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18.1 Electric Charge Electric Charge
The electrical nature of matter is inherent in atomic Conductors and Insulators
structure. An atom consists of a small, relatively massive
Charging of a Body
Coulombs Law
nucleus that contains particles called protons and Electric Field
neutrons. A proton has a mass 1.673 10 -27 kg, while a Electric Potential Energy
neutron has a slightly greater mass 1.675 10 27 kg.
Electric Potential
Relation between Electric Field and Potential
Surrounding the nucleus is a diffuse cloud of orbiting Equipotential Surfaces
particles called electrons. An electron has a mass of Electric Dipole
9.11 10 -31 kg .
Gausss Law
Properties of a Conductor
Like mass electric charge is an intrinsic property of Electric Field and Potential due to Charged Spherical Shell of Solid
protons and electrons, and only two types of charge have Conducting Sphere
been discovered positive and negative. A proton has a Electric Field and Potential due to a Solid Sphere of Charge
positive charge, and an electron has a negative charge. A Capacitance
neutron has no net electric charge.
The magnitude of the charge on the proton exactly
equals the magnitude of the charge on the electron. The
proton carries a charge +e and the electron carries a
charge -e. The SI unit of charge is Coulomb ( C ) and e has
the value, e =1.6 10 -19 C
Regarding charge following points are worth noting:
2. The protons and neutrons are combination of other entities called quarks,
1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges 2
attract each other. which have charges 1 e and e. However, isolated quarks have not been
3 3
2. Charge is a scalar and can be of two types positive observed, so, quantum of charge is still e.
or negative.
4. During any process, the net electric charge of an
3. Charge is quantized. The quantum of charge is e. isolated system remains constant or we can say
The charge on any body will be some integral that charge is conserved. Pair production and pair
multiple of e, i.e., annihilation are two examples of conservation of
q = ne charge.
where, n = 1, 2, 3 5. A charge particle at rest produces electric field. A
1 charge particle in an unaccelerated motion
Charge on any body can never be e , 1.5e, etc. produces both electric and magnetic fields but
3
does not radiate energy. But an accelerated
Note charged particle not only produces an electric and
1. Apart from charge, energy, angular momentum and mass are also quantized. magnetic fields but also radiates energy in the
h
The quantum of energy is hn and that of angular momentum is . Quantum form of electromagnetic waves.
2p
1
of mass is yet not known. 6. 1 Coulomb = 3 109 esu = emu of charge.
10
2 Objective Physics Volume 2
Example 18.1 How many electrons are there in one coulomb Ebonite rod
of negative charge?
Solution The negative charge is due to the presence of
excess electrons, since they carry negative charge. Because an
electron has a charge whose magnitude is e =1.6 10-19 C, the Metal
number of electrons is equal to the charge q divided by the charge sphere
e on each electron. Therefore, the number n of electrons is Insulated
q 1.0 stand
n= = = 6.25 1018
e 1.6 10 -19
Fig. 18.1
18.2 Conductors and Insulators electrons from the rod are transferred to the sphere. Once
the electrons are on the metal sphere, where they can
For the purpose of electrostatic theory all substances move readily, they repel one another and spread out over
can be divided into two main groups conductors and the spheres surface. The insulated stand prevents them
insulators. In conductors electric charges are free to move from flowing to the earth. When the rod is removed the
from one place to another, whereas in insulators they are sphere is left with a negative charge distributed over its
tightly bound to their respective atoms. In an uncharged surface. In a similar manner the sphere will be left with a
body there are equal number of positive and negative positive charge after being rubbed with a positively
charges. charged rod. In this case, electrons from the sphere would
The examples of conductors of electricity are the be transferred to the rod. The process of giving one object a
net electric charge by placing it in contact with another
metals, human body and the earth and that of insulators
object that is already charged is known as charging by
are glass, hard rubber and plastics. In metals, the free contact.
charges are free electrons known as conduction electrons.
Semiconductors are a third class of materials, and (iii) Charging by Induction
their electrical properties are somewhere between those of
insulators and conductors. Silicon and germanium are It is also possible to charge a conductor in a way that
well known examples of semiconductors. does not involve contact.
Ebonite rod
+ ++
+ ++
+ +
Grounding
18.3 Charging of a Body +
+
+
Metal
sphere
+
+
+
wire
Mainly there are following three methods of charging + +
++ ++
a body:
Insulated Earth
(i) Charging by Rubbing stand
Electricity so obtained by rubbing two objects is also known does not touch) a metal sphere. In Ebonite rod +
+ Plastic
as frictional electricity. The other places where the the sphere, the free electrons +
frictional electricity can be observed are when amber is close to the rod move to the other +
rubbed with wool or a comb is passed through a dry hair. side (by repulsion). As a result, Fig. 18.3
Clouds also become charged by friction. the part of the sphere nearer to
the rod becomes positively charged and the part farthest
from the rod negatively charged. This phenomenon is
(ii) Charging by Contact called induction. Now if the rod is removed, the free
When a negatively charged ebonite rod is rubbed on a electrons return to their original places and the charged
metal object, such as a sphere, some of the excess regions disappear. Under most conditions the earth is a
Chapter 18 Electrostatics 3
good electric conductor. So when a metal wire is attached Example 18.6 Why a third hole in a socket provided for
between the sphere and the ground as in Fig. (b) some of grounding?
the free electrons leave the sphere and distribute
themselves on the much larger earth. If the grounding Solution All electric appliances may end with some charge
wire is then removed, followed by the ebonite rod, the due to faulty connections. In such a situation charge will be
sphere is left with a net positive charge. The process of accumulated on the appliance. When the user touches the
giving one object a net electric charge without touching appliance he may get a shock. By providing the third hole for
the object to a second charged object is called charging by grounding all accumulated charge is discharged to the
induction. The process could also be used to give the ground and the appliance is safe.
sphere a net negative charge, if a positively charged rod
were used. Then, electrons would be drawn up from the
ground through the grounding wire and onto the sphere. 18.4 Coulombs Law
If the sphere were made from an insulating material
The law that describes how charges interact with one
like plastic, instead of metal, the method of producing a
another was discovered by Charles Augustin de Coulomb
net charge by induction would not work, because very
in 1785. With a sensitive torsion balance, Coulomb
little charge would flow through the insulating material
and down the grounding wire. However, the electric force measured the electric force between charged spheres. In
of the charged rod would have some effect as shown in Coulombs experiment the charged spheres were much
figure. The electric force would cause the positive and smaller than the distance between them so that the
negative charges in the molecules of the insulating charges could be treated as point charges. The results of
material to separate slightly, with the negative charges the experiments of Coulomb and others are summarized in
being pushed away from the negative rod. The surface of Coulombs law.
the plastic sphere does acquire a slight induced positive The electric force Fe exerted by one point charge on
charge, although no net charge is created. another acts along the line between the charges. It varies
inversely as the square of the distance separating the
Example 18.2 If we comb our hair on a dry day and bring
charges and is proportional to the product of charges. The
the comb near small pieces of paper, the comb attracts the
force is repulsive if the charges have the same sign and
pieces, why? attractive if the charges have opposite signs.
Solution This is an example of frictional electricity and The magnitude of the electric force exerted by a
induction. When we comb our hair it gets positively charged charge q1 on another charge q2 a distance r away is thus,
by rubbing. When the comb is brought near the pieces of given by
paper some of the electrons accumulate at the edge of the k | q1q2|
paper piece which is closer to the comb. At the farther end of Fe = (i)
the piece there is deficiency of electrons and hence, positive r2
charge appears there. Such a redistribution of charge in a The value of the proportionality constant k in
material, due to presence of a nearby charged body is called Coulombs law depends on the system of units used. In SI
induction. The comb exerts larger attraction on the negative units the constant k is,
charges of the paper piece as compared to the repulsion on
N-m 2
the positive charge. This is because the negative charges are k = 8.987551787 109
closer to the comb. Hence, there is a net attraction between C2
2
the comb and the paper piece. N-m
8.988 109
Example 18.3 Does the attraction between the comb and the C2
piece of papers last for longer period of time? The value of k is known to such a large number of
Solution No, because the comb loses its net charge after significant digits because this value is closely related to
some time. The excess charge of the comb transfers to earth the speed of light in vacuum. This speed is defined to be
through our body after some time. exactly c = 2.99792458 108 m / s. The numerical value of
k is defined in terms of c to be precisely.
Example 18.4 Can two similarly charged bodies attract
each other? N - s2 2
k = 10 -7 c
Solution Yes, when the charge on one body (q1 ) is much C 2
greater than that on the other (q2 ) and they are close enough to 1
This constant k is often written as , where e0
each other so that force of attraction between q1 and induced 4 pe0
charge on the other exceeds the force of repulsion between q1 (epsilon-nought) is another constant. This appears to
and q2 . However two similar point charges can never attract complicate matters, but it actually simplifies many
each other because no induction will take place here.
formulae that we will encounter in later chapters. Thus,
Example 18.5 Does in charging the mass of a body change? Eq. (i) can be written as,
Solution Yes, as charging a body means addition or removal 1 | q1q2|
Fe = (ii)
of electrons and electron has a mass. 4 pe0 r 2
4 Objective Physics Volume 2
Objective Galaxy 1 8 . 1
1. In few problems of electrostatics Lamis theorem is very F1 F F
= 2 = 3
useful. sin a sin b sin g
According to this theorem, if three concurrent forces F1, F2
2. Suppose the position vectors of two charges q1 and q2 are r1
and F3 as shown in figure are in equilibrium or if
and r2 , then, electric force on charge q1 due to charge q2 is,
F1 + F2 + F2 = 0, then
1 q q
F2 F1 = 1 2 ( r1 r1 )
4pe0 | r1 r2|3
g Similarly, electric force on q2 due to charge q1 is
F1 1 q1q2
a F2 = ( r2 r1 )
4pe0 | r2 r1|3
b
Here q1 and q2 are to be substituted with sign.
r1 = x 1$i + y 1$j + z1k$
F3
and r2 = x 2 i$ + y 2 $j + z2 k$
Fig. 18.5 where ( x 1, y 1, z1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) are the co-ordinates of
charges q1 and q2 .
Example 18.7 What is the smallest electric force between Substituting in Eq. (i), we have
two charges placed at a distance of 1.0 m. (9.0 109 ) (1.6 10-19 ) (1.6 10-19 )
( Fe )min =
1 q1 q2 (1.0)2
Solution Fe = (i)
4pe0 r 2 = 2.304 10-28 N
For Fe to be minimum q1 q2 should be minimum. We know
Example 18.8 Three charges q1 = 1 mC , q2 = 2 mC and
that
q3 = 3 mC are placed on the vertices of an equilateral triangle of
(q1 )min = (q2 )min
side 1.0 m. Find the net electric force acting on charge q1 .
= e = 1.6 10 -19 C
Chapter 18 Electrostatics 5
[(0 1) i$ + (0 0) $j + (0 0) k$ ]
q1
F1
q2 = (1.8 10-2 i$) N
a
120 and F2 = force on q1 due to charge q3
F2 F net 1 q1 q3
= (r1 r3 )
Fig. 18.7 4pe0 | r1 r3|3
If the given charge distribution is continuous, we can that of a point charge. To an observer far from the
use the technique of integration to find the resultant ring, the ring would appear like a point, and the
electric field at a point. electric field reflects this.
Example 18.11 Two positive point charges q1 = 16 m C and dEx
(iii) Ex will be maximum where = 0. Differentiating
q2 = 4 mC , are separated in vacuum by a distance of 3.0 m. dx
Find the point on the line between the charges where the net Ex w. r. t. x and putting it equal to zero, we get
electric field is zero. R 2 1 q
x= and Emax comes out to be, 3 2 .
Solution Between the charges the two field contributions 2 3 4 pe0 R
have opposite directions, and the net electric field is zero at a
point (say P), where the magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal. Ex
However, since, q2 < q1 , point P must be closer to q2 , in order
that the field of the smaller charge can balance the field of the
Emax
larger charge. E2 P E1
q1 + + q2
At P, E1 = E2
1 q1 1 q2 r1 r2
or =
4pe0 r12 4pe0 r22 Fig. 18.11 R x
2
r1 q1 Fig. 18.13
\ =
r2 q2
16 Electric Field of an Infinitely Long Line
= =2 (i)
4
Charge
Also, r1 + r2 = 3.0 m (ii)
Electric field at distance r from an infinitely long line
Solving these equations, we get charge is given by
r1 = 2 m l
E=
and r2 = 1 m 2 pe0 r
Thus, the point P is at a distance of 2 m from q1 and 1 m Here l is charge per unit length. Direction of this
from q2 . electric field is away from the line charge in case of
positively charged line charge and towards the line charge
Electric Field of a Ring of Charge in case of negatively charged line charge.
Electric field at distance x from the centre of uniformly
charged ring of total charge q on its axis is given by, + +
+ +
1 qx
Ex = 2 + +
4 pe0 ( x + R )
2 3/2
+ + r r E
+ + E P
Direction of this electric field is along the axis and P
+ +
away from the ring in case of positively charged ring and + +
towards the ring in case of negatively charged ring. + +
+ + + +
+ l l
+
+ x x Ex Fig. 18.14
+ Ex P
+ R R
+ 1
+ or E
+ r
+
+ Thus, E-r graph is as shown in Fig. 18.15.
Fig. 18.12
E
From the above expression, we can see that
(i) Ex = 0 at x = 0, i.e., field is zero at the centre of the
ring. We should expect this, charges on opposite
sides of the ring would push in opposite directions
on a test charge at the centre, and the forces would
add to zero.
r
1 q Fig. 18.15
(ii) Ex = for x >> R , i.e., when the point P is
4 pe0 x 2
The direction of E is radially outward from the line.
much farther from the ring, its field is the same as
8 Objective Physics Volume 2
Objective Galaxy 1 8 . 2
1. Suppose a charge q is placed at a point whose position vector is rq and we want to find the electric field at a point P whose position
vector is rp Then in vector form the electric field is given by,
1 q
E = ( rp rq )
4pe0 | rp rq|3
Here, rp = x p i$ + y p $j + z p z$
and rq = x q i$ + y q $j + zq k$
Example 18.12 A charge q = 1 mC is placed at point 2. Electric field lines always begin on a positive
charge and end on a negative charge and do not
(1 m, 2 m, 4 m). Find the electric field at point P (0 m, 4 m, 3 m).
start or stop in midspace.
Solution Here, rq = i$ + 2$j + 4k$ 3. The number of lines leaving a positive charge or
entering a negative charge is proportional to the
and rp = 4$j + 3k$
magnitude of the charge. This means, for example
\ rp rq = i$ 6$j k$ that if 100 lines are drawn leaving a + 4 mC charge
then 75 lines would have to end on a 3 mCcharge.
or | rp rq| = (1)2 + ( 6)2 + (1)2
= 38 m
1 q
Now, E= (rp rq)
4pe0 | rp rq|3 q q
5. In a uniform field, the field lines are straight Note Here work done by electrostatic force is positive. Hence, the potential
parallel and uniformly spaced. energy is decreasing.
Solution Let v be the speed of particle at origin. From The SI unit of potential is volt ( V ) which is equal to
conservation of mechanical energy, joule per coulomb. So,
Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf 1 V = 1 volt = 1 J /C = 1 joule / coulomb
1 q3 q2 qq qq The work done by the electrostatic force in displacing
or + 3 1 + 2 1 + 0 a test charge q0 from a to b in an electric field is defined as
4pe0 (r32 )i (r31 )i (r21 )i
the negative of change in potential energy between them,
1 q3 q2 qq qq 1 or
= + 3 1 + 2 1 + mv2
4pe0 (r32 )f (r31 )f (r21 )f 2 DU = Wa b
\ Ub Ua = Wa b
Here, (r21 )i = (r21 )f
We divide this equation by q0 ,
Substituting the proper values, we have Ub Ua Wa b
( 4) (2) ( 4) (2) - =
(9.0 109 ) + 1012 q0 q0 q0
(5.0) (5.0) Wa b U
or Va Vb = as V =
( 4) (2) ( 4) (2) 1 q0 q0
= (9.0 109 ) + 12 3
10 + 10 v
2
(3.0) (3.0) 2 Thus, the work done per unit charge by the electric
force when a charged body moves from a to b is equal to
16 16 1
\ (9 103 ) = (9 103 ) + 103 v2 the potential at a minus the potential at b. We sometimes
5 3 2 abbreviate this difference as Vab = Va Vb.
2 1 Another way to interpret the potential difference Vab is
(9 103 ) (16) = 103 v2
15 2 that the potential at a minus potential at b, equals the work
that must be done to move a unit positive charge slowly
\ v = 6.2 m /s from b to a against the electric force.
( Wb a)external force
Va Vb =
18.7 Electric Potential q0
Objective Galaxy 1 8 . 3
Following three formulae are very useful in the problems (W a b ) external = q 0 (V b V a ) = (W a b ) electric force
force
related to work done in electric field. (W a ) external force = q 0V a
(W a b ) electric force = q 0 (V a V b ) Here, q 0 , V a and V b are to be substituted with sign.
Objective Galaxy 1 8 . 4
1 qi Example 2. A charge q is uniformly distributed over the
In the equationV =
4pe0 i ri
if the whole charge is at equal
circumference of a ring in Fig. (a) and is non-uniformly
distance r0 from the point where V is to be evaluated, then distributed in Fig. (b).
+ + ++
+ q
we can write, +
+
+ +
+
1 q net +
V = + + +
4pe0 r0 +
+q +
+
+
+
+ + +
where q net is the algebraic sum of all the charges of which + R + R
the system is made. +
+
+ +
Here are few examples: +
+ + + ++
Examples 1. Four charges are placed on the vertices of a (a) (b)
square as shown in figure. The electric potential at centre of Fig. 18.24
the square is zero as all the charges are at same distance
from the centre and The electric potential at the centre of the ring in both the
+4 mC 2 mC cases is
R 2+r 2
R
r
C P
4 mC +2 mC
Fig. 18.23
Fig. 18.25
q net = 4 mC 2 mC + 2 mC 4 mC
1 q
= 0. V = (where R = radius of ring)
4pe0 R
Chapter 18 Electrostatics 13
d \ VBA = VB VA
Fig. 18.29
Chapter 18 Electrostatics 15
B
= A E dr surface, it follows that E must be perpendicular to
the surface at every point so that the electric force
(0 , 4 m , 0 ) q0 E will always be perpendicular to the
= (50 3 i$ + 50 $j) (dx i$ + dy $j + dz k$ )
( -2 m , 0 , 0 ) displacement of a charge moving on the surface.
Thus, field lines and equipotential surfaces are
= [50 3 x + 50 y]((02, 4mm, 0, ,00) ) always mutually perpendicular. Some
= 100 (2 + 3 ) V equipotential surfaces are shown in Fig. 18.32.
Method 2. We can also use, V = Ed The equipotential surfaces are a family of concentric
spheres for a point charge or a sphere of charge and are a
With the view that VA > VB or VB VA will be negative. family of concentric cylinders for a line of charge or
Here, dAB = OA cos 30 + OB sin 30 cylinder of charge. For a special case of a uniform field,
where the field lines are straight, parallel and equally
3 1 spaced the equipotentials are parallel planes
=2 + 4 = ( 3 + 2)
2 2 perpendicular to the field lines.
\ VB VA = EdAB = 100 (2 + 3)
Note While drawing the equipotential surfaces we should keep in mind the two
main points.
18.9 Equipotential Surfaces 1. These are perpendicular to field lines at all places.
2. Field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
The equipotential surfaces in an electric field have the
same basic idea as topographic maps used by civil engineers Example 18.26 Equipotential spheres are drawn round a
or mountain climbers. On a topographic map, contour lines point charge. As we move away from the charge, will the
are drawn passing through the points having the same spacing between two spheres having a constant potential
elevation. The potential energy of a mass m does not change difference decrease, increase or remain constant.
along a contour line as the elevation is same everywhere.
Solution V1 > V2
By analogy to contour lines on a topographic map, an
equipotential surface is a three dimensional surface on 1 q
V1 = q
which the electric potential V is the same at every point on it. 4pe0 r1 +
An equipotential surface has the following characteristics. 1 q r2 r1 V1 V2
1. Potential difference between any two points in an and V2 =
4pe0 r2
equipotential surface is zero.
q 1 1
2. If a test charge q0 is moved from one point to the Now, V1 V2 = Fig. 18.33
other on such a surface, the electric potential 4pe0 r1 r2
energy q0 V remains constant. q r2 r1
=
3. No work is done by the electric force when the test 4pe0 r1 r2
charge is moved along this surface.
(4pe0 ) (V1 V2 )
4. Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect \ (r2 r1 ) = (r1 r2 )
each other because otherwise the point of q
intersection will have two potentials which is of For a constant potential difference (V1 V2 ),
course not acceptable. r2 r1 r1 r2
5. As the work done by electric force is zero when a i.e., the spacing between two spheres (r2 r1 ) increases as
test charge is moved along the equipotential we move away from the charge, because the product r1 r2
will increase.
10 V 40 V
20 30
V V
30 20
40V
V
1 0V
V
18.10 Electric Dipole
+ A pair of equal and opposite point charges q, that
are separated by a fixed distance is known as electric
dipole. Electric dipole occurs in nature in a variety of
situations. The hydrogen fluoride (HF) molecule is
typical. When a hydrogen atom combines with a fluorine
atom, the single electron of the former is strongly
E attracted to the latter and spends most of its time near the
fluorine atom. As a result, the molecule consists of a
strongly
negative q
P
+q
fluorine ion +
40 V 30 V 20 V 2a
Fig. 18.32 Fig. 18.34
16 Objective Physics Volume 2
1 q q
V= 1 2p
4 pe0 x 2 + ( y a)2 + z2 or Eaxis (for r >> a)
x 2 + ( y + a)2 + z2 4 pe0 r 3
By differentiating this function, we obtain the electric
field of the dipole. (ii) On the perpendicular bisector of dipole
V Say along x-axis (it may be along z-axis also).
Ex =
x y = 0, z = 0
q x x
= 2 2 2 3 /2 1 q q
4 pe0 [ x + ( y a) + z ]
2 2 3 /2 2
[ x + ( y + a) + z ] \ V= =0
4 pe0 x 2 + a2 x 2 + a2
V
Ey =
y or V^ bisector = 0
q ya y+a Moreover the components of electric field are as
= 2 2 2 3 /2
4 pe0 [ x + ( y a) + z ]
2 2 3 /2 2
[ x + ( y + a) + z ] under,
V Ex = 0, Ez = 0
Ez =
z q a a
and Ey = 2 2 2 3 /2
q z z 4 pe0 ( x + a ) 2 3 /2
(x + a )
= 2 2 2 3 /2
4 pe0 [ x + ( y a) + z ]
2 2 3 /2 2
[ x + ( y + a) + z ] 2 aq
=
4 pe0 ( x 2 + a2 )3 / 2
Special Cases 1 p
or Ey = 2
(i) On the axis of the dipole ( i.e., along y-axis) 4 pe0 ( x + a2 )3 / 2
x = 0, z = 0 Here negative sign implies that the electric field is
q 1 1 2 aq along negative y-direction or antiparallel to p.
\ V= =
4 pe0 y a y + a 4 pe0 ( y 2 a2 ) Further, at a distance r from the centre of dipole( x = r ),
the magnitude of electric field is,
Chapter 18 Electrostatics 17
1 p or t =pE
E=
4 pe0 ( r + a2 )3 / 2
2
Thus, the magnitude of torque is t = PE sin q. The
direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane of paper
1 p inwards. Further this torque is zero at q = 0 or q = 180 , i.e.,
or E^ bisector (for r >> a)
4 pe0 r 3 when the dipole is parallel or antiparallel to E and
maximum at q = 90 .
Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
As we have said earlier also a uniform electric field Potential Energy of Dipole
means, at every point the direction and magnitude of When an electric dipole is placed in an electric field E,
electric field is constant. A uniform electric field is shown a torque t = p E acts on it. If we rotate the dipole through
a small angle dq, the work done by the torque is,
by parallel equidistant lines. The field due to a point
charge or due to an electric dipole is non-uniform in dW = t dq
nature. Uniform electric field is found between the plates dW = pE sin q dq
of a parallel plate capacitor. Now let us discuss the The work is negative as the rotation dq is opposite to
behaviour of a dipole in uniform electric field. the torque. The change in electric potential energy of the
dipole is therefore
Force on Dipole dU = dW
Suppose an electric dipole of dipole moment| p| = 2aq = pE sin q dq
is placed in a uniform electric field E at an angle q. Here q Now at angle q = 90 , the electric potential energy of
is the angle between p and E. A force F1 = qE will act on the dipole may be assumed to be zero as net work done by
positive charge and F2 = qE on negative charge. Since, F1 the electric forces in bringing the dipole from infinity to
and F2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. this position will be zero. Integrating,
Hence,
+q
E
+q
F1 p 90
a A
O
a q
q E q
F2
B
Fig. 18.37
Fig. 18.36
dU = pE sin q dq
F1 + F2 = 0 From 90 to q, we have
q q
Fnet = 0
or
90 dU = 90 pE sin q dq
Thus, net force on a dipole in uniform electric field is q
or U ( q) U (90 ) = pE [ cos q]90
zero. While in a nonuniform electric field it may or may not
be zero. \ U ( q) = pE cos q
= pE
Torque on Dipole If the dipole is rotated from an angle q1 to q2 , then
The torque of F1 about O, work done by external forces =U ( q2) U ( q1)
t1 = OA F1 or Wexternal forces = pE cos q2 ( PE cos q1 )
= q (OA E) or Wexternal forces = pE (cos q1 cos q2 )
and torque of F2 about O is, and work done by electric forces,
t2 = OB F2 Welectric force = Wexternal force
= q (OB E) = pE (cos q2 cos q1)
= q(BO E)
The net torque acting on the dipole is, Equilibrium of Dipole
t = t1 + t2 When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric
= q (OA E) + q (BO E) field net force on it is zero for any position of the dipole in
= q (OA + BO) E the electric field. But torque acting on it is zero only at
q = 0 and180. Thus, we can say that at these two positions
= q (BA E)
of the dipole, net force or torque on it is zero or the dipole is
18 Objective Physics Volume 2
in equilibrium. Of this q = 0 is the stable equilibrium other hand at q = 180 , the potential energy of the dipole is
position of the dipole because potential energy in this maximum (U = pE cos 180 = + pE) and when it is
position is minimum (U = pE cos 0 = pE) and when displaced from this position, the torque has a tendency to
E E E E
+q q
F1 F1
q +q +q q Torque in opposite
Restoring torque direction
p p
q
F2 +q F2
q = 0 When displaced from mean position q = 180 When displaced from mean position,
U = minimum = - PE a restoring torque acts on the dipole. U = maximum = + PE torque acts in opposite direction.
Fnet = 0, t = 0
Fnet = 0, t = 0
Fig. 18.38
displaced from this position a torque starts acting on it rotate it in other direction. This torque is not restoring in
which is restoring in nature and which has a tendency to nature. So this equilibrium is known as unstable
bring the dipole back in its equilibrium position. On the equilibrium position.
Objective Galaxy 1 8 . 5
1. As there are too many formulae in electric dipole, we have 3. On the perpendicular bisector of dipole :
summarised them as under: (i) V =0
q 2a +q 1 p
(ii) E = (opposite to p)
4pe0 ( r 2 + a2 )3 / 2
P
Fig. 18.39 1 p
(for r >> a)
4pe0 r 3
| p | = ( 2a ) q
4. Dipole in uniform electric field
2. On the axis of dipole :
(i) F net = 0
1 p
(i) V = (ii) t = p E and | t| = pE sin q
4pe0 r 2 a2
(iii)U ( q) = P E = pE cos q with U ( 90 ) = 0
1 p (iv) (W q1 q2 ) external force = pE (cos q2 cos q1 )
or V axis if r >> a
4pe0 r 2 (v) (W q1 q2 ) electric force = pE (cos q2 cos q1 )
1 2pr = (W q1 q2 ) external force
(ii) E = (along p)
4pe0 ( r 2 a2 )2 (vi) At q = 0 , F net = 0, tnet = 0, U = minimum
1 2p (stable equilibrium position)
or E axis for r >> a
(vii) At q = 180, Fnet = 0, t net = 0, U = maximum
4pe0 r 3
(unstable equilibrium position)
Example 18.27 An electric dipole of dipole moment p is
placed in a uniform electric field E in stable equilibrium
position. Its moment of inertia about the centroidal axis is I. If it
is displaced slightly from its mean position find the period of For small angular displacement sin q q
small oscillations. t = pE q
E at an angle q, from its mean E The angular acceleration is,
Solution When displaced +q
position the magnitude of restoring torque is, t pE
t a= = q = w2 q
q +q t = pE sin q
q I I
P 2 pE
where w =
q I
I
\ T = 2p
Fig. 18.40 pE
Chapter 18 Electrostatics 19
Fig. 18.42
Fig. 18.44
20 Objective Physics Volume 2