You are on page 1of 30

'p / i i t f a f a l

r a r a p i $ v t e M i * t e '5'S S ^ ^ ^ f e t e j 'i ^
s V / / ::- - r-:; ' :: ^ i : ; : ; ' ,. / 5 ; '/ ''- : ? ,: . C ^ - V '! ;
, K : ; / 7 r - 's
7 3 P ? S % r : W i ' S S W ' i r ': 7 7

V 'w a # '

^ B H R a W tW

C o u rte s y O re g o n S tuie H ig h w ay D ep-w uncr.i

197! A N N U A L M EETING f
The 14th annual meeting of the Association of Engineering Geologists
will lie held in Portland, Oregon, October 19-22, 1971. 7 heme for the
meeting will be Tools o f the Engineering Geologist. Field trips are
planned lo r the 19th and 20th and tentatively for the 23rd and 24th. j
Technical sessions are scheduled for the 21st and 22nd. On the 21st two
unstructured sessions will he held concurrently. Papers on research projects,
case histories, planning, environment, design, construction and other topics <
related to engineering geology are invited. Symposia on the subjects, In- j
strumenttk>n-Practical Applications and Results and Rock Support
Systems-Underground and Open Excavations will be held on October 22nd.
Speaker* are being invited to participate in the symposia. Each symposium
will include five speakers who will also serve as panel members during a
one hour discussion period after their presentations.
Additional information may be obtained from R. K. Dodds and/or J; L.
Holland, Co-Chairman, AEG 1971 Annual Meeting Committee, P. O. Box
K70H, Portland, Oregon 97208, j.

. " ' *' 1 4


U
. . . . '
I[
I . , RuUelin of the
: ..JwanocUiian o i E n g in e c a irx O c o ku jte u
.. --:" ^ -^ V tiL V m ,rtiCI. -.......
'...:. 'j-. . ."' v;it?5 , K ..c : /.
R IC H A R D J. PROCTOR ... u ir , 3.

Mapping Geological
f \ Conditions in Tunnels
i '
including
I; C>uides
| Tunneling G lo ssa ry , an d
f T unneling R iblio g ra p h y

* .'
A bstract

This paper hopes to assist the geologist in standardizing terminology


and descriptions for mapping in tunnels. Relations of the geologist wish
the engineer are evaluated, together with tunnel mapping problems, and
the usefulness of the as-built tunnel log. Tw o classic works on tunnel
geology by the late Kar! Terzaghi present a numerical guide to rock
loads and rock conditions as observed in tunnels (1946) and discuss
... " soft-ground conditions in tunnels (1 9 5 0 ). A Combined Terzaghi R oik
and Soft-Ground Tunnel Conditions Guide (T able V ), which correlates
hard rock and soft-ground (boring machine) tunneling, is here proposed. ...- i
A higher Terzaghi Rock Condition N u m b e r indicates a greater degree
of tunnel excavation difficulty, hazard, and expense. Other proposed
guides suggest forms for reporting observations, give examples of typical
tunnel supports required with each rock condition, and show representa
tive rock types for each condition.
The Glossary defines terms in common usage in tunnel construction,
and includes geologic terms to describe tunnel rock conditions.
The Bibliography is keyed to four tunneling categories, plus a list of
journals and serials pertinent to tunneling, and a list of engineering
geology textbooks. Only English language publications are included.

!; M a p p in g in T unnels

N eed fo r G uides

\ p
D e c a u s e the tunnel geologist is re tain ed by an engineering firm,
a co n tra cto r, o r a tunnel ow ner he m ust relate rock conditions to
econom ics an d safety, and m ap and d escrib e rock conditions pri
m arily fo r engineers and know ledgeable laym en, an d secondarily
f1
Richard J. Proctor is Head of the Engineering Geology Branch of The Metro
politan Water District of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.

[1]
** Ki / V*** 1
for his wRcHgUCS,. T u n n el tetfd iio lo g y rarely h as b u . i stan d ard iz ed
itnd o fte n vagc-.; ^ ro c k tlc sc rib e d as fa ir ljr
v h ard , fe w io fn ts , stands well" by one geologist m ay be considered
, Tresh a n d blocky, stands fairly w ell b y an o th er. B u t how should
the o b serv ed characteristics an d beh av io r o f the ro ck be described?
D e scrip tio n s o f rock conditions (n<st rock ty p es) need to be s ta n
d ard iz ed a n d quantified (R ose, 1 9 6 5 ).
A p a n e l report o f the C om m ittee on R ap id E x cav atio n (1 9 6 8 ,
p. 43 ) sta te s, C om m unication am ong the geologist, the designer,
a n d the co n stru ctio n engineer w ould be greatly im proved by the
a d o p tio n o f a widely accepted stan d ard ized ro ck classification. j
H isto rically , C harles P. B erkeys re p o rt to the C ity of New Y o rk
in 1911 w a s possibly the first significant A m eric an geologic rep o rt i X
o n tu n n e ls d irected to civil engineers. His re p o rt w as later expanded
in to a definitive case history (B erk ey an d S an b o rn , 1 9 2 2 ). 1
O n e e a rly attem pt by a geologist to classify rock fo r engineering
p u rp o ses w as by Smith (1 9 1 9 ) , w ho was called u p o n to investigate
rock c o n d itio n s for proposed cuts. Sm ith fo u n d , to his dism ay,
th at th e ra ilro a d s construction engineers w ere using this descriptive
classificatio n : ( 1 ) solid rock, ( 2 ) sandstone, ( 3 ) cem en t, ( 4 )
shale, ( 5 ) e a rth . T h e engineer' responsible fo r to d ay s p ro jec t (
m ay re s o rt to sim ilarly unique classifications, unless rock co n d i
tions are described in clear, m eaningful term s (e.g ., V anserve,
1 9 5 2 ).
D eere, M erritt and C oon ( 1 9 6 9 ) go farth est to w ard the e n
g ineering classification of in-situ rock, based o n extensive field and
laboratory testing. --However, econom ics precludes testing the full
length o f an y tunne! geophysically (V o ig h t, 1 9 6 8 ); th erefo re, the
o b serv atio n s o f the tunnel m ap p er are of the utm ost im p o rtan ce,
bo th d u rin g construction and after, for the h isto rical record (see jj
discussion o f as-built draw ings b elo w ). T h ree of the m ost c o m p re
hensive recen t books on tunneling are by M ayo, et al. ( 1 9 6 8 ) ,
S /ech y ( 1 9 6 7 ) , and P equinot ( 1 9 6 3 ) .
T h e n eed for guides for the tunnel m ap p er has becom e evident
to the w riter because of his association w ith T h e M etro p o litan
W ater D istrict of Southern C alifo rn ia, w hich npw has six tunnels
u n d er c o n tra c t and six m ore scheduled for s ta rtio f co n stru c tio n in r r
the nqxt few years. T he tunnels arc a p a rt o f the F o o th ill F eed er,
w hich will contain 52 m iles of tu n n els w ith b o te i d iam eters u p to
1 . i
I \
\ {
% \ * ,
t :* feet. Esus system ,-as par< o f Thfc C kiifom ia_A gu 6d uct o r F eather
1 | R iver P ro ject, will distribute surplus n o rth e rn C alifornia w ater
ah lo u g h o u t so u thern C alifornia. (T h e w a te r will supplem ent im-
pfjrtations by way o f the C o lo rad o R iver a n d Owens V alley Aque-
cts, w hich now supply 11 m illion peo p le in southern C alifornia.
I p n g a n d P ro cto r, 1966, C h a p te r 2 .) F iv e o f these tunnels have
h |e n o r are being excavated by m eans o f m echanical boring
i m achines. T h e tunnel rock descriptions subm itted by the six
reside-* geologists who are engaged in th e D istricts current work
Were initially as varied as their backgrounds! A bout h alf of these
tiunnels are o r will be in sedim entary ro c k an d alluvium , and the
rem ain d er in h ard igneous rocks.

Info rm a tio n U seful to the E ngineer

T h e estim ated cost of underground excavation depends m ore


up o n geologic d ata than does any o ther type of civil engineering
w ork. If the d ata supplied by the geologist are adequate, realistic,
and u n d erstandable, a m ore accu rate tu n n el cost can be derived.
T h e best and the w orst conditions should be em phasized and
clarified. Suppose, fo r exam ple, a geologist describes the rock of
I a proposed tunnel as nearly m assive san d sto n e. L ater, during
excavation, the tunnel does indeed e n c o u n te r nearly massive sand-
1 stone. B ut m ost of the bedding planes, although widely separated,
co n tain thin clay partings that dip dow nw ard out of the tunnel
heading and cause cave-ins. T h en the ac tu a l cost of tunnel driving
m ay greatly exceed the original estim ate, a n d the geologist's stature
is dim inished, to say the least. A realistic pessim ism with respect
to uncertain rock conditions m ay be the best way to present antic
ipated tunneling conditions.

T he geologist should be willing to advance inform ation


w herever it is requested and volunteer applicable inform ation
in anticipation of the engineers needs. He m ust, therefore,
overcom e his n atu ra l reluctance to ad v a n ce inform ation based on
superficial study. By refraining from giving his best ideas when
requested, the geologist m ay avoid m istakes, but in so doing he
usually forces the engineer to m ake decisions that should have
been m ade by the geologist. T h erefo re, incom plete geological
inform ation on tim e is w orth fa r m ore th a n com plete inform a-
If ' . v t
-.^un .A. '----------------------not. I
-- ~ * tlo n after d#efsk>ns bwve baen made and carrifed o u t.-< B u rw e ll~ ^= | j
'i and Roberts, 1950, p. 4.) . I1
B efore n tunnel alignm ent has been finalized, the geologist,
should suggest routes th a t ( 1 ) avoid crossing large fau lts o r that
cross them at the m ost favorable angles, ( 2 ) align the tu n n el so
as to pass through the m ost com petent fo rm a tio n s p ossible (call
th e en g in eers attention to specific road cuts o r o u tc ro p s ) , ( 3 ) avoid
high g ro u n d w ater areas w here excessive inflows to the tu n n el m ay
be an ticip ated , an d w a te r wells that m ay b e adversely affected,
o r so claim ed, owing to tunnel con stru ctio n , a n d ( 4 ) avoid areas '
th at m ay co n tain oil o r gas, extrem e geotherm al h ea t, m ines w ith
sulfide o res, and fo rm atio n s containing b en to n ite o r an h y d rite.
T h e geologist should also realize th at the least expensive tu n n el is
g en erally the shortest d istan ce betw een tw o p o rtals, unless his
investigation can show th at a slightly longer ro u te will avoid a
h az ard o u s geologic co n d itio n (P ro c to r, P ayne, a n d K a lin , 1 9 7 0 ).
D u rin g tunnel con stru ctio n , the condition o f the ro ck conveys
m ore in fo rm ation to tunnel people than any o th e r geologic fact.
T h e type o f rock intersected by a tunnel is m u ch less im p o rtan t.
V ery biocky granite, o r gab b ro , o r standstone, o r lim estone is still
very bio cky rock. Specific, features m ost im p o rta n t to re p o rt are
soundness o r firmness o f the rock, w ater inflows, gas, jo in t spacings,
w enthering, and fault zones.
T he least im portant facts to engineers are the geologic age o f the
rocks and their m ode o f origin. O f p rim ary co n c ern is how the
rock will affect tunnel design and co n stru c tio n . H ow ever, the
engineer should realize th at there really is a value in knowfing age
a n d origin.
i'

U n su p p o rted and L ig h tly L agged T unnels


'
M ap p in g problem s are m inim a! in u n su p p o rte d a n d lightly |
lagged tunnels. T h e resident geologist can be resp o n sib le for |
several headings because he can go back re p eated ly to specific
areas until concrete lining op eratio n s start. S uch m ap p in g is safest,
because the geologist spends m inim um tim e at th e w o rk in g face f
and aro u n d the train sw itches the tw o m ost h a z a rd o u s p laces in :
a tunnel.

I
1
l.c/VJiV. N U . \ , .j 1 . vJ.NO ilN k t .Ni*UJl.2> c

p 1".' . . . ,v f .1?*
: In tightly lagged o r shotcreted tu n n els, th e geologist m ust m ap
; the w orking face c o n c u rre n t w ith h ead in g advance. He cannot
retu rn a t som e later d ate to recheck a specific are:; unless, just prior
to concrete lining, the ow ner rem oves som e of the lagging. Some
types of tu n n el b o rin g m achines ( m oles ) derive their forward
th ru st by h y draulic ram s th at force against the walls o f a tunnel.
In shotcreted tunnels, the ground m ay be exposed only where the
ram s chip the shotcrete. O ften the floor o f a shotcreted tunnel
does not set firm, because o f rebound accum ulation during shot
crete application, a n d easy digging m ay expose the rock.
M any m oles presently in use m ust p ush off steei-rib tunnel sup
ports fo r th eir fo rw ard progress. T his p ro ced u re often requires a
heavily lagged tu n n el ( a w ine b arrel tu n n el ) w hereby evenly
spaced ribs o r p recast concrete segm ents provide needed resistance
for the hydraulic jack s. T hus, even a firm -ground tunnel is often
lagged so tightly th a t the geologist cannot m ap adequately. U nder
these conditions, the P olaro id cam era is an im portant tool. Even
w hen the geologist is not available, tunnel inspectors can then take
pictures color p referred at specified intervals of advance, or at
every rock change, an d m ark the station and date on the photo
graphs. T h e geologist can then reco n stru ct rock structures at his
convenience. T he c a m e ra should be c a rrie d in a clear plastic bag.
w ith a dehum idifier o r o th er pro tectio n from dust and water. O ther
cam eras m ay be used if rib num bers o r statio n s are clearly m arked
w ith keel o r spray-can paint.
P h o tographs are especially helpful w hen the advance of boring
m achines exceeds 100 feet p er day, and the geologist works onlv
one shift, thus actually seeing fa r less than one third of the excava
tion. In this reg ard , a perm anently m o u n ted time-lapse movie
cam era m ay be installed with ap p ro p riate settings, such as one
fram e p er m inute. N ew m ethods of m ap p in g mole tunnels have
been described by C o o p e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) and J a c k (1 9 6 9 ). See Proctor
(1 9 6 9 ) for o th er co m m ents on boring m achines.
T h e follow ing re p o rt form and rock description guide may help
provide m ore uniform descriptions w here several persons have
m apping responsibilities.
j< O , J V K liA K M j . J KW t I U K \ It <U . . , g,

- - .. . - . . .... t.... v-l i l l ji - ,- . ... - j :W * .. , J .i.,". . . ! .

TATU.T. or W eekly R eport Y ^ he Tonne! M a p p er - - J

(N am e of Company or O w n e r ) I lf
r G EO LO G IC PROGRESS Rt >ORT W EER l M S U M M A R Y 1
* - T U N N E L : _____________________- 1 |
H E A D IN G : ______ ).......................... f V
Week e n d in g i-'!............................ s'
,1
v Reported by ....uj______ ____________ |
1 1. Mapping progress:..............Sta...................t o ____ }Approx.. ft.
< I

_
j 2. Excavainon progress: Sta---------------to--------.*(Approx______________ ft.
3. Avg. n b sp acin g ............................. . c.c. Rib s iz e /...........................................
4. Struts used?_______ Size ... Spiling used?...)! Size ............. .
5. Water inflows, gpm and locations ....< V. LM -............................. ..........

6. Rock type* excavated .............................. .................................. .

7. Rock conditions (blockiness, decomposed, stands well, etc.) ................


................ ............................................................................ Terzaghs N o ................
8. Rock defects (large faults, joints, squeeze, etc.) ....... ................. ....................

9. Additional remarks (overbreak, feeler holes, accidents, etc.): ......... .

................................ .... ..........................I...........................................


(U se back of sheet for sketch of unusual condition.)
i
j
T ab le II. Suypested Rock Description Guide

1.
Rock T P C- (Include definitive adjectives such asuplitic, prophyritic.
cherty. silty, etc.: also formation name.)
2. Color and range.
3. Gram size and range. i
4. Prominent minerals or percent rock clasts; type of cementation. |
5. Water inflows or seeps: temperature; pressure; estimated ormeasured
(low in gpm; duration. // I
f>. Rock defects: jv
Join ts open or closed, type of filling, cemented (h ealed ), attitudes,
spacing, number and orientation of prominent sets. *
Poults type (dip-slip, normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip), attitude,
displacement, filling (mylonite, gouge, breccia), thickness of zone.
W eathering and decom position degree of mechanical or chemical
weathering, hydrothermal alteration, oxidation, etc.
7. Rbck struct tires:
S edim entary stratified, massive, lensed, attitudes, degree of cementa-

r . i
r - * v tL o i- U u ic L l / i n d h i o . u t a* ^ a o b A L L i 7
Vv * 7
-"-------44------------ T *i tE Ih -C-rmtinmyi- * .: ... . .

* Sion, cross-bedding, inferred current directions, clast shapes, etc.


Describe fossils. > - ..
M etam orphic migmatitic, cataclastic, schistose, gneissic, foliated,
grade, etc.
Igneous aphanitic, porphyritic, zoned, dike, intrusive, extrusive, flow
banding, etc.
8. Rock condition: Soundness, consistency, behavior; soft or hard (sec scale
below ). Use Terzaghi Numbers. Fresh cut stands well (no sloughing),
stands m oderately well, or stands poorly (considerable sloughing and
raveling). Note: These terms and Terzaghi Numbers apply to tunnel
rock regardless of actual rib spacings or am ount of supports used by
contractor.

Some useful rock condition abbreviations:

h = hard,
mh = moderately hard,
ms = moderately soft. ?
s = soft.
w =: weathered or decomposed,
sw = slightly weathered,
rs = rust stains on joints,
cr = crushed,
g - gouge,
br = breccia,
jt = joint,
mas := massive,
blky = biocky.
fr = fractured.
d.g. = "decomposed granite. (Popular term in construction.)
G = gravel.
S = sand. r
M = silt (after Swedish word m o ).
C clay.

A suggested rock hardness scale:

H ard very abrasive, dense rock that rings when struck with a hammer.
May be broken with repeated heavy hammer blows. Grossly equiv
alent to Mohs hardness > 5 .
M oderately hard rock has dull ring and hammer produces minor
indentations. May be broken with one sharp blow of hammer.
Grossly equivalent to Mohs 3 -5 .
M oderately soft rock is considerably deformed when struck by ham
mer. May be broken in the hands, but does not crumble readily.
Grossly equivalent to Mohs 1-3.
Soft material can be dug out and crumbled with fingers. Mohs <1
t
syg; . / . . . . . . ___ ........................................... ...... ........ t .L
T h r J is -s B td ft -D m w fngs iA s -C o n s tr u c ttd T u n n el L o g )

It is m o re th an m erely desirable th at the tu n n el geology be


show n o n the as-built* draw ings for the historical reco rd (see
fig. 1 ). S everal practical reasons can be given fo r the necessity
o f a d etailed geologic log to accom pany such records, b o th d u rin g
a n d a fte r construction. W e are indebted to L egget (1 9 6 2 , p. 17,
3 3 0 - 3 3 5 ) fo r his prescient expression o f these needs.
T h e usefulness of the detailed geologic log d u rin g tunnel c o n
stru ctio n is tw ofold. F irst, it acts as a check on the assum ed geologic
c o n d itio n s given to the design engineer; thus any v aria tio n from
th e assu m ed conditions can usually be included as an a d
d en d u m to the specifications, o r p h a n g e o rd e t in co n stru c tio n p ro
c e d u re, b efo re final construction begins (such as ad d in g m ore !
re in fo rcin g steel in the lining ) . A Secondly, the revelation o f the
actu al geologic conditionTTiTaFfes the c o n tra cto r to keep check
on the su itability and efficiency of his excavation o p eratio n s. T he
savings resulting from a few accurate forecasts o f p en d in g changes
in the ro c k conditions are likely to be m ore im p o rta n t th a n the
cost o f retaining the services of a resident geologist d u rin g the
entire p erio d of co n stru ctio n . (T erzaghi, 1946, p. 9 9 .)
F o u r reasons can be cited for the usefulness o f the detailed
geologic log after construction is co m p leted : I
(1 ) It m ay prove o f inestim able value at som e fu tu re tim e if
an o th er tu n n el is to be built nearby. ]
(2 I If litigation arises because of alleged "changed co n d itio n s,
the geologic record becom es E xhibit A and m ay be the deciding
facto r in a court of 'aw . ( See W aggoner, 19 6 5 ).
(3 t D uring the periodic inspection and m ain ten an c e o f tunnels,
the geologic record m ay prevent long tunnel dow ntim e. F o r
exam ple, assum e that fault zones with slightly squeezing ground
were en c o u n tered in several places during tunnel driving. Y ears
litter an inspector notices bulges and spelling o f the concrete k,
lining in one spot. W ith the geologic log in h an d , he can m ark i
the limits of this fault, as well us o th er faults th at are likely to t
cause failure in the sam e m unner but that are h id d en beh in d the
lining o r grim e, A lso, recom m endations can be m ade as to the
kind of re p a ir most effective for this ground condition.
(4 ) A tunnel is a large diam eter horizontal b o rin g w hich can

K
ir *'
gp r - Tabi.k VO. 'As-Built P r e w i n ^ i u t k - ^ ^ ^ . J ^ - - .

Tunnel Construction Record Tunnel Geology R ecoct p

lV. Survey data: Rock type and Formation tljjim:


Stations, curve data, bearing of Color
tunhel, elevations Grain sn .
ft Supports: Prominent minerals lf|'
Type of ribs, ribspacing, invert Rock consistency !j
struts, crown bars,spiling, rock Water inflow s (location, temp^'ature,
fl bolts, breast-boarding, remined est. gpm and duration) If
areas ftSas i)
Progress: Rock structures, attitudes f!
Monthly, weekly, or daily excava- Joints,
tion Faults . IV
Monthly, weekly, or daily lining Weathering or decomposition
C'auses of delays Rock condition (Terzaghi Number)
Location and description of special Key to jRock Condition Numbers
grout takes Geologist responsible for mapping
Special reinforced areas or tunnel Detailed geologic map of each portal
liner All borings near the tunnel, with their
All overbreak greater than 3 feet condensed logs
Typical tunnel sections Load cef: or other ihstrumentation
Thrust collars and cutoff walls readings and locations
Powder factor
Graphic scale
North arrow i
Title block:
Tunnel owner
Project name
Drawing No., Sheet N o. i
Date of drawing
Draftsmans initials
Checkers initials
Location of work
Specifications No.
Contract No.

give geologic inform ation o b tain ab le in n o other way. Indeed, a


tunnel log is a detailed geologic cross section. Such a reco rd can
be of extrem e value to the scientific co m m unity. A case history
of every tunnel should be m ade available fo r distribution.
""^The as-built tiinnel draw ings fo r the historical reco rd of The
M etropolitan W aler D istrict of S outhern C alifo rn ia (fig. 1 ) in-
/ elude a plan of tpe floor and profile of o n e o r b o th w alls, at a
/ scale of \ 2 0' o r 4 0 '. C om plex areas o r m ajor fau lt zones are
1
1
I
) ii B S h f m r i r W , A rQ fifp fm y A n ro ro 'i
* 1 - lWfc/Vrf)^;^ ttk h 'f n * l& tM in tfw * n w /A * to r v e fytoc** o f
\if,
j r j ^ n y t -M T . W '
u"j
< # * * *
M*94m9b*&J*'f*y* fi stmAr, tArvxrpy>A+.
/o 5 /, . . <
( / |i j ' vtntr ?*>*t*U f\ <~
[ V: S'W f/wtfx ^ Serxtrtor# \ > ~

# ^ ' t f ! P ^ P P S ^ N V
- v - a V * * M w ? : ' ' : ^ i - 5- - * r ^ - V ? > - 7 - i -~ -' ,

. u ^ L .0 V- ; ' ]
i :
. -J '* r + 7 r J h -V - ' / ' - F ' ' I z i t A r A i C U j i . '- )
g ~ ~ !-z :i.j" ~ ^ * ^ a s r - ^ ' " . i | 1
j J>HMW JWWH*, m w (y AMe, Q h # 4 t / 3ft*JfOne cAt A ,
^ SAh f J tffstO fm Cfwk { [
, ; ^ f c V ' m**jim* 0 / AcOcAttA . f n ^ A >&W A n 4 m f farm A w y i, /Ay; <p*cstfxT x>/yfkixiy j *
* ** JiVffVV*#wwfcj AY-Hf J*>w /r/V. i&c-wtout f *n*M/vt, atAsreoot truest(y / ... I -
bAm.-H & f i b atAA, f i t w u / S t e n t to /o c # # v f# O i.
j rA*'W t * * /

, . GEOLOGIC LOG

a n ^ H S U W tf//IT tf/tf "T f >. J t n t . W * _ _ j jf//f l>tf f l x n e s s


jiH r ip r v ! <.a v / v c ah o g o ess

1 , ___ 5 * j F . ___________ 1__________________ J " # . ___________________ !______ SzS ~ _____1 4 I i$ r t* A T 0


; ROCK c o w / n o *
G round A V / W * J

---------------

r
900

' I
6 " s*>#/ o c v s t s h o e n f a -x

i ** K wn* ~ O .$ 'c h a r x y p l s i f t ! s x v 'i n g j


H 4- H I [ boo

.1 - - -
^ ^ ^l
7 * *t T
*yr < r ? r u ^ r r r ! ~ r ^ &^ & ;

1 ......................... .........
} JM# 7 7 4 * * 6 S fonurnent- ' /

4^v*e o f so*V4r<**&/>?, ^
/ \f/fttfW < j i f i t ' r y 6 '
jure/ jrj#Anf *0 t j

? **

t l1
st st rp ^
sr 1
jrx rm i j
K
1
i 1\ r[
p r o f il e of east w all ~ T | j
, j ( W W P | 3 ~ * S I S H K S E & ! H E S ^ f wo. DArlT owJt.'cKD?

FIGURE i. Portion of an as-built tunnel log

- . ' I
iffe /

' ~ EXPLANATION - r r no roc* cemmoN n u m m s


/ - Ha rd and intocf j

MODELO FORMAT,ON: * = Z ^ Z ^ ^ i e d , e^firn,^.


Shale i s/Nsfone, gray A - Moderately MocNy an d t e a m M m ground
:{' I to dork brown. if - Very M * *? and seamy, ckUdfy penrrrd^ ty rovehog ground
w *^ '' --"'VJ $ - Crushed rock or trrtcoosohdoted sand
t ^ 7 - Squeezing nock, moderate depth.
| ;.' --;v ;: . # ~ Squeezing rock, jr r w / depth.
Sandstone, Hght gray. 9 - Swell,ng ro d
<N k d J w d a f t e r T E /tS A G W , 1 9 4 6 9 ,9 5 0 )
h>
SYMBOLS
$ Strikeanddipofbedding.
%
X Strikeofverticalbeds. V
. w r 4
T
J,

0 Horizontalbeds. y' 111


/Xr>, 5/r/Atf anddipofjoint. j f s j 1 Ti
/.__ j
I1 // J )*,I / T I i
' /,/{
Shearzone, breccia. I
I
JJ s t 'u'u r V b A s l v o
JZeflWSeSt/ i>ns*k. j
^ j. r Grp
oruonfd wat(In
erflo
sew
espse,xcseheodwngo4
ngpm i f /|
ile in / jj/j\
calledout.) AT. IT A (
I I \f V
?" V
X_
SEPULVEDA I l \ //
TUNNEL j f j J M

t i f
Controct No 1009 s<eafrei7p
SpecificationsNo. Bi4 1
+4U
INDEX TO SH EETS
Geologyby Richard Crook,Jr.
[ T h T A iirR o T o u taJ T w a t Ie * ~ d i s t r i c t I
f_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Of SOUTHERNCAUfORNIA |
DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
SEPULVEDA EEEDEH
SE PU LV ED A TU NNEL
NORTH PORTA/.
STA 7 0 9 + 5 4 TO STA. 7 7 5 + 0 0
------ -------| GEOLOG Y A N D A S -B U IL T
IDESIGNEDu e
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - ---- \DRAWN set ' RECOMMENDED. ................
------------ j CHECKEDPfrR CkAPPROVED........... 1
Lunuic OUDFfi
REVISION REC. APP.)hO 55035 kOSANGELES 070 /969 B-52655-/ j

\
)
1 K ) .
Tahi.1! IV. -Suggested jQutltne ja r Historical Record of_fu m e ! Rrofea
! ~ iimMNi* ~i ~ ~~ " T"'' w -

1. Introduction:
Tunnel name, length, diameter, location, purpose, contractor. Date ;
Utart and finish. Major delays. Reference drawings. (As-bui!ts). ,f
Num ber of sheets, scale.
2. Distribution of rock types and rock conditions: ^
); U*e nn<! explain Ter/.aghi Nos. Mapping problems, exposures. Per
cent tunnel in each rock type and condition.
3. Major faults:
Sta. localities, thickness of zone.
Troublesome to tunneling?
4. Groundwater inflows:
Major intlpw localities by Sta.
Quantities at localities and total tunnel discharge.
How fast inflow diminished? How measured at portals?
Temperature, pressure.
5. Tunneling methods used. Minimum and maximum cover.
6. Typical supports for each rock type.
Size, spacing: spiling or struts used? Any remining?
7. Typical blasting round any unusual blasting?
8. Reasons for large overbreaks; large grout takes.
9. Ca* or oil?
10. Reinforcing steel or tunnel liner where used and why?
11. Significant instrumentation readings and localities.
12. Comments hv geologist (nam e of writer). Was tunneling efficient.
Ws type of support effective? Cooperation between the geologist,
engineer, and contractor.

m apped tit lurger scales and d rafted as sep arate draw ings, or are
included as insets on the as-built draw ings,
|

C o m b in ed Terzaghi R o c k a n d S o ft-G ro u n d
T unnel ( ondiilons G u id e

The classic work in tunnel geology titled In tro d u c tio n to T unnel I


G eology" was w ritten by K arl T erzaghi in 1946. N ot only is he
lauded *> the father o f soil m echanics, but he w as, perhaps, the
father of tunnel geology. It m ay he helpful to su p p lem en t the useful j
rock conditions guide devised by T erzaghi (1 9 4 6 , T ab le 3, p. 91 ) .I
by adding his (1 9 5 0 ) descriptions of soft-ground conditions.
His nine-category ta b le p rim arily concerns the ro ck loads as
sociated u ith rock con d itio n s as a n aid directed to design engineers.

~ i
'y C - T a b l e V , . C om bined Terzaghi R o c k <i/^HSoft-Ground Tunnel ^Conditions
F Uide | | | |
;V 1 Hard and intact. \ ( wig1
I'. 2 Hard stratified or schistose. !U
p 3 Massive, modi . itely jointed; very hrm. ground.
! 4 Moderately blocky and seamy; firj\>, ground.
5 Very blocky and seamy (closely jjijinted); may he raveling
k ground.
:i 6-Crushed but chemically intact jjock or unconsolidated
U sand; m ay he running or flowing ground.
7 Squeezing rock, moderate depth, ,|j
' 8 Squeezim rock, great depth.
9 Swelling ck. ?!
-------------- 4-----------------------------------------------
Notes: In practice, there are no sharp Boundaries between these categories,
and a range of several Terzaghi Numbers may best describe some rock and
soft-ground conditions, ^ee Glossary (pr definitions of terms, and Table II for
definitions of hard andisoft rock.

bu t it also still ap p ears to be th e m ost w idely used num erical guide


for tunnel m appers describing rock conditions. His guide was
m odified in 1959 (C alifo rn ia D e p artm en t of W ater R esources)
to include unconsolidated sedinjents an d w et tunneling conditions.
T h e D ep artm en t also was the first to place limits on joint spacings
in the T erzaghi categories. M tlre recently, a study supported by
the U.S. D e p artm en t o f T ra n sp o rtatio n <Fenix & Scisson. Inc.,
an d A rth u r D. L ittle, Inc., 1 9 7 0 ) suggests an eleven-category table
roughly based on T erzag h is principle categories, and indicates
bouldery m aterial as the w orse for tunneling, m oving swelling
ground to sixth place.
* T h e soft-ground tunnel conditions described by Terzaghi in
1950 are F irm , raveling, running, flowing, squeezing an d swelling." q
T erzaghi Nos. 1 an3" 2 apply to h ard ro c k only, norm ally where
blasting o r o ther rock-destruction m ethods are required (see
M au rer, 1 9 6 9 ).
, A higher T erzaghi R ock C ondition N u m b e r corresponds to an
increase in tunneling difficulty, h azard, a n d expense. Exceptions
to the preceding can o ccu r; for exam ple, a tunnel encountering
i ru n ning ground (n o w included in R ock C ondition N o. 6 ) may
prove too costly to cbm plete, w hereas a slightly swelling tunnel
| (R o ck C o n d ition N o. 9 ) m ay becom e stab le after a few days.
T h e m ost im p o rtan t fa cto r in soft-ground tunnels is stand-up

\
I
/ '( . IV* . I*-

,#f f. >/ V -L . . . jg. . . . ,


t- T aU VL J'ygfftf!' TyffeS R epresen tative o f Tunnel Rock Conditions -~ ~

ll Rock
1 Condition Sedimentary Sediments
No. Iinvoui induratnd soft around Mctamorphic

p; I Granite, We)! cemented sand- Quartzite,


has#)! stone, conglomerate, gneiss,
limestone marble
2 <*> Average sandstone, Slate,
shale, conglomerate, schist,
lim estone("> phyllite
3 Granite, Sand, d ay, (all above)
basalt gravel, mar!,a)
4 H H II |
5 it a n H
fv- ii it ii H

7 ii ii H ii
8 H H H ti |

9
Serpentine- Bentonitic tuff, Montmorillonite- Altered mica
i/ed ultra- anhydrite rich clay schist (esp.
basic rock vermicuiite) |
111 Ry definition,Rock Condition No. 2 comprises stratified and schistose rock;
how m r, tgnrousrocks are often layered, as bynow-bunding, by prismatic min
erals forming linear structure" or "(low llneatlon," or by schlieren (Wahlstrom,
I'M*), I
l>' The direction of dip of beds or schlstosity in a tunnel is important. For
ruimpl*. s' *ta with weak bedding planes dipping downward out of the heading
may tkld fersaghi Rock Condition No. 5; it iliey dip into the heading, then
ler/ttghl W.Kk Condition No. 3 could apply because the rock "stands well."
I limbing and vertical beds striking normal to the tunnel arc not as troublesome
as dipping Nrds. Vertical beds parallel to the tunnel may not ground-arch, owing
to a iteungular-section dead load at the crown.
'Commonest soft-ground materials include alluvium, glacial till, and poorly
consolidated or poorly cemented late-Cenozoic formations. (

tim e" ( see G lo ssary ). P ractically till failures in such tunnels are
caused h \ groundw ater pressures. F o r exam ple, a fairly com petent
sandstone or shale, ranging from h ard stratified to m oderately
biocky ( R ock C on d itio n N os. 2 to 4 ) , m ay be changed into ra v el
ing g ro u n d (R o ck C on d itio n N o. 5 ) by w ater inflows.
T he te rm "biocky and seamy, ro c k is often equated with jointed i
rock in R ock C ondition N os. 3, 4, a n d 5. Indeed, jointed an d \
biocky ro c k are often synonym ous, and w here clay occurs in joints,
the rock m ay be term ed seam y even if it is not layered. T h e care
required in m apping jointed rock is em phasized by R u th T erzag h i
jp L i v ____ __________ ............. .
-(1 9 6 5 , 1 9 6 6 ) . B r e k k e ( 1 9 6 8 ) s u g g e s t s a m odification o f rock
loads in the category blocky an d seam y ro c k .
T ab le V sh ould be used only as a key to supplem ent the detailed
descriptions required of the tunnel m ap p er.
|
pf.
H
T u n n el S u p p o rts
\r
D eere, P eck , et al. (1 9 6 9 ) have given a com prehensive evalua
tion of tunnel, sup p o rt systems. A w idely used tunnel estim ating
p ro ced u re h as been presented by the C a lifo rn ia D epartm ent of
W ater R esources (1 9 5 9 ) . T erzaghi (1 9 4 3 ) has suggested a m ethod
of estim ating w here liner plates can be used for support of tunnels
in soft g ro u n d . Snow (1 9 6 8 ) has suggested a m ethod of relating
fractu res en co u n tered in borings to porosity an d future grout take.
W hen tw in-bore parallel tunnels are b e in g driven, or at wyes,
one head in g should be advanced about 200 feet, o r two weeks'
driving tim e, beyond the o th er heading. T h is spacing allows for
norm al rock stress relief and avoids o v erlap p in g stresses th at greatly
w eaken the intervening rock, which in tu rn necessitates using m ore
supports th a n should have been required, a n d adds to the cost of
the tunnel.
T he first use of shotcrete (R abcew icz. 1 9 6 4 ), or pneum atically
applied fine-aggregate m ortar for tem p o ra ry tunnel support, was
in 1929 by C arl R. P.ankin (personal com m unication, 1968).
He w'as the engineer for the C oast R ange H etch H etchy Tunnels,
w hich supply w ater to San Francisco. P neum atically applied m or
ta r rings o r collars up to 3 feet thick w ere constructed between
16 x 16-inch tim ber sets that had becom e deform ed; then the sets
were rem oved, and additional shotcrete" w as added. Shotcrete,"
or gunite w ith 4 -inch aggregate, was also used in the period b e
tween 1930 to 1934 for placing the p erm a n en t concrete lining in
these tunnels. Shotcrete was used a secon d time in 1934, in the
San Jac in to T u nnel of the C olorado R iv er A queduct, w hich was
also un d er th e direction of engineer C arl R . R ankin (H artm an n ,
1966, p. 3 0 ).
T ab le V II gives a rough estim ate of tunnel supports required
for various ro c k conditions. T h e guide assum es a m oderate-sized
tunnel d iam eter. Obviously, m ore supports a re required in a large-
, I - I
v ^ . i .................... I
TaL* V 8tri, -Typical JTumuit Supports R e w ir e d with- Each Terzaghi
Rock C ondition . __

' h^ i u ^
Condiikm No. t Typical tunnel supports

1 Unsupported (unless spalling or pbpping occurs).

2 Unsupported to occasional light support.

3 Unsupported in very firm or massive ground. If jointed condition


gives trouble, place ribs on 6-foot centers, or use roof bolts.
Rock bolts more economical than ribs under this rock condition.
Wiotcrete or gunite in arch only.

4 Ribs on 2- to 4-foo! centers, or roof bolts. Shotcrete or gunite in


arch only. Rock holts must he longer and more closely spaced
than in Rock or Soft-Ground Condition No. 3.
I
?-R lhs on 2-foot centers or less,* with heavy lagging or liner plates.
May require invert struts. Rock bolting may not be effective.
'Riotcreie or gunite (with wire mesh if stand-up time perm its),
sstveral layer* thick, Is very effective in raveling ground.

ft Ribs on 2-foot centers or less;* may require invert struts. Liner


plates, itecl, or precast concrete lugging replaces wood lagging: I
heading must be breast boarded or otherwise secured. Rock bolting
not effective, Shotcrete or gunite, with wire mesh several layers
thick, is often effective in containing running ground. Shield may
Ne required. |

7-Rihs on 2-foot centers or iess* with invert struts or circular ribs.


Rock bolting or shotcrete is effective only if squeeze is very light.
U se water-proofing sealant or coat ribs and lagging with gunite I
immediately after placing to prevent air-slaking and sloughing.

8 See No. 7.

9 Ribs on 2-foot centers or less,* circular or yielding ribs. Rock


bolting not effective. Use waterproofing sealant, shotcrete, or coat j
n b s and lagging with gunite immediately after installation to prevent
contact with moist air or desiccation of clay. Initial overexcavation
is advisable in swelling rock. |
* Steel ribs at 2-foot centers or less are usually uneconomical and should be j'
used foronly short distances or until more substantial ribs can be obtained.
i . |:
d iam eter tu nnel than in a small tu n n el. O th er crite ria th at influence
T ab le VM are: M ethod of tunneling b o rin g n a c h in e vs. c o n
v en tio n al: com petency of tunnel co n tra c to r; sh ap e olf tunnel section;
an d tim e interval betw een excavation and su p p o rt em p lacem en t. +

: ; ' I
...; r - : - . - !|- T y N N E L IN G -GX>SSARV- ~ ~ :^ - .-.i:'^^^^ 1 _ ...J-I
. 111 ' ' r ;>.v : 4- .
D | i!]|n i t i o n s of T unnel T erms * -

Acntonce the distance excavated during a given tim e (shift, day)


( f in tunneling, drifting, o r in raising o r sinking a shaft.
A rc h the configuration of the u p p er p o rtio n of a tunnel section
I above the springline; the crow n, ro o f o r back of a tunnel. It
I is usually placed after the invert in concreting horseshoe tun-
j nels. (T h e concrete in circu lar sectio n tunnels is com m only
f! placed in o ne o p eratio n .)
A rch in g a ctio n (see G ro u n d -arc h .)
Btir ( bar d o w n ) pry loose rock from the crow n after a blast.
B ench an d heading (see T o p heading a n d bench excavation. )
B lo ckin g a n d w edging m iscellaneous tim b e rs placed between the
lagging and the rock o r earth surface to thoroughly block the
rib in position, support loose m aterial, and transm it the load
to the supports.
B io c k y a n d seam y ro ck (R o ck C ond itio n N os. 4 an d 5, see Table
V .) R efers to alm ost intact rock in w hich separated blocks
o r fragm ents are im perfectly in terlo ck ed . T unnel walls usually
req u ire support. Seam y is a tunnel m an's term and may be
described as: irregular schistose layers in crystalline rock;
> shale o r clay layers com m only in terb ed d ed in sandstone or
lim estone: an d also any rock w ith num erous clay-filled joints
and fractures. M ore specifically: M oderately biocky a n d
, seam y-joints o r bedding plane p artin g s are tw o to six feet
a p a rt: ov erbreak is generally sm all. W alls d o not require
lateral support. R ibs m ay be set on tw o- to four-foot centers,
if extensive lagging is used. R ock ''sta n d s m oderately well."
V ery b la cky and seam y ( closely jo in te d ) extensively jointed
an d fractu red rock ( partings at o n e-inch to two-foot intervals >.
o r poorly cem ented strata; o v erb reak com m on. Joints arc
open or w eakly cem ented, and several joint sets are obvious.
Includes fractu red rock, bu t not cru sh ed or brecciated as in
a shear zone. R ock stands poorly. G roundw ater may be
very troublesom e. Spiling m ay be re q u ired for driving stability,
an d the walls of the tunnel m ust be lagged.
B reastboards tim b er m em bers braced a n d wedged against an un
stable tunnel face to prevent caving o r running.
m( 1 - **'"*
'. .....................................k
, i. ''i If.'.'. -
...... ............. . -.****" r r "fttet M er tot*-:~r ~ ------- - j ;

.
,, / m drdhd boh /
-V A X / / X IO W o od tagging
-f ,jVnV a a Jji / A
V \ mm Chonr,*/ tpiJing or ( ^ ' ^ - \
A n c h o r ptot , ' - ' j
TUnotoning bott^- ^ s 0* ^ X/ \ j
A rrh r t b i / Mr 4w < j v 's /*

/ / A' L Ctntortin* \ \ \ j
/ / N n n a l l in t r I H , , u % U.4 . \ \ \ r. . j
i t H mortm c*f/n* i \ \^ y \ ^
I I I ^ S p rin g line \ I v
[ X * " v. :
* " '* * * f* * J J J . C o lla r broc*
I U I / n

///)<# I Rk

Inutrl strut -

FIG URE 2; Tunnel terminology

B ridge-action (see G ro u n d -a rc h .)
B u ll gang slang for m iners w ho lay track , fan an d w a te r lines.
B urn holes (burn c u ts ) ce n te r holes o f a b lasting ro u n d . M ay
be larger diam eter thtvn o th er holes and m ay not be loaded
thus allowing space for blasted rock to m ove into.
C alifornia sw itch a p ortable co m b in atio n of siding an d sw itches
superim posed on the m ain track , th at can be pulled forw ard 1
as a unit, so as to be w ithin a few h u n d re d feet of the w orking
face. The double track allow s one tra in to pass a n o th e r and |
allow s the switching of m uck cars.
C hange h ouse tem porary stru ctu re provided with show ers and
clo th es lockers. A lso called hog house o r d ry house.
C h erryp icker a track -m o u n ted gantry used fo r sw itching m uck
cars.
C la y classified as plastic m aterial w ith a p artic le size less than
1 /2 5 6 m illim eter in d iam eter, o r less th a n 0 .0 0 5 to 0 .0 0 2 '
Sjp-' -s, - \ i \ s *:/'

i - - - m illim eter in d iam eter, dep en d in g o n w hich engineering classi


fication is used. C lay is com m only sedim entary, b u t may be
derived from com pletely pulverized ro ck (fault g o u g e), or
from the d isintegration a n d alteratio n o f crystalline rock rich
)> in feldspar, o r m inerals w hich yield hydrous alum inum or
I; m agnesium silicates. M ontm orillonite m aterials are most
subject to swelling, a n d com m only are derived from the al
teration of tuff. C lays a re ch aracterized by high porosity and
low perm eability. T h ey m ay be classified for engineering
purposes as: L ea n clay = inorganic, with low to m edium
*.' plasticity. Fat clay = in o rg an ic, very com pressible, high plastic
ity. O rganic clay = m edium to high plasticity, contains organic
m aterials, very com pressible. E xp a n sive ( sw elling) clay
volum e ex pands w ith th e addition o f w ater; expansion is re
versible w ith com plete d eh ydration. Stiff clay = firm, dense,
often fissured, clay.
C oeur d A len e lagging lagging placed tightly between the webs
of ad jacen t ribs.
Collar braces ( spreaders) horizontal com pression m em bers, usu
ally tim ber, placed betw een adjacent steel rib o r tim ber sup
ports. C o llar braces are set in line and tightened with tie rods.
If they are m ade of steel o r precast concrete, they need not
be rem oved before p o u rin g concrete lining.
C over (see O v e rb u rd en .)
C row n the highest p a rt of a tunnel; the roof or back.
C row n bars roof supports, usually channel steel, used as a c o n
struction expedient to ca rry vertical loads. They are usually
installed in the u n su p p o rted area n e a r the face until a rib set
can be erected.
C rushed but chem ically intact rock or unconsolidated sand Rock
C o ndition N o. 6 , see T a b le V .) B recciated (sh a ttered ) fault
zone m aterial, often containing fault gouge. If m ost of the
crushed fragm ents are the size of sand grains, o r the m aterial
is unconsolidated o r w eakly cem ented sand, these m aterials
below the w ater table m ay becom e running or flowing ground.
Side pressures becom e significant. In norm ally unlined tun
nels, lining is usually req u ired w here Rock C ondition Njo. 6
is encountered. N o te: W here natu rally cem ented fault breccia
, ' , ........... i '
o r Intnriockiiig " W e e k fragm ents r i t i n d l t e r y w ell, R o ck -
C o n d itio n N o. 3 co u ld apply. 1 k |
C urbs lo ngitudinal stepped co n crete sections W ir e d o r placed
alo n g the foot blocks o n bo>h sides o f the ^ n n e ! . In lining
m eet tunnels, the cu rb s and avert are p o u rln first an d used
m a su p p o rt fo r the form s. jl
D elays m blasting term fo r devices used to regulat!; the deto n atio n
o f tunnel face in to tim e increm ents, fractions o f a second
a p a rt. G en erally the holes in the ce n te r o f a funnel face have
a ze ro delay w ith the p erip h ery holes the longest d elay ; this
en ab les the p erip h ery r k to m ove into the vacated space at
the ce n te r o f the face, th u s r e d o in g ov erb reak .
D rift (o r a d it) a sm all, n ear-h o rizo n tal ex cav atio n op en at one
end o n ly , used fo r ex p lo ra tjo n o r as p a tf o f a m eth o d o f larger
ex cav atio n (see M u ltip le d rift e x c a v a tio n ). If the angle o f an
in clin ed drift exceeds 4 5 degrees, it becom es an in clin ed shaft.
DriUabUity a specific value expressing the drilling p ro p e rtie s of a
ro ck in term s of the d rillin g rate w ith a ce rtain type of bit and
feed pressure.
E xca va tin g cycle (see T u n n elin g c y c le .) ,
Face ( see H e a d in g .)
Feeler h o le a sm all-d iam eter ex p lo rato ry hole drilled ah ead of
the tunnel face for d eterm in in g g ro u n d w a ter and rock con
d itio n s.
Firm g ro u n d (R o c k C o n d itio n N os. 3 an d 4, see T ab le V . ) Firm
g ro u n d refers to consolidated sedim ents o r soft sedim entary
rock in w hich the tunnel head in g ca n be advanced w ithout
any. o r with only m inim al, roof su p p o rt, an d the p erm an en t
lining can be co n stru cted before the g ro u n d begins to move
o r ravel. F irm g ro u n d is the ideal boring m ach in e m aterial.
B elow the w ater table firm g rou nd m ay becom e ru n n in g or
flow ing g round. F irm g ro u n d results from ce m e n tatio n , co n
so lid ation, o r co m p actio n o f sedim ent. M ateria! has a dull
so u n d when stru ck with a ham m er. T y p ical representatives of
firm g round are cohesive sand and loess above the w ater table,
and v arious clays w ith low plasticity, such as kaolin and m arl
(c alcareo u s c la y ). '
F low ing g ro u n d (R o c k C o n d itio n N o. 6 , see T ab le V .) Flow ing
g ro u n d m oves like a viscous liquid. It occu rs only below the
1

\ v T'
H O . V t

w ater tab le in a satu rated m aterial, p articu larly -u n d er artesian


pressure. In contrast to running g ro u n d , it can invade the
tunnel n o t only through the roof, sides, and face, but also up
from th e floor. If the flow is no t sto p p ed , it will continue until
the tu n n el is filled. A sudden rush o f flowing ground into a
; tunnel is k n o w n as a blow o r a b o il. Dewateredl flowing
gro u n d usually becom es firm g round.
F lying carpet ( N avajo b la n k e t) a p o rta b le rail-m ounted steel
p latfo rm co n tain in g a C alifornia sw itch and propelled hy
d rau lically by shoving against the rails.
F oot blocks blocks of w ood o r precast, co n crete placed under ribs
or posts to provide bearing for horseshoe-shaped o r non
circular tunnels.
F orepoling (see Spiling.)
F ull face exca va tio n a m ethod in w hich th e tunnel face is exca
vated to full-bore size at each drilling and blasting round, or
by bo rin g m achine. T his m ethod o f excavation is generally
the m ost econom ical.
G round-arch the rock located im m ediately above a tunnel which
transfers the overburden load onto ro ck located on both sides
of the tu n n el. T he zone of arching is usually equal in height
to 1.5 tim es the tunnel diam eter. O v erb u rd en rock above the
g ro u n d -arch rem ains unaffected by the tunnel operations.
G rout-a w ater-cem ent mix, som etim es w ith bentonite or fine sand
added, o r a chem ical jell mix.
G routing in jectio n of grout through d rilled holes, under pressure,
to fill seam s, fractures, o r joints and thus seal off w ater inflows
or conso lidate fractured rock. In co rL rete lined tunnels, grout
ing is usually perform ed after the lining is poured and set.
This m ay be done through grout holes drilled for this purpose
or grout sleeves em bedded in the con crete lining.
G unite a cem ent-sand-w ater mix pneum atically sprayed onto sur
faces to offer tem porary support against air slaking and
spalling.
H ard a nd inta ct rock (R o ck C o n d itio n N o. 1, see Table V. i
M assive rock containing no significant joints; w hen fractured
by blasting, it breaks across sound rock, as in tom bstone-
quality granite. R ock rings w hen stru c k with ham m er. Bit
~* w ear is high. T unnel supports are nrit required. Spalling and
'(jj ZZ K l l H A K I) J . J 'K U l I l)K j

p o p p in g may occur, ( Soft, intact rock is m ore aptly term ed ~ j


fl firm g ro u n d .) 1 :
H ard stra tified or schistose ro c k ( R ock C o n d itio n N o. 2,, see T able
V .) C onsists o f in d u ra te d o r cem ented layers o r strata. Slaty
cleav ag e belongs in this category. H ow ever, stratified o r
sch istose rock can range from com plete resistance to no re
sistan ce against sep aratio n along bedding o r foliation planes, i
and th u s includes al! ro ck co n d itio n s except N o. 1. Stratified
rock m ay have ab u n d a n t bedding-plane slickensides un related j
to fau lts. Jo in t planes com m only o ccu r norm al to the heckling
o r schistosity. If the strata are m ore th a n six feet thick, the
ro ck m ay be term ed m assive an d belong in R ock C on d itio n
N o. 3 .
H eading i fa c e ) the place w here tunnel excavation is in progress.
A lso, the direction a tunnel is being excavated, as east head- !
in g . j
In vert th e floor o r bottom of the tunnel; usually the first section
p la c e d , along w ith the curbs, in lining m ost tunnels.
In vert stru ts inverted a rc h su p p o rt m em bers w hich extend across i
h o rsesh o e tunnels at subgrade. Steel beam s o r heavy tim bers
are attached to the vertical m em bers to resist horizontal
pressu res.
Jim cro w device to bend rails.
Jo inted r o c k contains fractu res or cracks. T ru e jointing exhibits
m o re o r less system atic orien tatio n of inherent cracks in a
ro ck m ass: fractured rock consists of broken rock in w hich
ra n d o m ly oriented cracks result eith er from blasting o r fau lt
ing. N ote: T he term badly jo in te d is am biguous (m ean in g
"w ell join ted ") an d its use should be discontinued. Sim ilarly,
hig h ly jointed" should not be used. Wei!, closely, m oderately,
p o o rly , sparsely are p re ferred adjectives.
J u m b o ( d rill carriage) a p latform o r double p latform upon w hich
d rills are m ounted an d drill steel is assem bled. It can also be
used: to load drill holes w ith explosives and to aid in placing
tu n n e l supports. It m ay be run on tunnel track , o r be m ounted
on a caterp illar craw ler o r truck fram e.
Ju m p set steel rib o r tim b e r support installed betw een overstressed
sets. T hey are alw ays m ore expensive to install than the |

' J
l
rtW XA.GU-GKiJU k_ U.Ni Hi AtN I L .<oLU jL*) k
j g ^ ..... ............ - '______ .. .. ., : ................'

Ij the heading to w ork, thus interfering w ith the m uck trains. | >j
Lagging longitudinal m em bers, usually lim b e r, o f the support
system w hich span the spaces b etw een the m ain supporting hSj
ribs.
L ifters low er holes o f a blasting round. {.*
L iner plates pressed steel plates sh ap ed to tunnel dim ensions,
bolted together and installed betw een the webs o f the ribs,
o r w ithout any ribs, to m ake a co n tin u o u s steel skin support.
M assive rock (R o c k C ondition N o. 3, see T able V .) R ock is f
nearly in tact; joints and h air crack s a re at s p r i n g s of six feet
o r greater. L arge cracks an d o th e r ro ck defects <Aay be
naturally cem ented to yield a m assive rock. B edding planes
are not significant. If overbreak o ccu rs, it is usually a residt
of poor blasting techniques ra th e r th a n rock Condition. Sup
port ribs m ay be set o n six-foot cen ters with very little o r no
lagging, o r light roof bolting. R ock "stan d s w ell.
Misfire, m issed hole a drill hole in w hich all o r p a rt of the ex
plosive has failed to detonate.
M o le p o p u lar nam e for any type of m echanical boring m achine.
M u c k ex cav ated tunnel debris; tailings. ,
M ultiple drift excavation a m ethod in w hich two sm all drifts are
driven along each side of the tunnel allow ing wall plates o r
other side supports to be placed. A top drift is then driven
and w idened out slowly to take the ro o f supports. This m ethod
is used in b ad tunneling g round in large diam eter tunnels.
O verbreak (see Pay line.)
O verburden all m ateria! above a tunnel, w hether unconsolidated
or hard rock; the cover over a tunnel. In subaqueous tunnels,
it is the distance betw een the riv erb ed and the tunnel crown.
Panning the use of sheet m etal to divert inflows o f w ater from
w orking areas so th at concrete can b e placed against a drier
surface.
Pay line the line, o r tunnel section, w h ich constitutes limits of
paym ent fo r excavation and co n crete lining. O verbreak is
any excavation beyond! the pay line, a n d overrun is any excess
concrete placed b eyond the pay line.
Popping rock ( rock burst)-]-\a rock co n d itio n involving the spon
taneous and violent d etach m en t o f ro c k slabs. It is caused by

I 1
< 1
| 1 - i i . . i _ . . . . j \ '! .........
su d d en stress re le ase i n the rixlc. O ccu rs conim clfly in h a r d . .
in tact rock to m o d era tely jointed rock at g reat d m t |.
Portal th e n ear-h o rizo n tal en tra n ce to a tu n n el o r adiWij
Posts th e vertical m em b ers o f a steel rib o r tim b e r s u p p M system.
P osts serve to tra n sm it rock load 1 "m th e arc h rMs to the
footings of th e tu n n e l. j|
P ow der m o n k e y slan g fo r m an w ho handles explosives.]!
R a kers support tim b e rs placed at an angle. jV
R a velin g ground (R o c k C o n d itio n N o. 5, see T ab le Vij) Pooriy
consolidated o r cem en ted m aterials th a t c a n stand up for
several m inutes to several hou>, at a fresh cu t, b u t then start
to slough, slake, o r scale off. Si yhtly cohesive sand is assigned
to this category. R aveling g ro u n d m ay b ecom e ru n n in g or
flow ing ground below the w ater tatyle.
R ib s cu rved steel su p p o rts, u su ally .c o ld -ro lled o r pressed stru c
tu ral beam s m ad e to conform to the re q u ired tunnel shape.
H -beam s o r w ide flange beam s are p re fera b le to I-beam s, as
w id er flanges p ro v id e m ore surface for blo ck in g an d lagging,
a n d the section has a g re ater resistance to tw isting. ( H = heavy
ribs, M m edium rib s.)
R ift, grain and h a rdw ay term s com m on in q u arry in g , indicating
the three o rth o g o n al directions of p referred splitting within
m assive, q u artz-b earin g , igneous rock. T h e rift is the direction
o f easiest splitting an d is usually ho rizo n tal o r nearly so. T he
grain, usually p e rp e n d ic u la r to the rift, is the directio n of next
easiest splitting. T h e hardw ay (o r head g ra in ) is the plane of
m ost difficult sp littin g am ong the three directions. In hard
rock tunneling, if the hardw ay d irectio n is norm al to tunnel
adv ance, co n sid erab le pow der is re q u ired for rem oval.
R o ck b o ltin g a m eans o f rock support using steel rods of various
lengths that fit in to predrilled holes. T h e rods are threaded
and bolted to a n a n c h o r plate on one en d , a n d fitted with an
ex p an d ab le a n c h o r on the oth er. W hen the bolt is tightened
w ith a w rench, the rock m ass is held to g eth er by tension. The
space betw een the rod and the drilled hole is often grouted.
R o c k b u rst (see Popping, ro c k .)
R o u n d a blajst at the heading an d th e 'r e s u lta n t tunnel advance
len g th; the length o f holes drilled for inserting explosives.
A lso, the co n figuration o f the drill holes, as V -cut ro u n d .
1
1
ir.vi- . .
S & i3=U h .R u n n in g ro /u f---(R o c k C ondition N b7.^, ^ ^ a b l < V , j M aterial
of n o cohesion, such as clean sand o r gravel, is referred to as
ru nning g ro u n d regardless o f w h e th e r it is located above o r
below th e w a te r table. S tand-up tim e is nearly zero. T unnel
ing usually is uneconom ical below th e w ater table w ithout
p rio r d ew atering o r grouting. R u n n in g ground above the w ater
table will stabilize on a slope of 3 0 to 40 degrees; the grain
size, shape, driving force of w ater pressures, and m oisture
content g overn the angle o f repose. B reastboards or other
m eans o f securing the heading are re q u ired for advance.
Sandhog slang fo r tunnel m iners w ho w ork under com pressed air.
S egm ents sections th at m ake u p a ring o f su p p o rt o r lining; com
m only steel o r p recast concrete.
S h a ft an ex cavation which proceeds fro m the ground surface in
a vertical o r near-vertical direction. A raise or stope is ex
cavated upw ard from a tunnel o r drift, usually for exploratory
purposes.
Shield an arch ed o r cylindrical steel sk in m ade of heavy steel
plates, used for excavation in soft ground. It protects the
u n su p p o rted p art of the heading a n d affords a m ethod of
excavation w hereby a cutting edge is forced ahead, usually
by h ydraulic jacks pushing against the previously installed
supports. In flowing ground, as in subaqueous river tunneling,
ports o r w indow s are opened at the breasted face to allow
m aterial to flow in.
Shotcrete sm all aggregate fluid concrete pneum atically shot from
hoses o n to the rock so th at the rock lo ad is distributed equally
over the entire surface. As a type o f tufmel support, it is
generally ap p lied in layers tw'o inches thick. Quicksettinp
additives are used fo r high early stren g th , and often a rock-
adhesive additive is used.
S h o ve the act of advancing a m ole o r shield forw ard w'ith hy
draulic jacks.
S k ip a co n tain er used for raising m uck u p a shaft from the tunnel
to the surface.
Spoiling a rock condition in w hich spalls o r slabs of rock drop
off the ro o f several hours o r weeks a fte r blasting. It is caused
by rock loosened during blasting.
Spiling (fo rep o lin g ) usually steel ch an n els, strong tim bers, or

I
iwt " t G .
2; ilfaveBiln ljhc~aircJhi a h e a d 'o f. th e la s t'r ib
to su p p o rt loose g ro u n d , ""hey act as cantilevers w hich ca rry
th e w eight o f the g ro u n d u ntil th eir forw ard ends are su p p o rted
by installing the next rib.
Spreaders (sec C o lla r b ra c e s.)
S p rin g lin e a horizontal p la n e th ro u g h the center o f a circ u la r
tu n n e l; the point w here th e curved portion of the ro o f in ter
sects the top of the w all in a horseshoe-shaped tunnel.
S q u eezin g rock (R o c k C o n d itio n s N os. 7 an d 8 , see T a b le V .)
Slow m ovem ent o f ro c k in to the tunr.el w ithout p ercep tib le
v o lu m e increase. A ll tu n n els in soft clay experience squeeze.
T h e difference betw een T erzag h i category 7, m oderate d ep th ,
a n d 8 , great depth, is a rb itra ry depending on rock types an d
co n d itio n s in a given tu n n e l; assum e 1,000 feet of cover as
the dividing line b etw een m oderate and great dep th . R ock
pressure expressed by squeeze can occur in a tunnel in three
w ays, including ( 1 ) ch e m ica lly induced squeeze: T erzag h i
(1 9 4 6 , p. 8 9 ) attrib u ted m ost squeeze to this cause: P re
requisite for squeeze is a high percentage of m icroscopic and
subm icroscopic particles o f m icaceous m inerals o r o f clay
m in erals with a low sw elling capacity. ( 2 ) M echanical
sq u ee ze (gravity): T h is o cc u rs where rock is adversely jointed
o r fractu red and loosened by overblasting, o r w here a shallow
o r w eakly consolidated o v erb u rd en inhibits d evelopm ent of
a n o rm al gro u n d -arch ab o v e the crow n. G ravity then ca n act
on the blocks of rock to load and deform the sup p o rt system .
If ribs are the m ain type o f support, backpacking and w edging
1 beh ind ribs to m aintain interlocking of rock frag m en ts are
essential in preventing o r retard in g this type of squeeze. (3 )
T ecto n ic squeeze (" m o u n ta in pressure): L aten t stresses
w ithin a rock m ass, w hich usually increase with depth o f cover.
T h e tunnel pros ides a cavity fo r relief of stresses, and the rock
o ften deform s plastically. Som e m inerals also expand elasti
cally w hen coiirining p ressu re is relieved. Pressures as high as
20 to n s per square foot h av e been recorded.
S ta n d -u p tim e the tim e th at elapses betw een the exposure o f an
area at the roof of a tu n n el an d the beginning o f noticeable
m ovem ents of the g ro u n d above this area. F o r exam ple, the .
sta n d -u p time of raveling g round m ay be several m inutes, o r

I
I
fr r -V , ' ................... _ ' \
j. long en ough to m stffi tem p o rary su p p o rts,T ju l ttic ktand-up j "
tim e of flowing ground is zero. T u n n e l size is a n im portant 1
j; factor.
Sw elling rock (R o c k C ondition N o. 9 , see Table V .) E xpands
( in volum e upon exposure to w ater. (Sw elling is a r rticular
type of squeezing g ro u n d .) E x ca v atio n m ay require blasting,
o r the rock m ay be soft enough to require shield m ethods.
U sually lim ited to those rocks th at co n tain m inerals with an
expanding-lattice m o lecular s tru c tu re ; exam ples are mont-
m orillonite clay (com m only volcanic ash altered 'o bentonitic
tu ff), and serpentinite; sedim entary' form atio;, containing
. anhydrite m ay hydrate to gypsum w ith great piessurey .an d
volum e increase. T ru e sw elling in clays is totally reversible
only with com plete d eh ydration. In v e rt struts, circular ribs,
o r yielding ribs are required fo r su p p o rt in swelling ground.
T ie rods Steel rods, usually % -in ch o r H4-inch diam eter, with
threaded ends. T hey are inserted th ro u g h holes in the ribs
and are used, to tie the ribs together and to tighten the ribs
to the collar braces.
T o p heading and bench excavation the head in g is first excavated
the full w idth of the tunnel from the crow n to the springline.
It is usually advanced ah ead of the bench W-i to several
times the length of one round. T h e bench is then used as a
tem porary w ork platform . T his m eth o d is used in difficult
ground w here full face tunneling is hazardous, and in very
large d iam eter tunnels.
T rem ie concrete concrete directionally p lace d under w ater through
a steel or plastic pipe.
T rim holes p erim eter holes of a blasting ro und.
T u n n el-a horizontal or n ear-horizontal excavation th at is open
to the ground surface at each end.
T unneling cycle in rock tunneling, the 6 -p art excavation cycle is
drilling holes for explosives, lo ad in g , blasting (sh o o tin g ),
ventilating, m uqking, an d erecting supports.
T u n n el liner (steel qylinder) w elded c irc u la r steel plate sections
placed inside the concrete lining to resist internal pressure
and for w atertightness. '
W all plate a longitudinal su p p o rt, com m only used in the top
heading and bench m eth o d ,'w h ich rests first on the bench and
l

\
*, u/o _ \ . 'V.
- -44 . l a i r r bridges to p o f th e posts a n d su p p o rts th e arc h ribs. ~ T " __ ^
V *' T h re e types a te(co m m o n ly used: D o u b le B eam W all Plates
co m p rise two p f e a m s set side by side w ith th e webs vertical;
S in g le Bean) w J l Plates a re H -b eam s w ith the w eb vertical
a n d a T -sh a p ei||sectio n w elded w h ere the ribs and posts are
k o n n e c te d ; F latjfV all P lates a re I-b eam s o r w ide flange beam s
used w ith their yvebs h o rizo n ta l (th e se arc the w eakest type,
a n d a re used on 1$ in sm all d ia m e te r tu n n e ls ) .
J ^
f!I
' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
c\ 1 ;V

T he w riter isjpdebtcd to the following friends and consultants who


have m ad e valuable suggestions after reading the original manuscript:
Engineering geologists Vladimir P. Pentegoff of Pasadena, California,
Thom as F. Thompson of Reno, Nevada, and George D. Roberts of
San R afael, California. A special thanks is extended to civil engineer
Carl R. Rankin of Laguna Hills, California.

I
T u n n e l in g Bib l i o g r a p h y and R eferences
I
Abel, J F . 1967, Tunnel Mechanics: C olorado School of
M i n e s Q u a r t e r l y , V . 6 2 , N . 2. (3)
Agricol.i. Georgius, 1556, Dc Re M etallica: Translated
from the first latin edition of 1556 by H. C. Hoover
and L. H. Hoover, 1950, Dover Publications, New
York. 638 pp. (The oldest work on mining, geology,
and metallurgy readily available in libraries.) (1 )hs
Alberts, C . and Brannfors, S., 1965, Method of Driving
Tunr.els in Rock: U. S, Patent Office, Pat. No.
3,224.203. (l)h
Alexander. L, G., Worotnicki, G., and Aubrey, K., 1964,
Stress and Deformation in Rock and Rock Support,
Tum ut 1 and 2 Underground Power Stations: Pro
ceedings, 4th Australian-New Zealand Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. (1 )h ( 3 )
r v
These references are keyed to the categories of (1) Tunneling Methods and
Support# (h = hard rock tunnels, s =. soft-ground), (2) Tunnel Logging, (3)
Rock Mechanics, and (4) Tunnel Case History Sources.
L
I * *
- ... - . '. '- u JM
i i p .7 1. 7 . - : -
Am erican Civil Engineers H andbook: T M errim an p ed . ------- |
r 1962, (5 th ed .), WUey, New Y ork, Vol. III, Tun
n els, 1962, p. 1 6 1 4 - 1 6 5 2 . (l)hs
Am erican Civil Engineering Practice: R. W. A bbett, ed.,

!
1956, W iley, N ew Y ork , V . 1, Tunnels (by O le
S in g sta d ),p . 1 0 -1 to 10-94. (l)hs

American C oncrete Institute, 1 9 6 6 , Shotcrcting: ACI


Special Publication 14, D etroit. (A symposium of
13 p ap ers). (l)h
A nderson, M . M ., 1 970, W ater System Expansion Spurs
N ew Tunnel T echnology: C ivil E ngineering, V. 40,
N . 9, p. 6 9 - 7 2 . (1 )s
Bennett, N . B., 1967, M ole versus C onventional: A
C om parison o f T w o T unnel Driving T echniques:
Highway R esearch R ecord N o. 185, p. 18. (1 )hs
Berkey, C. P., and Sanborn, J. F ., 1922, Engineering
G eology of the Catskill W ater Supply: Transactions,
A m erican Society of Civil Engineers, V. 8 6 , N . 1509,
p. 1 -9 5 . A lso, Berkey, C. P., 1911, G eo lo g y of the
N ew Y ork (C atsk ill) A queduct: N ew Y ork State
M useum Bulletin 146, 2 8 3 p. (R eferen ce cited ) (2 )
Black, A ., 1937, The Story o f Tunnels: M cG raw -H ill,
N ew Y ork, 1937, 2 4 5 p. (4)
Blasongam e, R .( and Law, W. R., 1958. T unneling with
Rotary Drills and M illisecond Delay Blasting: Civil
Engineering, V . 28, p. 1 8 4 - 1 8 7 . (l)h
Bow les Engineering C orporation, 1969. Externally A ug
mented H ypervelocity Jet Program: O ffice of High
Speed Ground Transportation, U. S. D epartm ent of
Transportation, R eport N o . R -1 0 -3 1 -6 9 . 101 p. (l)h
Braithwaite, T. R ., 1970, Freezing T echniques for Shaft
Support:( (see Y ardley, D. H ., ed. ) p. 3 5 6 358. ( I )s
Brekke, T. L., 1968, B lock y and Seamy R ock ' in Tun
neling: Bulletin of the A ssociation of Engineering
G eologists, V. 5, N . 1, p. 2 3 - 2 6 . ( R eference cited) (2 )
Brekke, T. L., and Selm dr-O lson, R . 1965. Stability
Problems in U nderground C onstruction caused by
M ontm orillonite-carrying Joints and F aults: Engi
neering G eology, E lsevier, Am sterdam , Y . 1. N. 1,
p. 3 - 1 9 . (2 )
Brown, P. D ., and R obertshaw , J., 1953. T h e In-situ
M easurem ent of Y oung's M odulus for R o ck by a
D ynam ic M ethod: G eotech niqu e, V. 3, p. 2 8 3 - 2 8 6 . (3 )
Burwell, E. F., Jr., and R oberts, G. D ., 1 9 5 0 , The
G eologist in the E ngineering O rganization, Chapter

You might also like