BASIC PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

INDEX

Introduction

What is Conflict? 9

Why learn about Conflict & Conflict Management 9

The ingredients of Conflict 11

Positives & Negatives of Conflict 11

How Public & Private Conflict differ? 12

What does Conflict Management aim at 12

Managing Conflict 16

Ways people deal with Conflict 22

How might you select your conflict management style? 22

Individual Reflection Exercise 24

Case Study 26

Conclusion 29

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INTRODUCTION

There are many ways in which conflict management

definitions and concepts could be organized, which in turn

also will influence the way it is practiced. The different

Conflict management tasks will be easier to perform if

definitions are broad and inclusive, focusing on the specific

problems in a conflict that need to be addressed, rather than

trying to organize every policy into perfectly worded

definitions or assigning them to specific actors. The table

below provides a helpful point of departure for an overview

of how the five different approaches are played out in

practice. We have chosen to look at the five "phases" in

terms of the problem that needs to be addressed, the actors

who can perform the intervention, the tasks that need to be

carried out, and the target group of those actions. By using

functional rather than theoretical definitions, theory and

practice are brought closer together.

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Phase Problem Actors Task Target

Conflict Rising External/Internal: Prevent Potential

Prevention tensions, International escalation opponents,
Polarization, Organizations Political
Militarization (IOs), instigators,
NGOs, Leadership/Elite
Governments

Peacemaking Perceived External/Impartial: Facilitate Leadership/Elite

incompatibility Mediators, negotiation,
of interest IOs, Mediate
Foreign differences,
governments Attain
agreement

Peacekeeping Destructive External: Monitor Fighters,

violence Int'l & regional ceasefires, Conflicting
organizations, Separate & parties,
Military demobilize Militants
organizations, parties,
Foreign Enforce
governments peace

Peace Negative External/Internal: Reconcile Local & national

building attitudes, IOs, NGOs, population, government,
Socio- Governments Rebuild trust NGOs,
economic & Civil Society,
problems, confidence, Grassroots
Trauma Develop
economic
opportunities

State Collapsed External/Internal: Restructure Leadership/Elite,

building States, Int'l & regional political & Political parties,
Weak political organizations, civil Civil society,
institutions, NGOs, institutions, NGOs
Devastated Governments (Re)build
Economy civil &
economic
infrastructure

By asking what is being performed, why it is being performed, who is

performing it and who it targets, the distinction between the five different
concepts becomes more logical. Even if an attempt at Conflict Prevention usually
takes place prior to rebuilding war-shattered institutions (State building), one
perspective does not preclude the other, and frequently they need to interact.

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Whereas Peacekeeping missions target the warriors and are generally performed by
Peacekeeping forces, Peacemaking is diplomatic and focuses on the political elite.
Peace building, which is a multipurpose task, is often performed by local or regional
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), such as churches or civic groups. It is
concerned with healing and reconciliation and primarily targets the grassroots level
of society. State building deals with restructuring societys institutions, requiring
close cooperation with the governing elite.

Target Groups and Problems

When referring to the population groups that the different conflict management
activities focus on we talk about Target Groups. However, in a war-torn society, these
groups are not just the focus of externally led activities but they are also often
involved as local actors in reconciliation and peacemaking on their own. Although
dividing a population into separate groups for analysis is somewhat superficial, it is
helpful for understanding the challenges and tasks facing conflict management today.
We have chosen to use a simple three-part division of a population.

The elite: The top leadership is represented by military/political leaders with

high visibility, is usually led by a highly visible, single personality.
The middle range: The middle-range leadership is made up of respected
"elders," academics, intellectuals, and leaders of non-governmental
organizations (usually large international agencies), who generally have to
rely on persuasion and advice in order to influence change in matters of war
and peace.
The grassroots: The grassroots community makes up the bulk of the
population in a conflict and is often the group that has taken the heaviest
casualties from the conflict. Grassroots leaders have very little power to
change top-level political decisions but are central in providing the
infrastructure for building participation at a local level. The grassroots
leadership consists of local activists and elders, leaders of indigenous NGOs,
health officials, refugee leaders, etc. These leaders are vital for creating
participatory civil societies in post-conflict situations.

The structure of the above mentioned three part division of society implies that
communication has to function not only on a horizontally between the adversaries
engaged in peacemaking, but also vertically, between these different levels of
decision-making within the home community. Ideas and proposals that emerge from
a "top-down" perspective have no foundation in a society if they dont bring up the
grievances and problems that are experienced by the population. Each level of a
society needs to accept and embrace peace in order for an agreement to be
negotiated and implemented effectively. However, these different groups often have
very different needs, depending on their exposure to violence or their role in the
conflict. Whereas the grassroots population may need healing from trauma, relief
operations or empowerment programs, the leadership elite needs to be encouraged
to look beyond entrenched values towards common goals and visions. Often, by
empowering and encouraging the middle range leadership to explore options and
pursue reconciliation initiatives, they can act as catalysts for both the leadership and
the grassroots to accept change. The middle-range leadership often serves as a
communication link between the other two levels, making sure that top-down peace
programs "trickle down" or that bottom-up initiatives are heeded by the leadership.

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The successful management of a destructive conflict thus requires work to "undo"

the destruction of conflict on all levels of a society in order to achieve peace.

Actors and Tasks

The actors engaged in conflict management and peacemaking can be internal or

external, international, regional or local. Ideally, societies deal with conflict by
exposing it to the political process, where competitive politics substitutes for direct
violent confrontations. However, in circumstances where states are either weak or
collapsing or where a participatory political system is absent, external actors may
need to be deployed to carry out some of the conflict management activities. Exactly
who carries out the activities is not imperative, as long as they property address the
challenges that stand in the way of peace. However, due to this problem-based
approach, there is also a risk of different actors doing overlapping activities without
proper coordination.

The goal of any external intervention is in some ways to "make itself redundant," by
training and capacitating internal and local actors to manage and prevent conflict
situations independently without external help. The extent of external support
needed will therefore vary in each case depending on the severity of a conflict, the
degree of collapse of a society and the extent to which human and social capital is
available. External actors therefore have a vital role to play in terms of supplying the
capability needed for creating a viable political environment. The tasks that are
carried out can be everything from funding local peace initiatives to taking over the
administration of a country during its transition.

Here are some examples of actors and tasks involved in the conflict management
process:

External Internal

Examples International National political

of Actors Organizations organizations, regional
and local government
Foreign Governments
Non-profit, non-
Global non- governmental local
governmental & non- institutions
profit organizations
Citizen-participation
International Relief groups and religious
Agencies associations

Regional organizations Local and traditional

leadership

Types of Diplomacy (Track Track II Diplomacy

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Tasks I+II), Negotiation &

Mediation Administration &
Workforce
Demobilization & Peace
Enforcement Implementation of Peace
Accords
Funding, Services &
Supplies Knowledge and Know-
how
Organization &
Coordination Services & Humanitarian
Assistance
Technical assistance &
training

Implementation &
Monitoring of peace
accords

Security Guarantees

Economic assistance

Diplomacy as Conflict Management

Conflict management activities carried out by foreign government representatives

are usually referred to as diplomacy. Since the time of Machiavelli, diplomats have
become known as the official link of communication between states and in the past
diplomacy was often the forum where the decisions on war and peace were
ultimately taken. In their capacity as foreign emissaries, diplomats today in
embassies around the world handle everything from cultural relations to trade and
politics. The use of the term diplomacy can therefore be both vague and misleading,
especially if one is referring only to official political relations between states in
matters of war and peace. Because of this confusion the literature has come to
distinguish between track I & Track II diplomacy, where Track I represents the official
relations between states conducted by elite representatives, and track II refers to
unofficial communications between lower level officials, academics or intellectuals,
whose communications can potentially lead to higher-level communications in the
future (a good example is the Oslo Process between Israel and the Palestinians).

First Track, First Tier, or Track I Diplomacy, as it can be called, is therefore the
interaction between official state actors or elites that represent each party to a
conflict. It also often involves diplomats or officials of other states - partisan or non-
partisan - in the capacity of facilitators or mediators. However, Track I diplomacy
refers not only to the actors themselves but also to the processes used in conflict
management. Usually Track I diplomacy is overt, using open channels and with full
knowledge of all parties involved, including their consent and authorization. In order
for Track I diplomacy to be worthwhile, diplomats have to have the capacity to offer

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credible and non-retractable commitments and concessions. It is therefore expected

that Track I diplomats either have full decision-making capability or stand in close
contact with those individuals at the center of power whose consent is needed for
any agreement to be accepted.

Track I diplomacy has been used to determine rules for warfare and conditions of
defeat. Yet, in the past fifty years, the face of diplomacy has changed. More
international contact and the development of relations with states also mean more
ministries, agencies, and other organizations working under the auspices of official
authority. This can be seen in regional organizations becoming increasingly involved
in international affairs and with them new types of Track I diplomacy. More agencies
and organizations are able to participate in international relations yet at the same
time, with the loss of concentration in representation, there is more availability for
representatives to be present in all stages of conflict

Second Track, Second tier, or Track II diplomacy is the interaction between

lower-level actors in a conflict. As with Track I diplomacy, this refers not only to the
actors themselves but also to the methods used during Peacemaking. Track II
diplomacy provides supplemental and parallel functions to help foster relations at
various levels in support of Track I efforts. Often times it seeks to carry out the
mandates of Track I diplomacy but through more covert and subtle means, through
secret channels or lower-level official talks. The means and efforts of the Track II
diplomat extend beyond Peacemaking into the Conflict Prevention and Peace building
stages of conflict.

In recent years, a new level of diplomacy has emerged. Track One-and-a-half

Diplomacy refers to situations when official representatives give authority to non-
state actors to participate, negotiate and act on behalf of the state actors.

Empowering Local actors

External actors can do a good job of managing a conflict through peacekeeping or

peace enforcement, but there is unlikely to be true conflict resolution and
transformation without the involvement and commitment of local actors.
Communication therefore needs to go in three directions during a peace process:
internally-externally between leaders of the local parties and foreign sponsors or
guarantors; vertically, between the leaderships of the antagonistic parties; and
horizontally, between the top leadership and the lower echelons of both societies. A
peace process implemented by a foreign sponsor that lacks the vertical and
horizontal elements is unlikely to properly address the real grievances of the parties
involved and may therefore fail to take root in local society. On the other hand,
former enemies are often unable to produce enough trust and reconciliation on their
own to be capable of implementing a peace process without the help of outsiders to
guarantee their security. . Local leadership thus has to be empowered on each level
of diplomacy in order for agreements to not be imposed from the top-down. Each
leadership group has different tasks and responsibilities:

The elite: The top leadership mainly focuses on high-level negotiations over
cease-fires or peace agreements. Members of the elite either have the ability
to make policy related changes, or are in close contact with those leaders who

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have such decision-making capacity. In order for a peace process to "fly" with
those groups who have suffered and fought in a conflict, elites have to make
sure that their constituents most important grievances are addressed through
the negotiations and that change - although slow - is visible on the ground.
The Middle Range leadership: They focus on such issues as the
coordination of training in conflict resolution, the implementation of peace
commissions, as well as problem-solving workshops. The Middle Range
leadership can often serve as a back channel to top-level negotiators by
engaging themselves in Explorative, or Track II diplomacy. Because
intellectuals and academics lack the public pressure exerted on the political
leadership, they are often free to be more creative in searching for new
options or alternatives. Because their decisions were not binding, the small
group of Arab and Israeli intellectuals who lay the groundwork for the Oslo
agreement was able to be much more flexible than those officials who were
negotiating in the parallel Washington process. When higher-level government
officials became involved, much of the facts had already been laid out on the
table and previously unthinkable options had been explored.
Grassroots: These leaders often have to carry the heaviest load of all the
three groups, in that they are faced with the largest target group, but with
the least resources and capabilities in terms of political decision-making.
Tasks include grassroots training, prejudice reduction, and socio-psychological
work in reducing post-conflict trauma of the many victims of violence. In
short, the grassroots activists are imperative for creating local peace and
reconciliation between groups, but are often unable to do so without top-
down or foreign/external assistance.

For societies with little prior experience with representative government, the peace
process itself can be a good starting point for practicing increased citizen
participation required for future State building. Local actors can often carry out
much of the administrative activities of foreign sponsors and donors (such as
humanitarian aid or development assistance), while requiring less of the training.
They are valuable for providing local access to target groups and for identifying real
needs and grievances both in preventive conflict situations and in the stages of post-
conflict reconstruction. Local actors on all levels also have a growing role during
Evaluation and assessment of conflict management activities, where money spent
on the right causes may be critical for the success or failure of a peace agreement.

There are thus important choices facing the external parties when investing in a
peace process, so as to follow the principle of "doing no harm". Grassroots are
easily swayed by demagogic or religious leaders who often use the manipulation of
public sentiments as a means in their struggle for power and popularity. As economic
and social conditions in a society worsen, be it because of the ongoing conflict or
because of internal political mismanagement, it is always very practical to put the
blame on the enemy group. External parties have to be careful not empower the
"wrong" local elites in such a struggle. Looking back at the breakdown of federal
Yugoslavia, many analysts put the blame entirely on Milosevic and the Serbian
civilian/military elites who used "ethnic rallying" to bolster their own power.
However, outside parties and sponsors also have to make sure not to leave out
important players from the process if these players are vital for the implementation
of an agreement. Outliers or extremist groups who are barred from negotiations or
who opt out because their demands are not met by an agreement, often feel that
they have nothing to loose from spoiling the process through extremist acts or
terrorism. In some cases the most extreme groups from either side of a conflict end

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up in an "unholy alliance" that opposes a peace process, thus in a way projecting

their own expectations of non-compliance on to the enemy.

What is conflict?
Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in
attitudes, beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and
personality differences. Other causes of conflict include trying to negotiate before the
timing is right or before needed information is available.

Dealing with Conflict:

Conflict occurs when individuals or groups are not obtaining what they need or want
and are seeking their own self-interest. Sometimes the individual is not aware of the
need and unconsciously starts to act out. Other times, the individual is very aware of
what he or she wants and actively works at achieving the goal.

How do people respond to conflict? Fight or flight?

Physiologically we respond to conflict in one of two wayswe want to get away from
the conflict or we are ready to take on anyone who comes our way. Think for a
moment about when you are in conflict. Do you want to leave or do you want to fight
when a conflict presents itself? Neither physiological response is good or badits
personal response. What is important to learn, regardless of our initial physiological
response to conflict, is that we should intentionally choose our response to conflict.
Whether we feel like we want to fight or flee when a conflict arises, we can
deliberately choose a conflict mode. By consciously choosing a conflict mode instead
of to conflict, we are more likely to productively contribute to solving the problem at
hand. Below are five conflict response modes that can be used in conflict.

Why learn more about conflict and conflict management?

Listening, oral communication, interpersonal communication, and teamwork rank

near the top of skills that employers seek in their new hires.3 When you learn to
effectively manage and resolve conflicts with others, then more opportunities for
successful team memberships are available to you.
If we can learn to manage this highly probable event called conflict (we average five
conflicts per day), then we are less apt to practice destructive behaviors that will
negatively impact our team. Although conflict may be misunderstood and
unappreciated, research shows that unresolved conflict can lead to aggression. Most
of us use conflict skills that we observed growing up, unless we have made a
conscious effort to change our conflict management style. Some of us observed good
conflict management, while others observed faulty conflict management. Most of us
have several reasons to improve our conflict-management skills.
Faculty members should help students develop their conflict management skills. Most
people do not resolve conflicts because they either have a faulty skill set and/or
because they do not know the organizations policy on conflict management. All team

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members need to know their conflict styles, conflict intervention methods, and
strategies for conflict skill improvement.

Conflict is inevitable:

o Conflict develops because we are dealing with people's lives, jobs, children,
pride, self-concept, ego and sense of mission or purpose.
o Early indicators of conflict can be recognized;
o There are strategies for resolution that are available and DO work.
o Although inevitable, conflict can be minimized, diverted and/or resolved.

Beginnings of conflict:

Poor communication
Seeking power
Dissatisfaction with management style
Weak leadership
Lack of openness
Change in leadership

Conflict indicators:

Body language
Disagreements, regardless of issue
Withholding bad news
Surprises
Strong public statements
Airing disagreements through media
Conflicts in value system
Desire for power
Increasing lack of respect
Open disagreement
Lack of candor on budget problems or other sensitive issues
Lack of clear goals
No discussion of progress, failure relative to goals, failure to evaluate the
superintendent fairly, thoroughly or at all.

The ingredients of Conflict:

Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well-being. Conflicts arise
when we ignore others' needs, our own needs or the group's needs. Be
careful not to confuse needs with desires (things we would like, but are not
essential).

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Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in

the severity, causes and consequences of problems. Misperceptions or
differing perceptions may come from: self-perceptions, others' perceptions,
differing perceptions of situations and perceptions of threat.

Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the
number and types of conflicts that occur. This also influences how conflict is
managed. Conflicts can arise when people try to make others change their
actions or to gain an unfair advantage.

Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider to be very important.

Serious conflicts arise when people hold incompatible values or when values
are not clear. Conflicts also arise when one party refuses to accept the fact
that the other party holds something as a value rather than a preference.

Feelings and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a
major influence over how they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur
because people ignore their own or others' feelings and emotions. Other
conflicts occur when feelings and emotions differ over a particular issue.

Conflict is destructive when it:

Takes attention away from other important activities

Undermines morale or self-concept
Polarizes people and groups, reducing cooperation
Increases or sharpens difference
Leads to irresponsible and harmful behavior, such as fighting, name-calling

Conflict is not always negative:

Conflict is constructive when it:

Results in clarification of important problems and issues

Results in solutions to problems
Involves people in resolving issues important to them
Causes authentic communication
Helps release emotion, anxiety, and stress
Builds cooperation among people through learning more about each other;
joining in resolving the conflict
Helps individuals develop understanding and skills
In fact, it can be healthy when effectively managed. Healthy conflict can lead
to...
Growth and innovation
New ways of thinking
Additional management options

If the conflict is understood, it can be effectively managed by reaching a consensus

that meets both the individual's and society's needs. This results in mutual benefits
and strengthens the relationship. The goal is for all to "win" by having at least some
of their needs met.

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How public and private conflicts differ?

o Most of us have experience with conflict management and negotiation in

private disputes (with a salesman, among family members or with your
employer).

o Public conflicts, like those that can occur during watershed management
efforts and other environmental issues often are rooted in trying to balance
environmental protection and economic growth and jobs.

o Keep in mind, however, that effective watershed management can result in

both economic and environmental benefits. Some complicating factors
include:

Distribution of costs and benefits: Those who benefit may not be the
same as those who pay the costs.

Perceptions of problems: People tend to blame others for causing the

problem.

Speed of clean-up or other actions: Some will want changes to take

place more quickly than others.

WHAT DOES CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AIM AT:

Conflict Management aims to:

Prevent the eruption of destructive conflict.
Facilitate a move from violent to spoken conflict
Enable a transformation from conflict to lasting peace by addressing
root causes and effects of conflict.
The Conflict Management Toolkit identifies five devices or strategies of conflict
management:
Conflict Prevention
Peacemaking
Peacekeeping
Peace building

Conflict Prevention:

Conflict Prevention is the object of a wide range of policies and initiatives; its aim is
to avoid the violent escalation of a dispute. Conflict Prevention includes:

Monitoring and/or intervening to stabilize a potentially violent conflict before

its outbreak by initiating activities that address the root causes as well as the
triggers of a dispute.

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Establishing mechanisms that detect early warning signs and record specific
indicators that may help to predict impending violence.
Using planned coordination to prevent the creation of conflict when delivering
humanitarian aid and in the process of development.
Institutionalizing the idea of preventing conflict at the local, regional, and
international levels.

The concept and practice of Conflict Prevention evolved from being focused almost
exclusively on Preventive Diplomacy, to a new more comprehensive approach that
can be defined as Structural Prevention. This new approach includes long-term
initiatives targeting the root causes of conflict. The evolution of Conflict Prevention as
a practice will depend on the necessary resources being committed to Conflict
Prevention initiatives in the future. Conflict Prevention faces serious problems in this
respect because it is extremely difficult to evaluate whether conflict prevention
initiatives have been responsible for a conflict not having happened.

It is possible to distinguish three sets of elements that compose the process of

Conflict Prevention:

The definition of the context with reference to the nature of a conflict, its
causes, and its cyclical phases;
The use of mechanisms to monitor indicators and signs to forewarn
impending violence; and
The selection of the specific initiatives to be taken.

Peacemaking:

The Peacemaking section of the Theory category focuses primarily on the negotiation
process, as it forms the basis for mediation, conciliation, and arbitration.

Definition: Peacemaking

Peacemaking is the diplomatic effort intended to move a violent conflict into

nonviolent dialogue, where differences are normally settled through representative
political institutions. The objective of peacemaking is to end the violence between the
contending parties. A peace agreement is the desired end result of negotiations;
such an agreement can be comprehensive or limited. To be sustainable, peace
agreements have to include all key players of the conflict, end destructive
violence, which is often established through a ceasefire agreement, and address the
root causes of the conflict. The peace agreement should outline the means to
strengthen a non-violent process of conflict de-escalation that ultimately leads to the
transformation or resolution of the root causes of the violence. Peacemaking can
be done through negotiation, mediation, conciliation, and arbitration. International
law provides another channel through international courts.

Peacekeeping:

Peacekeeping is a military third-party intervention to assist the transition from

violent conflict to stable peace. Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs) contribute to this

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goal providing security; supporting and facilitating other non-military initiatives; and
making available the tool of military force. PKOs evolved from neutral monitoring
missions to complex multi task endeavors. Their effectiveness is heavily influenced
by their institutional structure and by practices at the operational level. A theoretical
analysis of Peacekeeping should go beyond a historical perspective, to define
theoretical guidelines that help distinguish between different types of missions.
This distinction allows to best match the types of intervention with conflicts; to guide
training programs for peacekeepers; and to set the criteria to measure the
effectiveness of the operations.

Peace building:

These web pages outline target areas for Peace building efforts. For the complex
process of post-conflict reconstruction, all of these subject matters should be
considered for a comprehensive strategy.

Peace building is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and
tries to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and effects of
conflict through reconciliation, institution building and political as well as economic
transformation.

Peace building initiatives are not limited to the post-conflict environment. Most of the
tasks described above are effective tools to prevent conflicts. Furthermore, a
negotiated peace-agreement should include an agenda for reconstruction to
secure sustainability. And during peacekeeping missions the first steps into post-
conflict reconstruction can be taken. Reconstruction should be multidimensional and
multi sect oral.

Peace building is complex and results materialize only in the medium and long-term.
A great number of agents engage in a wide variety of reconstruction efforts. These
efforts include addressing the functional and emotional dimensions of peace building
in specified target areas, such as civil society and legal institutions, among others.
Evaluating the success and failure of peace building efforts is therefore especially
challenging.

Tasks

Create an environment conducive to self-sustaining and durable

peace: Resolve the problems of willingness to cooperate. Social and economic
transformation is paramount for the establishment of durable peace.
Reconcile opponents: Consider the psychological and emotional
components of protracted conflict and the relationships between antagonist
groups.
Address structural and social factors: Direct efforts towards
transformation of the conditions that caused the conflict.
Prevent conflict from re-emerging: Create mechanisms that enhance
cooperation and dialogue among different identity groups in order to manage
conflict of interests with peaceful means.

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Integrate civil society in all efforts: Include all levels of society in the
post-conflict strategy. Design political transformation to include civil society in
decision making (bottom-up and top-down approaches).
Establish mechanisms to handle issues of justice: Set up institutions
that aim to avoid impunity of crimes that were committed during the conflict
(truth commissions, war crime tribunals, fact finding missions).

Dimensions

In carrying out the tasks, Peace building should address all dimensions of society;
the societal and state structures as well as the emotional conditions of individuals.

Functional structures: Building institutions that provide procedures for

channeling conflict into acceptable solution mechanisms.
Emotional conditions and social psychology: So much less tangible than
the physical destruction of war, the effects of conflict on the psychology of
individuals and a society are as profound as they are neglected. If the
attitudes that lead to conflict are to be mitigated, and if it is taken that
psychology drives attitudes and behaviors of individuals and their
collectivities, then new emphasis must be placed on understanding the social
psychology of conflict and its consequences.
Social stability: Restoring peaceful interaction among groups on the
horizontal as well as on the vertical levels.
Rule of law/ethics: Re-establishing social norms, the rule of law and ethics
in the population.
Cultural dimension: Understanding the needs and cultural peculiarities of
the affected groups.

Agents

Peace building targets all levels of society as well as all aspects of the state
structure. Therefore, a wide variety of different agents engage in the implementation
of post-conflict reconstruction. Notice that success requires local ownership, thus
external agents (international organizations and NGOs) can only facilitate and
support Peace building, but can never impose it.

International organizations intervene at the governmental level on request

of the affected country. Their engagement carries the legitimacy of the
international community, thus they have the ability to change and transform
established structures.
Donor institutions provide the necessary funding for Peace building
projects. International organizations are the largest donors. Private
foundations contribute through project-based financing.
Regional institutions are international organizations with a regional
mandate. They fund and/or implement Peace building strategies
NGOs in most cases carry out small-scale projects to strengthen the grass-
root level of affected countries.
The Government of the affected country is subject as well as object of Peace
building. The government structures are often changed after conflicts. At the
same time, the government oversees and engages in reconstruction.

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Specialists (lawyers, economists, scholars, educators, teachers) are

employed to carry out the specific Peace building projects. Their expertise
plays an important role for the reconstruction of the state and transformation
of society.
Religious networks can play an important role for the reestablishment of
moral ethics. Their role might be questionable in cases where the conflict had
been aggravated by religious differences in the population.
Academia provides important insights for practitioners through research and
theories, which are derived thereof.

MANAGING CONFLICT
There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:
Analyze the conflict
Determine management strategy
Pre-negotiation
Negotiation
Post-negotiation

Step 1: Analyze the conflict:

o The first step in managing conflict is to analyze the nature and type of
conflict. To do this, you'll find it helpful to ask questions.

o Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media
coverage. You may want to actually interview some of the groups involved.

Step 2: Determine management strategy:

o Once you have a general understanding of the conflict, the groups involved
will need to analyze and select the most appropriate strategy. In some cases
it may be necessary to have a neutral facilitator to help move the groups
toward consensus.

Conflict Management Strategies:

Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation
Avoidance

Collaboration

o This results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with
a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win."

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o This strategy is generally used when concerns for others are important. It is
also generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This
approach helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings.
o The drawbacks are that it takes time and energy. In addition, some partners
may take advantage of the others' trust and openness.
o Generally regarded as the best approach for managing conflict, the objective
of collaboration is to reach consensus

Compromise

o This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests along
with a moderate concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is
"win some/lose some."
o This strategy is generally used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid
destructive power struggles or when time pressures exist.
o One drawback is that partners can lose sight of important values and long-
term objectives. This approach can also distract the partners from the merits
of an issue and create a cynical climate.

Competition

o This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests with
less concern for others. The outcome is "win/lose."
o This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when
basic rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the
conflict to escalate and losers may try to retaliate.

Accommodation

o These results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined
with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is
"lose/win."
o This strategy is generally used when the issue is more important to others
than to you. It is a "goodwill gesture." It is also appropriate when you
recognize that you are wrong.
o The drawbacks are that your own ideas and concerns don't get attention. You
may also lose credibility and future influence.

Avoidance

o These results from a low concern for your group's own interests coupled with
a low concern for the interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose."
o This strategy is generally used when the issue is trivial or other issues are
more pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for
damage or more information is needed.
o The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.

Conflict Analysis Exercise:

Think of a controversial issue to analyze. On a separate sheet of paper, answer these
questions.

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Groups involved
Who are the groups involved?
Who do they represent?
How are they organized?
What is their power base?
Are the groups capable of working together?
What are the historical relationships among the groups?

Substance
How did the conflict arise?
How are the main and secondary issues described?
Can negative issues be reframed positively?
Are the issues negotiable?
Have positions been taken and, if so, are there common interests?
What information is available and what other information is needed?
What values or interests are challenged?

Possible strategies
Would consensus serve all interests?
Are there external constraints or other influences that must be
accommodated?
What are the past experiences (if any) of the groups working together?
What is the timeline for a decision?
How will the public and the media be involved and informed?
Will an outside negotiator be needed?

Step 3: Pre-negotiation:

To set the stage for effective negotiation, the groundwork must be laid. The following
should occur prior to negotiation.

Initiation
One partner raises the possibility of negotiation and begins the process. If no one is
willing to approach the others to encourage them to reach an agreement, a trusted
outsider could be brought in as a facilitator.

Assessment
o Conditions must be right for negotiation to be successful.
o Key players must be identified and invited.
o Each side must be willing to collaborate with the others. Reasonable deadlines
and sufficient resources to support the effort must exist.
o Spokespersons for each group must be identified and involved.
o Parties need to determine which issues are negotiable and which are not.

Ground rules and agenda

o The groups must agree on ground rules for communication, negotiation and
decision making.
o They should agree on the objectives of the negotiation process.
o An agenda of issues to be covered needs to be developed.

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Organization
o Meeting logistics must be established, including agreed upon times and
places.
o People must be contacted and encouraged to attend.
o Minutes must be taken so that information can be distributed before and
after meetings.

Joint fact-finding
o The groups must agree on what information is relevant to the conflict. This
should include what is known and not known about social and technical
issues.
o Agreement is also needed on methods for generating answers to questions.

Step 4: Negotiation:

Interests
o When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated
positions.
o Interests include the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying
positions. Satisfaction of interests should be the common goal.

Options
o To resolve conflicts, concentrate on inventing options for satisfying interests.
o Do not judge ideas or favor any of the options suggested.
o Encourage creativity, not commitment.

Evaluation
o Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be
discussed.
o Determine together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests.

Written agreement
o Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common
understanding.
o This helps ensure that agreements can be remembered and communicated
clearly.

Commitment
o Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of
the agreement.
o Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honor
their commitments.

When evaluating options...

o Use objective criteria for ranking ideas
o Make trade-offs among different issues

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o Combine different options to form acceptable agreements

Step 5: Post-negotiation:

Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.
Some key steps include:

Ratification

o The partners must get support for the agreement from organizations that
have a role to play in the agreement.
o These organizations should be partners and should have been involved in the
previous steps.
o Each organization will need to follow its own procedures to review and adopt
the agreement.

Implementation

o You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached agreement.
o Communication and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried
out.
o The partnership will need to have a plan to monitor progress, document
success, resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.

Negotiation skills:

o Negotiation is an important skill for coming to an agreement when conflicts

develop at home, at work and when dealing with issues like those related to
watershed management. When negotiating...

Separate people from the problem:

When negotiating, remember you're dealing with people who have their own unique
needs, emotions and perceptions.

Some conflicts are based on differences in thinking and perceptions:

These conflicts may exist mainly in peoples' minds. It helps for each party to put
themselves into the other's shoes so they can understand each other's point of view.

Identify and openly discuss differences in perceptions:

Be careful not to place blame. In addition, recognize and understand the other side's
emotions as well as your own.

Interest vs. Position:

o People often confuse interests with positions.

o An interest may be reducing litter in roadside ditches. There are many
possible ways of addressing this interest.
o One might be the position of mandatory recycling. Another position might be
a deposit on bottles and cans. Still another could be organizing a clean-up
day.

Focus on interests, not positions:

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o Focusing on interests, rather than positions, makes it possible to come up

with better agreements.
o Even when people stand on opposite positions, they usually have a few
shared interests.

o It takes time and effort to identify interests.

o Groups may not even be clear about their own interests. It helps to write
down each group's interests as they are discovered.

o It helps to ask why others take the positions or make the decisions they do.
Partners will have multiple interests.

o Interests involving important human needs (such as security, economic well-

being, a sense of belonging, recognition and control over one's life) are
difficult to negotiate.

Develop optional solutions:

o When developing optional solutions that meet the interests of all sides, try to
meet as many of each side's interests as possible.
o Start by inviting all sides to brainstorm ideas (before reaching a decision).
o Brainstorming is discussed in the Leading & Communicating guide.

Some obstacles to developing innovative options are:

Judging and rejecting prematurely
Searching for a single best answer
Putting limits on scope or vision
Considering only your own interests

To overcome these obstacles, view the situation through the eyes of different
partners. Focus on shared interests to make the process smoother for all involved.
Look for meaningful opportunities, not simple solutions.

Developing objective criteria:

o When developing criteria for selecting or combining possible alternatives,

revisit the conflicting interests.
o These can't be ignored or "wished" away. Instead discuss them as you begin
developing criteria for judging alternatives.
o Also keep in mind principles such as fairness, efficiency and scientific merit.

Strive for criteria that are legitimate, practical and unbiased. You may also find it
helps to explore the criteria used in making past decisions and discuss criteria with
your partners or outside experts.

Ways People Deal With Conflict:

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There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation.
Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict.

1. Avoid it: Pretend it is not there or ignore it.

a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approach tends
to worsen the conflict over time.

2. Accommodate it: Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you

compromise yourself.
a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situations
when you know that you will have another more useful approach in the very
near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and
causes conflicts within you.

3. Competing: Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the
issue. Competitors love accommodators.
a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.

4. Compromising: Mutual give-and-take.

a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.

5. Collaborating: Focus on working together.

a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual
resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.

How might you select your conflict management style?

There are times when we have a choice to engage in or avoid a conflict. The
following six variables should be considered when you decide whether to engage in a
conflict.
1. How invested in the relationship are you?

The importance of the working/personal relationship often dictates whether you will
engage in a conflict. If you value the person and/or the relationship, going through
the process of conflict resolution is important.
2. How important is the issue to you?
Even if the relationship is not of great value to you, one must often engage in conflict
if the issue is important to you. For example, if the issue is a belief, value, or
regulation that you believe in or are hired to enforce, then engaging in the conflict is
necessary. If the relationship and the issue are both important to you, there is an
even more compelling reason to engage in the conflict.
3. Do you have the energy for the conflict?
Many of us say, There is not time to do all that I want to do in a day. Often the
issue is not how much time is available but how much energy we have for what we
need to do. Even in a track meet, runners are given recovery time before they have
to run another race. Energy, not time, is being managed in these situations.
4. Are you aware of the potential consequences?

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Prior to engaging in a conflict, thinking about anticipated consequences from

engaging in the conflict is wise. For example, there may be a risk for your safety, a
risk for job loss, or an opportunity for a better working relationship. Many times
people will engage in conflict and then be shocked by the outcome or consequence of
engaging in the conflict. Thoughtful reflection about the consequences, both positive
and negative, is useful before engaging in or avoiding a conflict.
5. Are you ready for the consequences?
After analyzing potential consequences, determine whether you are prepared for the
consequences of engaging in the conflict. For example, one employee anticipated a
job loss if she continued to engage in the conflict she was having with her boss over
a particular issue. After careful consideration, the employee thought and believed
strongly enough about the issue that she did engage in the conflict with her boss.
Her annual contract was not renewed for the upcoming year. Because this individual
had thought through the consequences of engaging in the conflict, she was prepared
to be without a job for a while and able to financially and emotionally plan for this
outcome. Most consequences of engaging in conflict are not this severe, but this
example illustrates the value of thinking through consequences.

6. What are the consequences if you do not engage in the conflict?

To avoid losing a sense of self, there are times when you must engage in conflict.
Most people have core values, ideas, beliefs, or morals. If a person is going to
sacrifice one of their core beliefs by avoiding a conflict, personal loss of respect must
be considered. In such cases, even if a person is not excited about confronting the
conflict, one must carefully consider the consequences of evading the conflict. When
the personal consequences of turning away from the conflict outweigh all other
factors, then a person usually must take part in the conflict.
Rationale
"Students do not come to school with all the social skills they need to collaborate
effectively with others. Therefore, teachers need to teach the appropriate
communication, leadership, trust, decision making, and conflict management skills to
students and provide the motivation to use these skills in order for groups to function
effectively. Faculty must take responsibility to help students develop their skills to
participate on and lead teams.
How might individual students apply this information to improve their
conflict management skills?

Applying the preceding information about the five different modes of conflict
management, factors affecting models of conflict management, and processes for
selecting one or more approaches to conflict involves both self-awareness and an
awareness of the others involved in the conflict. In terms of self-awareness,
reflecting on the following questions would provide useful information in selecting
how to approach a conflict situation.
1 1. Am I in conflict?
2 2. With whom am I in conflict?
3 3. Why am I motivated to resolve the conflict?
4 4. What conflict mode am I going to use to manage this conflict?

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Since conflict involves at least two people, improving awareness of the other party
involved in a conflict might also be useful in choosing how to approach a conflict
situation. Reflecting on the following questions might improve awareness of the other
party involved in a confliction.
1 1. What is the nature of the conflict, that is, what is the conflict about?
2 2. What might motivate the other person(s) involved to resolve the conflict?
3 3. What conflict modes is the other person using?
4 4. How might I Intervene to resolve/manage the conflict?

Learning more about conflict allows greater intentionality in selecting a conflict

response. Most people have set reactions to conflicts. By learning more about
principles of conflict, conflict modes, and reflection on the above questions, we can
be more intentional in deciding on a conflict response. Greater intentionality will
likely lead to more effective conflict management. The following examples provide
additional suggestions that individuals might use to improve their conflict
management skills.

Individual Reflection Exercise

In addition to reflecting on the preceding questions, Karl Smith6 suggests that the
following exercise might provide individuals with valuable information about their
perspectives on conflict.
Exercise:
Write the word conflict in the center of a blank piece of paper and draw a circle
around it. Quickly jot down all the words and phrases you associate with the word
conflict by arranging them around your circle. Review your list of associations and
categorize them as positive, negative, or neutral. Count the total number of positive,
negative, and neutral associations, and calculate the percentages that are positive,
negative, and neutral. Did you have more than 90% positive? Did you have more
than 90% negative?
What do your associations with the word conflict indicate about your views about
conflict and your approach to conflict?
Learning About Your Conflict Modes
Review brief descriptions of the five modes and choose your primary conflict mode.
Supplementing individual reflection on conflict modes, you might find out more about
your modes of conflict using instruments that are available. Completing the
questionnaire, scoring your responses, and reflecting on your answers might provide
valuable information about your approaches to conflict. The TKI is a more recent
instrument that is based on the Blake and Mouton conflict model and provides
information about your conflict modes in terms of the modes. Taking the TKI
assessment would provide information about your primary conflict modes. Equipped
with this information, additional individual reflection would help you to determine
your current level of comfort with your conflict resolution styles. Then, you might
decide whether you want to make changes.
Creating an Individual Conflict Management Plan
Create a conflict management plan. A conflict management plan is a thought and
behavior process one can follow when in conflict. A person creates a list of steps

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she/he can follow when a conflict comes up so that the person can productively
manage/solve the conflict. These steps have to be thoughts or behaviors that can be
realistically done. The literature shows that, if we can identify we are in conflict and
can then implement a conflict management plan, our opportunity for resolution of
the conflict increases significantly. We identify we are in conflict by identifying our
physiological responses when in conflict and by identifying thoughts and feelings we
are having that trigger us to realize that we are experiencing a conflict. There are
three steps to making a conflict plan. First, write down what physiological responses
you have when you know you are in conflict (e.g., my palms are sweaty, my heart is
racing). Second, write down what thoughts you typically have when in a conflict
(e.g., I want to hurt him; I want to just get away from her). Finally, list 48 steps
you can follow to help you manage your thoughts and emotions in a productive way
to manage/solve your conflict
Listening
Improving listening skills is one approach to improving conflict management skills.

How might a student team apply this information to

improve its approaches to conflict and/or skills in
managing conflict within the team?

Applying the preceding information about the five different modes of conflict
management, factors affecting models of conflict management, and processes for
selecting one or more approaches to conflict within the context of a student team
involves increasing the awareness of the each of the team members about the way
the other team members view conflict and how the other team members approach
conflict. There are two basic types of team activities.
1 In the first type of team activity, individual team members learn more about their
perspectives and approaches to conflict through either individual reflection or
appropriate instruments. Then, the individuals share with their team members
what they have learned.
2 In the second type, the team engages in an activity that simulates a hopefully
low level of conflict. Then, the team reflects about its actions, learns from its
experiences, and develops ways to address conflict more constructively in the
future.

The following examples provide suggestions for possible team activities.

Collaborating with Different Individual Conflict Modes
Ask each member to complete the exercise on the preceding page in which she/he
identifies their primary mode of conflict management. Then, ask each individual
team member to share her/his own primary mode of conflict management and to
provide examples that illustrate that mode. Next, ask the team to identify potential
strengths for the combination of different styles and potential problems that might
arise with the combination of conflict management modes. Finally, ask the team to
develop strategies to minimize potential problems and build on their strengths.
Developing a Positive Team Perspective about Conflict
Start with the individual reflection exercise on the preceding page in which each
member writes the word conflict and associates different words or phrases with

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conflict. Then, ask each member to share the insights she/he learned through the
individual reflection. Next, ask the team to take all of the positive associations with
conflict and combine them together to construct positive ways in which the team
might view conflict. Finally, ask the team to take all of the negative associations with
conflict and devise ways in which the negative associates might be eliminated or
minimized.
Developing a Consensus Decision
Ask teams to rank fifteen causes of death in the country in terms of their frequency
of occurrence. These types of exercises can stimulate team development in several
ways. One of the ways is to provoke a low level of conflict within the team and to
learn from its experience. After completing the exercise, the team can debrief its
performance. The team might address several questions. What were the positive
aspects in the way we handled conflict? How did our various modes of conflict
management help our performance? How did our various modes of conflict
management hinder our performance? How might we improve the ways in which we
managed conflict within our team?

Intrateam Communication
Improving intrateam communication can reduce the likelihood of conflict and
increase the chances for faster, more effective management of conflict when it
occurs.

Case study: Dr Agadir

The letter from the plant pathology department was very strong. It concluded by
observing:
"If this is the attitude of the biochemistry department, we shall have no research in
collaboration with them as of now. Not only do they lack a healthy attitude towards
collaborative work, they have often refused to share achievements. Now they want
to stifle our work on cocoa swollen shoot virus, notwithstanding the fact that we have
been working on it for over a decade. We would of course continue our work in this
area, but without the biochemistry department."
Dr (Mrs.) Swanson, Executive Director, Cocoa Research Institute of Savana (CRIS)
put down the letter and was quite annoyed. She had known that there was trouble
between the biochemistry and plant pathology departments, or rather between two
senior scientists of these departments. She had not expected it to reach this level.
There had been several instances of conflicts between the scientists and their
divisions, but the conflicts had never reached boiling point. They were usually
resolved amicably, even before the executive director took note of them. Mostly the
conflicts arose over allocation of plots for experiments, budgetary allocations and
participation in international conferences.
Scientists designed their experiments in consultation with the statistician. They
would then apply for a plot of land, providing a drawing of the area for laying out the
experiment. The request would be considered by the plots committee, consisting of
the heads of the research divisions and head of the plantation division. Each division
had a certain land area allocated to it, and it could use that land for its experiments
as agreed upon within the division. The plots committee simply took note of that.
Difficulties arose when the land belonging to some other division was sought, and in
particular when the other division did not want to release its land. In the recent past

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there were some problems with the plant breeding department over a large piece of
land on which a cocoa plantation had stood from the very beginning of the institute.
The plantation had to be destroyed because of a large-scale disease infestation which
was impossible to cure. When the land was cleared, almost all other divisions put in a
request for parts of the land for their experiments. The plant breeding department
resented these requests, and there were heated discussions in the plots committee.
The issue was somehow resolved satisfactorily within the plots committee. The plant
breeding department retained most of the land, although a small part was
temporarily allocated to other divisions for their experiments.
Objections were often raised by scientists when an area proposed for use in an
experiment was considered by them to be unsuitable. For example, all experiments
on virus studies had to be conducted on land at the edge of the experimental farm so
as to isolate them from other experiments; otherwise they might be a source of
infection and spread the virus diseases. In such cases, a scientist had to give up a
preferred location. Frequently the scientists asked for a larger area than was
necessary for their experiments. In those cases, the statistician - who was a
permanent invitee to the meetings of the plots committee - was asked to review the
experimental design with the scientists. When the plots committee denied the
request for allocation of a particular plot, for whatever reason, it helped find another
plot.
Occasionally a proposed experiment might not be appropriate for a particular
purpose, even though the scientist proposing the experiment might insist on it. Such
cases were also resolved through peer intervention within the division concerned.
Conflicts over allocation of funds were not unusual, with every division trying to get
more so that its research program could proceed smoothly. Participation in
international conferences also led to some conflict among the competing scientists.
Conflicts over sharing of scientific material and equipment were not uncommon. But
all such conflicts were temporary, and had never affected the work culture of the
institute.
However, the conflict between the plant pathology and biochemistry departments
was different. It was a conflict between two departments which had always
collaborated in the past. It was a conflict between two senior scientists who had
worked together on the same problem over a decade, and had jointly published their
work in respected journals. For some strange reason, friends had become foes. In
the process, they had vitiated to some extent the research environment of the
institute.

Dr Agadir
(As narrated by Dr Agadir)
Dr Agadir joined CRIS as a Research Assistant (now re-designated as Assistant
Research Officer) in 1965. That was soon after he had obtained his first degree in
biochemistry. He was put in what was then the chemistry division, which comprised
both soil science and biochemistry. The biochemistry wing was at that time mainly
engaged in research on cocoa swollen shoot virus, in collaboration with the pathology
division. Collaboration between various research divisions was part of the culture of
the institute, as it was always necessary, particularly so between plant pathology and
biochemistry. There had been close collaboration between the virologists, breeders
and biochemists in the study of screening techniques, detection of infection,
symptomatology, etc., for research studies on cocoa swollen shoot virus.

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Dr Agadir was asked to work on various aspects of the cocoa swollen shoot virus
purification problem. His work during the period 1965-66 was published in a
respected professional journal. In September 1966, Dr Agadir went to the University
of Sheffield to do a doctoral programme. He successfully defended his research
thesis in 1969, was awarded his PhD, and returned to the institute. He was then
promoted to research officer. Dr Asmera, the then director of CRIS, suggested
several research problems to Dr Agadir. He selected four problems:
(i) Pesticide residues in cocoa beans,
(ii) Cocoa bio-products (pectin and cocoa husk),
(iii) Cocoa swollen shoot virus purification, and
(iv) Nutrition of mealy bugs.
The last problem was in fact suggested by a Swedish biologist who was interested in
rearing mealy bugs artificially and feeding them on a liquid diet. He was keen to
know the most desired composition of the diet. The interest in mealy bugs arose
because they are the vectors of cocoa swollen shoot virus.
By 1972, Dr Agadir had published in several scientific journals. His work on mealy
bugs and pectin was well received. These were independent publications. By then, Dr
Agadir was working as the main biochemist since Mr R.H. Wode, who was part of an
Overseas Development Administration (ODA) technical team from the United
Kingdom, had left for Rustberg at about the time Dr Agadir returned from Sheffield in
1969.
Dr Agadir recalls that his collaborative work with Dr Ouadda began in 1969 when the
latter suggested a research project on factors which affected virus multiplication and
symptom development in cocoa. This problem was originally suggested to Dr Ouadda
by the chief of the ODA team. Since this involved research in biochemistry, both Dr
Ouadda and Dr Agadir teamed up. Together they published some research papers.
Dr Ouadda left for the University of Dublin to do a PhD. From 1971 to 1974, while Dr
Ouadda was away, Dr Agadir continued to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus
purification. The plant pathology department was providing infected material, such as
cocoa beans and leaves, but no pathologist was involved directly in the research
work.
Dr Agadir faced several impediments in his work. He felt that the head of the ODA
technical team, himself a plant pathologist, did not want him to work on cocoa
swollen shoot virus. The ODA team had been working on cocoa swollen shoot virus
for many years without making much progress. In contrast, Dr Agadir was already
claiming remarkable progress. The ODA team brought back Dr C.H. Cantor to
continue work on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Dr Cantor came as a plant pathologist
and not as a biochemist.

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CONCLUSION
Productively engaging in conflict is always valuable. Most

people are willing and interested in resolving their conflicts;

they just need the appropriate skill set and opportunities in

which to practice this skill set. Without a conflict skill set,

people want to avoid conflict, hoping it will go away or not

wanting to make a big deal out of nothing. Research and

personal experiences show us that, when we avoid conflict,

the conflict actually escalates and our thoughts and feelings

become more negative.

Through conflict self-awareness we can more effectively

manage our conflicts and therefore our professional and

personal relationships. Furthermore, by discussing issues

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related to conflict management, teams can establish an

expected protocol to be followed by team members when in

conflict. All teams and organizations have a conflict culture

(the way the team responds to conflict). However, most

teams never discuss what the conflict culture is, therefore

providing the opportunity for individual team members to

make assumptions that can be counterproductive to the

team.

Practicing ones conflict management skills leads to more

successful engagement in conflict with outcomes of relief,

understanding, better communication, and greater

productivity for both the individual and the team. When we

manage our conflicts more effectively, we use less energy on

the burdensome tasks such as systemic conflict and get to

spend more of our energy on our projects at work and

building our relationships. Below are references that can

assist both individuals and teams to greater conflict

management success.

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In a world where huge friction exists between individuals,

Conflict Management becomes an area which needs to be

addressed very seriously & the topic should be inculcated in

the B-Schools & Corporate around the world.

BIBLOGRAPHY

The information has been collected from the following:

www.soople.com
www.google.com
Organizational Behavior by Stephens Robbins.
The Times of India (Sunday Edition).
The case study has been copied from www.wikipedia.com
Power Point Presentations have been adapted from the text.

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