilot's Notes, and will stipulate the errors produced for various aircraft roles and a range of airspeeds. Because the alignment of a Pitot head is critical, when man-handling aircraft, these units must not be subjected to strain. Never use them as pulling or pushing surfaces during aircraft handling operations or at any time during work on the aircraft. A system which employs a Pitot head and separate static venting ports is called a separate system or an independent system. Static vent plates used with separate systems are usually constructed from brass and have a static vent tube (or tubes) fed from each aperture cut into its surface. Static pipes usually leave the fuselage ports at an upwards inclined angle to prevent water ingress. These vent plates are mounted to the aircraft structure skin and their surfaces must be kept clear of obstructions. Paint must not be allowed to come into contact with these surfaces or the port holes damaged in any way. Paint or burrs ete would cause turbulence and significant pressure errors would result. Static plates /ports are not usually heated as icing due to moisture impingement is much less of a problem - unlike Pitot probes. -38-dO NOT PAINT Fig. 42 STATIC VENT ‘wo identical venting plates will be fitted to the structure, one being fitted at identical positions each side of the fuselage and both cross connected by a pipeline. SAQ 3 Why are two interconnected static ports required on a separate system? Mounten view Craowr) Fig. 43 STATIC VENT PLATES IN A DUPLICATED SYSTEM aaoeSome aircraft employ two Pitot heads so that the pilot and co-pilot can be supplied with independent Pitot static systems with their own air-operated flight instruments. Some aircraft have three, the extra one for additional Pitot data for Air Data Computers etc. In such a case, the static vent plates associated with the pilot/co-pilot systems will have independent apertures feeding their respective static lines. Vent plates containing a number of apertures may be referred to as Pepper Pot static vent plates. An example of such a vent plate is shown in figure 43. Most static vent plates are not heated as their site has been selected with this in mind; the site being chosen which provides the required minimum of pressure error whilst not being subject to icing conditions. In certain flight conditions, the moisture content in the air may be far in excess of the amount that the drain holes in the Pitot or pressure heads can cope with. This excess moisture will accumulate in the system pipelines to restrict or totally block the airflow to the instruments. Fig. 44 TYPES OF DRAIN TRAP -40-Action must be taken to ensure that this moisture cannot interfere with the pipeline airflow and pressures, and will not reach instruments where serious contamination would occur. Advantage is taken of the fact that water is more dense than air and once water is trapped in the pipelines, it will tend to collect at the lowest points such as at 'U-bends' etc. Water traps are therefore placed into the pipelines at these points, the water then flowing into these traps and leaving the pipelines unobstructed. Water traps may be called Drain Traps since periodically action must be taken to ensure that any water present is removed, or the trap will overflow and become useless. Drain traps appear in a variety of forms, ranging from small pieces of sealed pipeline to small tubes or containers, some with water level indicators. ‘The number of drain traps used in a system will depend on the complexity of that system, and the systems requirements. Drain traps are essential for effective operation of the Pitot-static system, but require frequent attention to ensure they are drained of water. (ML VENTS COVERED Fig. 45 PITOT STATIC COVERS & BUNGS Since these traps must also be air-tight at their connection points to the pipelines, the procedure to be adopted for their draining is stipulated in the particular aircraft maintenance manual. After disturbing a drain trap ~ including plunger types - a pressure leak test should be carried out to ensure it is properly sealed. -41-When the aircraft is parked or in storage, all vents and probes must be covered to prevent the ingress of moisture, debris and insects. The covers and bungs must be clean, dry, not worn and a good fit. They must all have a warning flag fitted. SAQ4 Considering that Pitot heads are heated (and they get very hot) what precautions should be taken when considering the Pitot cover? INSTRUMENT SYSTEM MAINTENANCE ‘Always refer to the AMM and the maintenance schedule - of course. The following gives some idea of the checks and inspections carried out on the instruments and systems. WEATICALSPEFD LNDICATOR (vs) (a-5- 1) Prot Static. PAA (eon) CS, Fig. 46 SIMPLIFIED COMBINED SYSTEM SCHEMATIC -42-‘The Pitot heads and static vents need to be checked for integrity and signs of distortion. The surrounding areas need to be clear and dent free. The hole(s) in the probe need to be clear from obstruction and not damaged in any way. (NOTE: If they are blocked don't clean with metallic tools, a stiff brush is recommended, followed by a dry air low pressure back blow). Pitot heaters should be checked for operation (carefully with the fingers) and electrical systems BIT checked (on newer aircraft). ‘The pipes need to be clean and free from bends, cracks or corrosion. Check also that they are securely clamped to the structure and not fretting. Flexible joins have a tendency to perish and these too need to be checked. ‘As specified in the maintenance manual the water traps need to be inspected and drained as required. After any work all the pipe runs will need to be checked for leaks. All instruments need periodic cleaning using the approved materials only. Often instruments are coated with anti glare and anti mist coatings, using incorrect materials will remove these layers. Always check the AMM. Also check the dial readings for legibility and distinction and the general standard of the glass. Check the inside of the glass for moisture ingress as this might indicate a case leak or system contamination. Check the instrument for security and that any internal lighting works. A big problem used to exist with cross connection of the Pitot static lines particularly on the ASI. To help prevent this the lines should be colour coded with red for Pitot and yellow for static and the pipes marked with the standard pipe markings. To make the connections Murphy proof many systems employ connections of different diameters and/or connections not at the same positions along the pipe length. However, great care is needed when disconnecting and reconnecting Pitot static systems a sense and leak check must always be carried out afterwards. Some systems have air data computers, transducers and airspeed switches located around the aircraft equipment racks. These feed inputs to various systems for various things. Prior to testing any Pitot static system, check that you have followed the appropriate maintenance manual procedures and cautions - for example power has to be applied before any tests are carried out. -43-Venticat Sere TnoKaTon. al lee Ainsreeo Inosegron. asa, Hacuneten, ALTINETER. stance -——_] Fig. 47 SIMPLIFIED SEPARATE SYSTEM SCHEMATIC ‘A fairly new check on Pitot (and static) probes is the RVSMo. Aircraft fly in airlanes controlled by air traffic control and are separated by (a minimum) distance and height. Because of increased air traffic the Vertical Separation Minima has been reduced from 2,000ft to 1,000ft. To ensure the accuracy of instrument readings the operator had to take on the responsibility of carrying out more detailed inspections of the skin area around the air data probes to ensure that they are not damaged in any way and that there are no dents or ripples in the aircraft structure that will adversely affect the speed or height readings. These inspections are carried out every stop and are called Reduced Vertical Separation Monitoring (RVSMo). Leak Testing ‘There are several different types of leak testers available, with some being quite large and sophisticated. Other test sets may also be carried out at the same time such as using the ATC 600 test set to check the signal coming from the transponder (which gets its signal from the encoding altimeter and transmits it as a radio signal). -44-The following tester is simple to use and the procedure embodies the basic elements of testing any system. The test involves testing the system for leaks and testing the instruments for correct reading. It is not a calibration check but the instruments should read in the correct sense (direction) and, for some, should give a reading the same as the test gauge. Figure 48 shows a typical small tester. It embodies a three-way selector valve, an indicator (a capsule type pressure gauge), a double action pump (Pitot and static), and two connectors for connecting the tester to the aircraft Pitot and static systems. bust caps CONNECTION a ‘STATIC CONNECTION CAPSULE TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE Fig. 48 PITOT STATIC SYSTEM LEAK TESTER ‘The connectors are fitted with blanking caps to prevent ingress of dirt, etc, into the tester, and these caps also allow the tester to be sealed thus making a pre-use check of the tester possible, prior to its use on an aircraft. ‘The cap fitted to the Pitot line, has a bleed hole which prevents damage to the tester should the selector valve be set to ‘Pressure to Pitot’, and the pump operated with this cap in-situ. Selector valve. This is a three-way selector valve which controls the suction or pressure of the pump to the aircraft system. -45-Selections are: 1. Suction to Static. In this selection, suction is applied to the aircraft static vent, and suction is also indicated on the tester gauge. 2. Pressure to Pitot. In this selection, pressure is connected to the aircraft Pitot system, and the applied pressure is also registered on the indicator. 3. Release. With this position selected, the aircraft system lines are vented to atmosphere via a choke. The choke restricts the rate of change of pressure, hence protecting the tester indicator and all aircraft instruments from damage. ‘The indicator is capsule operated (the same as an ASI) and the scale is calibrated to indicate in knots. Other forms of tester indicate pressure in terms of ‘inches of mercury’ and the later ones are electronic and have a digital readout. Adapters. A range of adapters are issued with the test set. Reference must be made to the manufacturer's instructions. VSL- 0 AS.L- 130 kK, a "Ye, Berow Seauz, ALT. No Cuance Fig. 49 SEPARATE SYSTEM - PITOT LEAK TEST -46-AS. 1-130 _— "Yn Briow Scaus e) ALT. ~ POSITIVE Fig. 50 SEPARATE SYSTEM - STATIC LEAK TEST GENERAL TEST PROCEDURE The following is a general procedure for carrying out a sense and leak check of a simple Pitot static system and its instruments. The pressures quoted are actual pressures given in a manual, others are used and it is important to always consult the AMM for specific instructions for any particular aircraft. Separate System (a) Carry out a pre-use check of the leak tester (refer to the manufacturer's instructions). (b) Check that the system is complete and if power should be on that itis on (check the AMM for this, and any special additional checks to be carried out). (c) Pitot Leak Test. Couple the tester to the pressure head using the correct adapter, and set the tester selector valve to Pressure to Pitot. -47-(a) ) @ Gently operate the pump until indicator shows 130 knots. Leakage time allowed must be greater than 3 minutes for a fall in pressure from 130 knots to 125 knots. The flight deck ASI should read the same and, at these pressures, the Mach meter may have moved but not onto the scale — the ‘speed’ is too low. Static Leak Test. Couple the static connector to a static vent (placing the correct sealing plug in the other) using the correct adapter and set the tester selector valve to Suction to Static. Gently operate the pump until a reading of 130 knots is indicated. Leakage rate must be greater than 3 minutes for pressure fall from 130 knots to 125 knots. The VSI should show climb when pumping and settle to zero after, the ASI should show 130 knots, the Mach meter should not have got onto the scale and the altimeter should show altitude. Testing a Combined System - Combined Tester Figure 51 shows a schematic of a test arrangement used on modern combined systems The tester is capable of testing both systems together. The principle is similar to that already described. These testers vary in construction and operation and reference must be made to the maintenance manual for the tester to be used and its method of use. Example - Large Aircraft Test Values Pressure to Pitot 350knots vsI zero ASI 350knots Machmeter Mach 0.53 Altimeter no change Suction to static 350knots Vsl climb during pressure change - zero after ASI 350knots Machmeter Mach 0.53 Altimeter 6,330ft -48-PITOT/STATIC HEAD PITOT CONNECTOR STATIC CONNECTOR ' ' ‘ le-STATIC PRESSURE (COMBINED PITOT/STATIC TESTER—=| Fig. 51 COMBINED SYSTEM - COMBINED TESTER All disturbed pipework/instruments need to be leak checked. If the leak rate is beyond AMM limits then the leak has to be found and rectified. A point of note here, tracing a leak in a static system is very difficult as the system under pressure is in fact evacuated. Therefore, using fluid such as Snoop is not an option as any leak will suck the fluic. into the system. Disconnecting the system from the instruments and any transducers is an option and applying pressure and then using the disclosing fluid. The ‘half and quarter split’ method may be used. This involves splitting the system half way and checking again, if it leaks the leak is in the half you are testing, if it doesn’t the leak is in the other half. The half with the leak is split again and the same procedure applied until the leak is found (This technique can be used to find electrical faults). CAUTION. The static instruments are designed to accept vacuum only (reducing pressure), any positive pressure will cause serious damage. Ensure that all instruments and all transducers are disconnected/removed and the pipework blanked before proceeding with this method. ~49-Chapter 3 GYROSCOPES ‘The gyroscope (gyro) forms an essential element in artificial horizons, automatic pilot systems and gyro compasses. In navigation it provides a means by which an aircraft's direction and attitude can be determined. Definition of a Gyro It is well known that a spinning top will remain upright which it is set spinning at high speed, but as its speed of rotation slows down it eventually topples. ‘Any rotating mass has gyroscopic properties which produce special effects that it does not have if it is stationary. Masses which produce gyroscopic effects include jet engines, a spinning coin, a bicycle wheel, the earth, in fact any mass that rotates. Although all rotating masses have gyroscopic properties, in engineering terms the name gyroscope (gyro) is used exclusively to describe a rotating mass - or rotor- mounted in such a way that the spin axis of the rotor is free to rotate about one or more axes at right-angles to the spin axis. Fig. 52 TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM In figure 52 the rotor is suspended in two gimbals, the inner and the outer. The rotor spin axis is free to turn, relative to the frame, about two axes, B- Band C-C. This gyro is said to have two degrees of freedom. -50-Properties of a Gyro A gyro has two fundamental characteristics, rigidity or gyroscopic inertia and precession. Rigidity is the tendency of the spin axis to stay pointing in a fixed direction in space unless acted upon by an external force, and precession is the behaviour of the spin axis when under the influence of an external force. Rigidity Most of us are probably aware of gyroscopic rigidity without realising it. We saw earlier that when a spinning top is rotating its axis remains upright; yet when it is not spinning it topples. In other words the spin axis of a spinning top tends to remain pointing to a fixed point in space. Fig. 83 RIGIDITY Precession Precession is the term used to describe the way in which the rotor of the gyro moves when acted upon by an external force Consider the mechanics of controlling a simple hoop. Suppose we are bowling a hoop or wheel along the path or road and wish to change the direction in which it is travelling. For example, we want to make the hoop turn to the left. Pushing the rear of the hoop to the right will only result in the hoop falling over. To make the hoop turn to the left we have to push the top of the hoop over to the left, applying the force at the top of the hoop as shown by the arrows in figure 54. -51-Fig. 54 PRECESSION ON A HOOP From this illustration we can see that the hoop is spinning about the axis A-A and that, in pushing the hoop to the left, applying the force as shown, we are attempting to rotate the hoop about the axis B-B. The result is that the hoop is rotated about the axis C-C. ‘The law of gyroscopic precession states that when a torque is applies to a freely suspended rotating mass, the spin axis of the mass will precess about an axis which is at right-angles to both the spin axis and the torque axis. Applying this law to the two-degree of freedom gyroscope we get the results illustrated in figures 55 and 56. Fig. 55 LAWS OF PRECESSION - 1 abricIn figure 56 a force is applied to the outer gimbal tending to rotate the rotor about the inner gimbal axis B-B. However, by the law of gyroscope precession (sometimes called Sperry's Rule of Precession) the rotor must precesses about an axis which is at right-angles to both the spin axis of the rotor and the axis about which the torque is acting. The rotor must, therefore, precess about the outer gimbal axis C-C. Ifa similar downward force is applied to the other side of the inner gimbal, the rotor will precess in the opposite direction. Similarly, when the force is applied about the outer gimbal axis C-C, the rotor will precess about the inner gimbal axis B-B (figure 56). ‘APPLIED FORCE THE REACTION OF THE “THIS POINT WiLL MOVE Apruieo FORCES AT inipnecess INTHE ris POINT ON THE RIM ‘IREGTION OF THE ARROW Fig. 57 LAWS OF PRECESSION - 3 -53-Displacement Gyros We know that a free gyro will maintain its spin axis pointing in a fixed direction in space, no matter how its frame is displaced. The angular displacement of the frame may be found by measuring the angular displacement of the outer gimbal (figure 58). Fig. 58 DISPLACEMENT ANGLE If the gyro is fitted in an aircraft, the frame of the gyro will be fixed to the aircraft. The displacements measured will therefore be a measure of the displacement of the aircraft from the gyro datum (the direction in which the spin axis is pointing). The gyro is a two degree of freedom type and can measure displacements about two axes only; displacement about the spin axis does not exert a torque on the gyro and cannot, therefore, be measured. Since the directional gyro can measure displacements about two axes only, measurement of aircraft displacements in the pitching, rolling and yawing planes requires the use of two gyros. One, mounted so that is spin axis is vertical, may be used to measure pitching and rolling angles simultaneously. ‘The other, mounted so that its spin axis is horizontal, may be used to measure displacements in the yawing plane. VERTICAL GYRO The vertical gyro is used to provide an accurate vertical datum with respect to the earth. From what we have seen so far it might be assumed that all we need do to meet this requirement is to set a free gyro spinning with its spin axis vertical and from then on gyroscopic rigidity will keep the spin axis vertical. atri6Unfortunately, this cannot be done and to see why we must take into account three factors; these are: 1. ‘The effect of the earth's rotation. 2. The effect of moving the gyro over the earth's surface. 3, Imperfections in the manufacture of the gyroscope. Effect of the Earth's Rotation The effect of the earth's rotation on a vertical gyro can be seen by examining the behaviour of a gyro situated at the equator (figure 59). It can be seen that in 4 hours the local vertical, OA (a line drawn from the centre of the earth (0) and passing through its surface) has rotated in space through 60° to OB. However, as we have already seen, the gyroscope’s spin axis remains fixed in space. Therefore, to an observer on earth it will appear that the spin axis has moved relative to the vertical. Fig. 59 EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S ROTATION ‘This example, with the gyroscope situated on the equator, demonstrates the maximum apparent rate of displacement of the vertical gyroscope’s spin axis away from the vertical. The rate of displacement becomes progressively less as the location of the gyroscope approaches the North or South poles, until at the poles there is no apparent displacement. Effect of the Earth's Shape Since the earth is spherical an effect similar to that caused by the earth's rotation is produced when the vertical gyroscope is transported over the earth's surface -55-Fig. 60 EFFECT OF AIRCRAFT FLYING AROUND ‘THE WORLD Figure 60 illustrates the effect of the earth's shape on the relationship between the direction of the spin axis of a vertical gyroscope and the direction of the local vertical. Assume that at A the direction of the spin axis and that of the local vertical coincide. As the aircraft flies north the spin axis remains fixed in space, but the direction of the local vertical changes. For example if the spin axis is vertical at the pole (pointing to a distant star in space). As the aircraft flies down towards the equator, at the equator the spin axis will be horizontal. Neither the effect of the earth's rotation nor the effect of its shape described above involve a precession of the spin axis away from its fixed position in space. Therefore, the name given to the movement of the spin axis away from the local vertical is called apparent wander. Definitions (a) Free Gyro: A gyro having complete freedom in three planes at right angles to each other. This is also sometimes known as a ‘space’ gyro. (b) Tied Gyro: A gyro having freedom in three planes at right angles to each other but controlled by some external source. All gyros on aircraft are tied. (c) Earth Gyro: A tied gyro controlled by gravity to maintain its position relative to the earth. The artificial horizon gyro is an earth gyro. - 56 -(@ Rate Gyro: A gyro having one plane of freedom at right angles to the plane of rotation, so constructed as to measure rate of movement about the plane at right angles to both the plane of rotation and the plane of freedom. These gyros will have a spring to bring them back to datum once the precessional force is removed. So rate gyros will have a returning spring fitted and displacement gyros will not. Fig. 61 RATE AND DISPLACEMENT GYROS ARTIFICIAL HORIZON Using a two degrees of movement vertical gyro fixed within the instrument casing. Any change in aircraft attitude will result in changes in angular displacement of the gyro gimbals. ‘These gimbals are used to control the position of a horizon bar which is pivoted to the outer gimbal and supported by a fulcrum fixed in the inner gimbal. Due to the gyroscopic action, the horizon bar will always position itself to coincide with the true horizon and the attitude of the aircraft is then determined by comparing the relative positions of the horizon bar with that of a fixed miniature aircraft presentation mounted on the glass front of the instrument. AGdcFig. 62 ARTIFICIAL HORIZON Attitude changes are simply considered as taking place about the ‘pitch and roll axes’ of the gyro. When the aircraft changes pitch, ie ‘dives or climbs’, the gyro axis remains vertical due to gyroscopic rigidity, and the outer support bracket moves with the aircraft. Fig. 63 ARTIFICIAL HORIZON - PRESENTATION -58-Relative movement between the gimbals and the support bracket is magnified by lever action and the horizon bar moves in the correct sense relative to the miniature aircraft symbol. When the aircraft changes attitude in roll, the gyro inner and outer gimbal rings remain stationary with the gyroscopic axis vertical. ‘The horizon bar, sky plate, and bank index are thus stabilised and the instrument, case, bank scale, pilot and aircraft move with respect to the gyro. ‘To ensure the gyro is tied to earth (Earth Gyro) there is a gravity sensor system (small curved glass tubes housing a mercury blob that senses gravity), that will continuously torque (electric torque motor) the gyro to the vertical position. THE RATE GYRO ‘The previous gyro had two degrees of freedom, and is used to provide an artificial datum from which the amount of angular amount of displacement of the frame is measured. We shall now see how a gyro can be used to measure the rate of angular displacement of the frame. Such a gyro is known as a rate gyro. Fig. 64 PRECESSION Figure 64 shows a one-degree of freedom gyro. If we assume that the frame of the gyro is rotated about the vertical axis C-C at a steady rate, this turning action will be transferred to the spin axis A-A. -59-The resulting torque about the axis C-C will produce a precession of the spin axis about the axis B-B. If this precession is unrestricted mechanically the spin axis will eventually precess and be coincident with axis C-C. At this point no further precession can take place since the applied torque is now acting about the spin axis. Fig. 65 ACTION OF A RATE GYRO If a pair of springs are connected between the frame and the gimbal ring as shown in figure 65 then after the precessional force is removed the gimbal will be brought back to its original position. As the frame is rotated about the vertical axis C-C the turning action will be transferred to spin axis A-A and it will experience a tor.;ue about the axis C-C. This torque will cause the spin axis A-A to precess about the gimbal axis B-B; this precession is known as the primary precession and the torque producing it the primary torque. Primary precession will pull against one of the springs. A second torque, known as the secondary torque, is now applied by the spring to the gyro, this time acting about the gimbal axis B-B. ‘The primary torque is caused by the turning motion of the frame which is counterbalanced by the action of the spring. The greater the primary torque the greater the deflection of the gimbal and once the primary torque is removed the spring will pull the gimbal back to the null position. Figure 66 shows its application in the Turn and Slip Indicator. - 60 -Fig. 66 RATE OF TURN INDICATOR With reference to figures 66 and 67. A simple method of working out how precession works. Assume the aircraft turns to the left; take this force to act fo the left at the axis of precession (point A), move this force onto the spinning rotor and move it in the direction of the spin by 90° (which is down in the drawing). The gimbal will move as if the force has acted at this position. This movement will be transferred to the pointer via the gears which will move to the left with the movement resisted by the spring. Fig. 67 MOVEMENT DURING A LEFT TURN oie‘The greater the rate of tum the greater the gimbal deflection (and pointer deflection). Once the aircraft has stopped turning the gimbal will be returned to its level position by the spring with the pointer in the middle. Automatic Stabilising (Auto Stab) ‘Another example of the application of the rate gyroscope is seen in the automatic stabilising system used in some aircraft to prevent yawing. OF FLIGHT Fig. 68 VACUUM DRIVEN TURN INDICATOR DRIVING THE GYROS Vacuum driven - where the gyro case is kept at a negative pressure by a vacuum pump, or venturi tube on older aircraft and cabin air is allowed to jet onto "buckets" on the gyro (after passing through a suitable filter in the case) (figure 68). Electrically driven - The gyro itself is an electric motor ~ usually driven by 3 phase ac up to about 30,000rpm ~ which is faster than the vacuum type. Air driven gyros are largely obsolete now as their problems were so great, but they may still be seen on some older aircraft. Electric gyros are more common but are slowly becoming obsolete being replaced by laser gyros. -62-TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR Slip Indication This instrument is really two instruments in one, a rate of turn indicator and a slip indicator. ‘The slip indicator normally consists of a ball contained in a curved tube filled with a clear damping fluid. With an aircraft flying straight and level then the ball lies central in the tube. avo exPanson VOLUME acaTE @ALL NEUTRAL POSITION LEAR, oud ‘cunven USS TUBE Fig. 69 SLIP INDICATION Ifa tum is carried out and the centripetal and the centrifugal forces on the aircraft are not balanced (too much bank, or too little) the aircraft with either side-slip (slide into the turn) or skid (skid out of the turn). The ball will sense this and adopt a position in the tube to indicate the flying error. Turn Indication ‘A tum of the aircraft will result in a force being applied to the gyro axis of the instrument which will result in the gimbal ring precessing at right angles and causing pointer movement as previously described. The pointer will indicate the rate of turn usually by a number. The number is the turn rate, measured in degrees per minute. A Rate One turn indicates a turn of 180° per minute. sence ret Beene tow &@ Fig. 70 FLIGHT DECK INDICATIONS Pr, = sages ease lhe - 63 -DIRECTION INDICATOR This instrument performs a similar function to a compass, and we shall look at it in more detail later. For now we shall consider a basic instrument to cover the principles. This horizontal axis gyro is kept aligned to a distant point in space using two gimbals (figure 71). One of the gimbals has a compass card attached, which is read off against a pointer. As the aircraft turns the gyro remains fixed in space and this causes the compass card with the aircraft to rotate about the card scale and change the reading. A sprung loaded setting knob allows for initial alignment and adjustment during flight. This will be either manually aligned by the crew from time to time using the magnetic compass (E2B), or be ‘slaved’ to a magnetic detection system. Fig. 71 DIRECTIONAL GYRO To enable the gyro to be aligned or set for a particular aircraft heading a setting knob is provided (the knob being spring loaded to the disengaged position). For some instruments aligning is carried out by ‘de-clutching’ the compass card and turning it round independent of the gyro, for others the gyro and card is turned. The compass card is marked off in degrees (360) and may of ‘tape’ (as in figure 71) or compass Tose’ form. ‘The instrument indicates yawing or directional changes of the aircraft. -64-‘The directional gyro is prone to ‘drift’. This drift, if left uncorrected, will result in large errors and the aircraft ‘flying around in circles’. To prevent this happening Flux Detectors are fitted in the wing tips of the aircraft. These flux detectors or Flux Valves pick up the earth's magnetic flux lines. They compare the flux signals with the gyro compass output. GYROSCOPIC PROBLEMS All mechanical gyros have errors. The three biggest being: * Real Wander * Apparent Wander * Topple Real Wander Caused by the fact that there is a spinning mass. Even with the best gyros, with the finest bearings, there will be small loses that cause the gyro to have slightly more friction on one side than the other. This causes precession. Also if there is a imbalance in the gyro, no matter how slight, it will cause a torque to be applied and that will also cause precession. Real wander is reduced by having a finely balanced gyro and high precision bearings. Also, total cleanliness is required when assembling gyros and this is traditionally done in a ‘clean’ room. Apparent Wander ‘The earth rotates and this rotation makes it appear that the gyro wanders - in actual fact it doesn't, it just appears to (see previous pages on Vertical Gyros). To correct for real and apparent wander gyros have erection systems. -65-Topple A situation that can arise when the gimbals are aligned in the same plane. This can happen at extremes of aircraft attitude. When one gimbal is close to the angle of the other it can cause the gyro to topple and with the artificial horizon cause the horizon bar to ‘flip’ to its extreme position on the display — usually to one corner of the instrument. Erection systems may rely on the pendulous mass of the gyro and the porting of pressure air to keep the gyro erected or have gravity sensing mercury switches. Most artificial horizons have fast erection systems - some of the earlier ones had a manual caging knob that would force the gyro into the erected position by locking in a mechanical cage. Later ones have provision to use the normal erection system in the ‘fast’ mode. When carrying out a fast erection always refer to the AMM, always ensure that the gyros have run up to full speed (allow some time at full speed) and never keep the erection button pressed for more than the specified time. - 66-Chapter 4 COMPASS SYSTEMS ‘There are two basic types of compass system: * Direct reading * Remote reading ‘The earth’s magnetic field is covered in module 3 but as a lead in to compass operation we will cover it here. The Earth’s Magnetic Field ‘The earth behaves as if it is a magnet, in fact it is an enormous electro magnet, producing a North Pole near the geographic north pole (on the spin axis) and a South Pole near the geographic South Pole (figure 72). The earth’s magnetic north pole will attract a South Pole, and the opposite is true of the earth’s South Pole. Fig. 72 THE EARTH AS A MAGNET One of the properties of magnets is like poles repel, whilst unlike poles attract. This principle means that if we suspend a magnet in the carth’s field and allow it to rotate, the South Pole of the magnet will point to the earth’s North Pole, To add to the confusion, this ‘south’ pole is normally termed the north- seeking pole. - 67 -Magnetic Variation ‘The difference between the magnetic pole and the geographic pole is called the magnetic variation, or just variation. This is different at various locations around the globe and the figure is stated on navigation maps. The magnetic variation changes with time so maps are regularly redrawn. Compasses are only able to ‘track’ the earth’s magnetic pole; this is called magnetic north. If the crew require to fly on ‘true’ headings, they will have to add (or subtract) the variation to the magnetic figure. This can be done electronically. Direct Reading Compass JAR 25, requires that all aircraft that are designed for use for passenger transport, must have a means of indicating the aircraft heading without the need for power supplies. The direct reading compass provides this and on some light aircraft it is the only compass system. Fig. 73 DIRECT READING COMPASS ‘The direct reading compass is not much more than an ordinary compass. A piece of magnetised material is housed inside the ‘globe’ which is floated in a moderately viscous liquid. Providing the aircraft is flying reasonably straight and level, the magnet will seek the direction of the earth’s field and the value will be able to be read from the fixed lubber line. The compass has a means of illumination using a simple replaceable ‘p’ bulb housed within the unit. On lighter aircraft/older aircraft the direct reading compass, would be used to align the direction indicator. On commercial transport aircraft it is usually located on the centre windscreen frame. - 68 -Functional testing of a direct reading compass is limited. The following checks might be carried out, but as always the relevant AMM. Ensure the mountings are secure and there are no leaks. The scale should be clear and readable. ‘The liquid should have no bubbles or discoloration. ‘The light should work. The deviation card must be available (more on that later). Move a ferrous screwdriver or spanner towards it gently and check that the compass card rotates freely. ‘The Remote Reading Compass ‘The Direction Indicator (DI) was a gyro stabilised compass that kept pointing in the same direction, and as the aircraft turns gives the impression of the compass card rotating. The early systems had to have the pilot adjust the DI to the reading of the direct reading compass, the DI then holding the heading during turns and other manoeuvres. Fig. 74 REMOTE READING COMPASS SYSTEM -69-‘A remote compass system adjusts it self automatically electronically and is made up of: A Flux Valve. Amplifier assembly. Master indicator. Directional Gyro. Controller. The Flux Valve provides an electronic indication of the location of the aircraft relative to the earth’s magnetic field. This is achieved by exciting a single coil mounted on a ‘hooks joint’, with 400Hz ac. As the aircraft passes through the earth’s magnetic field a flux is induced in the three arms and the windings produce an emf which is proportional to the direction of the earth’s magnetic field. This ‘synchro’ type signal is sent to the amplifier. ‘The flux valve needs to be located it as far away from interference as possible and the usual location is either in the wing tips or fin. ‘The Amplifier assembly has a power supply with two amplifiers, one called the servo amplifier and the other the slaving amplifier. The slaving amplifier takes the signal from the flux valve and sends it to precession motors in the directional gyro. This slowly precesses that gyro until it is aligned with the earth’s magnetic field. The rate of precession is slow ~ typically 2°min". This means the rate of slaving is slow, and to aid the slaving process the pilot has a fast erect knob to allow the DI to be precessed fast to the approximate correct position. The servo amplifier is used to drive an output signal to drive the master indicator, any repeater indicators, as well as outputting the heading to other systems such as the autopilot. The Master Indicator is a synchro driven device that is rotated to a position determined by the servo amplifier. The card rotates against a fixed lubber line. This indicator usually has the ADF/VOR pointers on it and as such also becomes the RMI (see the next book for details). ‘The directional gyro is a three phase electrically driven gyro, spinning at around 30,000rpm. The spin axis is the same as the DI aligned with the horizontal axis, thus making it sense directional changes. The controller is located on the flight deck to allow the crew to control the compass system. This is where the fast erect knob is located as well as the ‘dolls eye’ indicator to show when the system is synchronised (slaved to magnetic north). -70-In addition the controller has a dial that can be used to set the variation which can be electrically added (or subtracted) at the flick of a switch located on the controller and identified as MAG/TRUE. Another switch on the controller is the SYNC/DG switch. When selected to SYNC the compass works as described so far. When selected to DG mode the flux valve is isolated and the master indicator is positioned on signals only from the directional gyro. SAQ 5 Considering what the flux valve does, how should this knowledge affect any work that you carry out in the vicinity of that area of the wing / fin? Operation When the aircraft is flying straight and the gyro compass starts to ‘wander’, this is picked up by the fact that the earth's flux lines direction to the flux valve have not changed - thus the gyro compass is torqued back to it's correct alignment. When the aircraft is in a turn the gyro compass moves relative to the aircraft - this movement is picked up by the system, but at the same time the flux lines direction are changing at the same rate and no corrective action is taken. It acts by comparing the relative changes between the earth’s flux lines direction and the compass. ‘The modern aircraft does not use this system as a digital map of the earth’s magnetic field has replaced the flux valve and the aircraft uses the laser gyro platform of the IRS to establish true north. In SAQ 5 we covered the problems of ferrous materials in the flux valve location. The same precaution is valid for the standby direct reading compass. Even when we take all the required steps, some field disturbance is caused, for example by electrical induced fields of coils etc. (A simple lamp is a coil). Errors like this are called deviation which needs to be compensated for. This is carried during a compass swing. Compass Compensation ‘As a JAR 66 BI person, you are not required to have detailed understanding of the compass swing, but you must have some idea of what the procedure is. eaeIt is carried out after a lightning strike; when stated in the maintenance schedule and when stated in the AMM. Compasses need correction on three coefficients: * A - where the compass is misreading on all headings. * B - where the compass is misreading on east west heading only. *C - where the compass is misreading on north south headings only. ‘A compass swing is carried out only on an approved compass surveying base where the aircraft is towed around to compare the aircraft compass reading with that of a calibrated compass, initially on the cardinal headings (N,S,E and W) with B and C coefficients found by calculation. The corrections are carried out on the compass by moving guarded screws located on the amplifier, to alter the values of currents in trim coils. Or in the case of the direct reading compass by adjusting the screws that turn small correction magnets. We keep making measurements against the calibrated compass on the cardinal headings until all the deviations are within the AMM limits. After all calculations and adjustments the final step is to take readings of the deviations at the cardinal points and the inter spaced 45° (30° for a refined swing) and mark these on the deviation card to be located on the flight deck for crew use. e728Chapter 5 HSI AND ADI SYSTEMS: During this chapter we are going to consider instrument integration. We shall be considering two integrated instruments, these are the: * HIS - Horizontal Situation Indicator * ADI - Attitude Direction Indicator They are both covered in module 5 but are included here to provide completeness to the subject and to cover the possibility of the CAA asking questions on them. ATTITUDE DIRECTION INDICATOR This can be likened to an artificial horizon with additional data display. ‘There are different types of ADI made by different manufacturers. On newer aircraft the instrument is of the CRT type with older aircraft having a mechanical type. A typical display includes: Pitch and roll attitude. Localiser and glide slope deviation. Radio altitude data. Commands processed by the AP/FD. Pre-set altitude and slip indication. Fig. 75 TYPICAL ADIs qs‘The mechanical type ADI artificial horizon is a servo driven device that receives signals from the IRS. As with the standard artificial horizon the display moves relative to the fixed aircraft symbol. Traditionally blue indicates the sky, with either brown or yellow indicating the ground. The horizon display provides attitude information, both pitch and role. In addition the top of the unit has roll increments and these show the bank angle of the aircraft. Newer aircraft may not have such markings, instead favouring bank angle protection through the autopilot system. Tum and slip is indicated from a remotely located turn rate gyro. A signal is passed to the turn rate indicator at the bottom of the ADI. This works on the same principle as the turn rate indicator mentioned earlier in the book, save for the fact that the gyro is now remotely located. The slip indicator is usually of the gravity seeking ball-in-liquid type. ILS gives localiser (lateral) and glideslope (vertical) directions to the landing runway. This information is available to the crew on the ADI by way of two moving coils, receiving signals from the VOR/ILS receivers. The basic principle of all deviation pointers is the same in that the aircraft flies towards the pointer. For example, if the glideslope pointer is above the null, the aircraft needs to fly up to correct the problem. One dot of the indicator equals about 1/3° off the glideslope / localiser. On the left of the ADI there is a speed reference. This function is only available in cruise as defined by the Flight Management Computer (FMC). A reference speed is selected by crew inputs from the autopilot computers and this value becomes the null datum of the speed reference indicator. Fly faster and the pointer moves upwards, slower and it moves downwards. Not all ADI’s have this function as it does require both autopilot (A/P) and FMC facilities. The Flight Director (F/D) carries out the same calculations as the autopilot and provides a display to the pilots showing them the way ‘the computer’ would fly the aircraft if it were engaged. Flight director function comes from the autopilot and flight director computer (AFDC) (on Boeing aircraft). Dependent on the mode of operation of the flight director /autopilot the flight director bars will come into view and give the crew an indication of where the computer would like the aircraft to go. The principle is a before where the crew fly the aircraft to the deviation, and place the aircraft symbol over the cross hairs (or v bars). These bars are driven by servo action from signals from the AFDC. If the flight director is switched off these bars drive out of view. -74-_ Decision height. In the next book you will learn more of radio altimeters. The ‘ad alt’ indicator has a setting knob that allows a pre-set height to be dialled in. When the aircraft drops below this height the decision light illuminates. This lamp can be tested by pressing the lamp holder. Failure Modes Should the ADI fail completely it will freeze and provide the crew with an obvious indication of failure. If one of the inputs becomes invalid, the rest of the unit can. continue to operate, so there is need to provide the crew with some visual indication that there has been degradation. This is done by a series of red / orange flags that come into view and obstruct the failed input. The flags that may show are: * Gyro, which may indicate total failure of the IRS or more likely, failure of the turn rate gyro. Often a second flag is positioned over the tur rate indicator. * Runway/loc. This indicates a failure of the ILS information from the VOR receiver. * Cmptr/FD. This indicates the information from the AFDC has become invalid and as such the flight direction is no longer guaranteed. * Speed, indicates failure of the speed reference system. * G-S, which indicates failure of the glideslope information from the VOR/ILS receiver. SAQ 6 With power off what ADI failure flags will be in view and why? Testing ‘The following is taken as an example of a typical in-situ test: Depressing the test push button causes: * The G flag to come into view. * Attitude indicators change - pitch 10° up - roll 10° right. * CHECK ATT light comes on. -75-ILS check 1. Select DEV] - RAD - track index zero. 2. Select a LOC frequency with no signal. HSI ADI BOTH NAV & G/S flags G/S & LOC No pointers show 1 plus RAD flags show showing Beam bar centre TO - FROM = nil 3. Select P/LEFT and hold - after 6 secs Beam bar one LOC pointer full Indications dot left G/S left glide pointer cease after ‘one dot up. cone dot up. 12 secs. HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI) Generally if there is an ADI fitted there is also an HSI. The HSI as its name implies provides indication of the horizontal indication of the aircraft. In can be likened to the Gyro Compass. ‘They vary in design from aircraft to aircraft and may be given different names. Again it may be of the mechanical type or displayed on a CRT. The mechanical type is powered by servo motors. The Heading Indicator is located at the top of the compass ‘rose’ as a fixed lubber line. The compass rose is moved ‘under servo action from the IRS (or similar), and the heading is read off underneath. Heading is defined as the direction in which the aircraft is pointing. Providing there is no wind, this will also be the track the aircraft takes over the ground. Taking into account the wind direction the aircraft will be blown off course and the heading is no longer the track, and as such the track is also indicated on the HSI, This is done by way of a small green square on the compass rose ~ not shown on figure 76. Sometimes a set heading pointer is included on the instrument that allows the pilot to select a desired heading and the difference between heading and desired heading, known as heading error, is sent to the AFDC for calculation for flight signals. -76-Digital ‘stant range Digital groundepeed Fig. 76 TYPICAL HSI ‘A course deviation pointer is included in the centre of the display as a bar ‘and a series of dots. This part of the HSI has two functions. During RNAV or simple radio navigation it provides an indication of where the waypoint is located. As before bar to the right, fly to the right. During an ILS approach it provides indication to the crew of where the runway is located. In both cases the signal comes from the VOR / ILS receiver and is used to move the moving coil. Other navigation aids include the to/from flags that show whether we are flying towards a beacon/waypoint or away from it. Also the RMI is replaced and you can see the two VOR pointers around the compass rose. Glideslope is indicated on the right of the HSI by way of a moving coil that works in the same manner as the indicator on the ADI. In addition, usually included is the DME slant range, labelled distance and the groundspeed calculated from the IRS. These are normally either LED or LCD display information. Refer to module 5 notes for more details on these systems. -77-Failure Modes The HSI has failure flags that are held out of view by valid signals from the supplying systems. When these systems fail, the flags come into view: * Heading, a flag that obscures the fixed lubber line at the top and indicates failure of the heading information from the IRS (or similar). * A bar on the course deviation indicator would indicate failure of the navigation information from the RNAV, ILS or VOR (you will discover these more fully in the next book in the series). * G-S, obscuring the glideslope indicator, shows invalid ILS information, in much the same way as it did on the ADI. Testing As with the ADI the tests involve BIT which means that with power on the test button is pressed and various lights should come on and pointers and warning flags should move to set positions as laid down in the AMM. Basic checks also include checking that they rotate on power up and settle down fairly quickly. The flags should clear as the respective systems become valid (switched on). Align the pre-set heading pointer to the lubber and switch on the flight director. Check the bars are in view and on the aircraft symbol. Rotate the heading pointer away from the lubber and check the FD bars follow. You could switch on and tune to the local ILS frequency to check it receives fly up and left / right signals. CHECKING INSTRUMENTS - GENERAL, ‘The maintenance checks to be carried out on instruments are concerned with security, visual defects, functioning and performance tests. Precise details of these checks are given in the AMM. The information in the following paragraphs is a guide to the general practices. Checks should be made for: (a) Security of attachment of instrument panels - check anti vibration mountings and bonding leads. (b) Security of electrical connections, pipe connections, etc. Tee(o) (@) (e) 0 (@ (h) @ 0 Evidence of cracking of cases and mounting flanges. Cover glasses should always be carefully inspected for cracks which could be caused by glancing blows from safety harness fittings, head sets, etc, and are often difficult to detect. Dial markings and pointers for legibility, discolouration and flaking. Correct pointer position/counter readout. Cables for security, chafing, moisture ingress, etc. Security of attachment of the instrument and any signs of moisture ingress. Correct functioning of lights, warning flags, etc. Correct functioning of any ‘press to test! facility. Security of attachment, correct locking, damage, contamination and corrosion of transducers and associated wiring and or pipework. Gyro Horizons After the vacuum or electrical power has been applied, the rotor should be allowed to run up to normal operating speed and a check made that the horizon bar settles to indicate the attitude of the parked aircraft. In electrically-operated instruments incorporating power failure warning flags should be checked that the flags retract from view when power is applied. Fast erection systems should be checked for functioning by pushing in the control knob and checking that the gyro erects quickly to the vertical. In some gyro horizons employing a mechanical fast erection system, the power failure warning flag should retract from view when the knob is pushed in. To prevent violent hunting of the gyro assembly, the control knob of an electrical fast erection system must not be pushed in until 15 seconds have elapsed after switching on the supply. The time of holding the knob in must be kept to a minimum and must not exceed 1 minute; this will prevent damage to the levelling system. NOTE: In certain types of instrument embodying electrical fast erection the normal erection system is cut out if the gyro assembly is out of the vertical by move than 10% in pitch or roll. The gyro can then only be re-erected by pushing in the fast erection control knob. -79-Tum and Slip Indicators With the aircraft laterally level, indicators should be checked to ensure that slip pointers or inclinometer balls are at the zero position. In the static condition the turn pointer provides no indication of the gyro having run up to normal operating speed. To check this, the shock- absorbed instrument panel should be displaced at one corner within the limits of its mounting. This will simulate a slight turn and cause displacement of the turn pointer in the appropriate direction. Direction Indicators The caging knob should be checked for freedom of rotational and axial movernent. With the gyro running and caged a slight resistance to rotation of the knob should be felt. The indicator should be set to the heading corresponding to that indicated by the magnetic compass, and after uncaging, the drift from this heading should be noted. A maximum drift of 3° in 15 minutes is usually acceptable. Performance Tests Performance tests of instruments should be carried out before installation, at times when their operation and indications are suspect, and at the periods specified in the aircraft Maintenance Schedule. The procedures for testing each type of instrument are given in the relevant manufacturer's and aircraft maintenance manuals, and reference must always be made to these documents. NR Always check instrument function during airframe /engine systems checks. - 80 -Chapter 6 ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATION AND STALL WARNING Stall warning warns the pilot when the stalling angle is being reached (usually considered as 15° for a clean conventional wing). On some aircraft stick push and stick shaker are also provided. The simplest form of protection is a small hole on the leading edge of the wing, lower than the normal stagnation point, connected by pipework to a warning air operated horn in the cockpit. As the stall angle is approached is air is blown down the pipe to operate the horn. Not used on large commercial aircraft. A variation on this is the leading edge vane. Fitted just below the stagnation point on the leading edge of the aerofoil, as the stall angle is approached the (now) upflowing air will lift the reed to complete an electrical circuit to a horn on the flight deck ~ again rare on large aircraft. Once the pilot receives the warning he/she should put the nose of the aircraft down (if there is sufficient altitude) and apply more power. Fig. 77 MOVING PADDLE TYPE PROBE Moving Paddle Probe Fitted to the side of the fuselage and consists of a moving probe with two slots open to the airflow connected to an enclosed paddle. Air pressure from the two slots is fed either side of the paddle, When the angle of attack increases so the dynamic pressure in the bottom slot increases and in the top slot reduces. This difference in the pressures will act either side of the paddle to bring it into line with the airflow - keeping it in line with the airflow irrespective of the pitch angle of the aircraft (within reason). eitThe position of the paddle is transduced into an analogue voltage signal by the potentiometer (variable resister). This signal can be sent to the DADC where it is converted to a digital signal and can be stored/sent to all those systems requiring alpha (a) (angle of attack) data. These include: * Stall warning - lights - aural warning - stick shaker ~ stick push. * Engine auto ignition - prevents engine flame-out with turbulent conditions in the intakes. . Instrument systems. Trailing Angle of Attack Vane This uses a heated angle of attack vane which is a small moveable wedge aerofoil mounted on the side of the fuselage. The vane aligns itself with the relative airflow and this position is transduced into either analogue or digital signals. These are passed onto the stall warning computer, or centralised warning computer, or DADC. The signal is sent to/used in the same systems as above. AIRFLOW VANE Fig. 78 TRAILING ANGLE OF ATTACK VANE Stick shaker motors are usually split phase ac motors, which drive an eccentric cam weight. This is bolted to the control column (or the control system close to the column) and shakes the control to warn the crew of an impending stall. If the crew override this, the warning computer will activate an actuator that pushes the stick forward away from the pilot with some force - though the pilot can hold onto the control column if he/she wishes and overcome the stick push. In the Airbus design the side stick has no stick push provision as it is connected to the flying control system by electric wires (fly-by-wire) and control is software governed. -82-AOA AIRFLOW SENSOR VANE POSH——] ‘vent ru ——| XE CHUNBEL SHOWN TWO CUMBELS PER SYSTEM Fig. 80 AoA INDICATION & WARNING CIRCUIT - BAe 146 EastFigure 80 shows the AoA indication and warning system for the BAe 146. Note the inputs and outputs to the two summing units (identification and warning). These include: power; BIT; airspeed; flap position; AoA signal; warn; position; fail; squat (weight on wheels) etc. Make sure you understand why these are required data. ACTIVITY Get on the flight deck of as many aircraft as time and availability permits. Study the instruments carefully (and the AMM) and make sure you know what they indicate; what parameters are fed to them and how these are transduced. If it is a ‘glass cockpit’ check the standby instruments. Study figure 81 - identify each instrument and note each instrument reading. Fig. 81 INSTRUMENT PANEL - 84-ANSWERS TO SAQs 1. Static pressure is the same as atmospheric pressure and at sea level is assumed to be, in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), 14.7psi (1013.25mb). It falls with altitude in a non linear way so that at 10,000 feet, for example it is 697mb, at 20,000 feet it is 466mb, and at 30,000 feet it is 301mb. So the rate of lose per 10,000 feet is 316, 231, 165. So the rate of lose is highest at the lower altitudes. 2. 12,930ft QNE. The barometric scale is at 1013mb, the course indicator shows 10,000ft, the 1000 pointer shows nearly 3,000ft and the 100 pointer shows 930ft approx. Not easy to read, and even more difficult when the pointers are moving. It has happened that pilots have mis-read analogue altimeters, with serious consequences — so digital ones were developed. 3. The static outlet pipes are coupled together to form a balancing effect so that in the event of aircraft sideslip, the static that is sensed will be a mean average of atmospheric pressure from both sides of the aircraft. If there was only one port on the side of the aircraft and it was on the pressure side during a sideslip then it would pick up dynamic pressure which would seriously affect the instruments. 4. Always ensure that the head has cooled down before putting the cover on and always ensure that the cover is removed when the head heater is switched on. Be very careful when checking that the head is hot - it can be very hot and can cause serious burns. 5. Any ferrous materials near the flux valve will distort the earth’s flux lines received by the valve and false signals will be passed through the system. It is therefore vital when working on or near these systems to ensure that only non-ferrous materials are used. This inchides panel screws etc. Always check the AMM. 6. All the failure flags should be in view as they fail in the relaxed position. This is because they are indicating failed circuit - failed because of lack of power or for any reason, so as it fails the supply that keeps the failure flag out of view is removed and it drops into view. ease