Professional Documents
Culture Documents
r a r a p i $ v t e M i * t e '5'S S ^ ^ ^ f e t e j 'i ^
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^ B H R a W tW
197! A N N U A L M EETING f
The 14th annual meeting of the Association of Engineering Geologists
will lie held in Portland, Oregon, October 19-22, 1971. 7 heme for the
meeting will be Tools o f the Engineering Geologist. Field trips are
planned lo r the 19th and 20th and tentatively for the 23rd and 24th. j
Technical sessions are scheduled for the 21st and 22nd. On the 21st two
unstructured sessions will he held concurrently. Papers on research projects,
case histories, planning, environment, design, construction and other topics <
related to engineering geology are invited. Symposia on the subjects, In- j
strumenttk>n-Practical Applications and Results and Rock Support
Systems-Underground and Open Excavations will be held on October 22nd.
Speaker* are being invited to participate in the symposia. Each symposium
will include five speakers who will also serve as panel members during a
one hour discussion period after their presentations.
Additional information may be obtained from R. K. Dodds and/or J; L.
Holland, Co-Chairman, AEG 1971 Annual Meeting Committee, P. O. Box
K70H, Portland, Oregon 97208, j.
Mapping Geological
f \ Conditions in Tunnels
i '
including
I; C>uides
| Tunneling G lo ssa ry , an d
f T unneling R iblio g ra p h y
* .'
A bstract
!; M a p p in g in T unnels
N eed fo r G uides
\ p
D e c a u s e the tunnel geologist is re tain ed by an engineering firm,
a co n tra cto r, o r a tunnel ow ner he m ust relate rock conditions to
econom ics an d safety, and m ap and d escrib e rock conditions pri
m arily fo r engineers and know ledgeable laym en, an d secondarily
f1
Richard J. Proctor is Head of the Engineering Geology Branch of The Metro
politan Water District of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.
[1]
** Ki / V*** 1
for his wRcHgUCS,. T u n n el tetfd iio lo g y rarely h as b u . i stan d ard iz ed
itnd o fte n vagc-.; ^ ro c k tlc sc rib e d as fa ir ljr
v h ard , fe w io fn ts , stands well" by one geologist m ay be considered
, Tresh a n d blocky, stands fairly w ell b y an o th er. B u t how should
the o b serv ed characteristics an d beh av io r o f the ro ck be described?
D e scrip tio n s o f rock conditions (n<st rock ty p es) need to be s ta n
d ard iz ed a n d quantified (R ose, 1 9 6 5 ).
A p a n e l report o f the C om m ittee on R ap id E x cav atio n (1 9 6 8 ,
p. 43 ) sta te s, C om m unication am ong the geologist, the designer,
a n d the co n stru ctio n engineer w ould be greatly im proved by the
a d o p tio n o f a widely accepted stan d ard ized ro ck classification. j
H isto rically , C harles P. B erkeys re p o rt to the C ity of New Y o rk
in 1911 w a s possibly the first significant A m eric an geologic rep o rt i X
o n tu n n e ls d irected to civil engineers. His re p o rt w as later expanded
in to a definitive case history (B erk ey an d S an b o rn , 1 9 2 2 ). 1
O n e e a rly attem pt by a geologist to classify rock fo r engineering
p u rp o ses w as by Smith (1 9 1 9 ) , w ho was called u p o n to investigate
rock c o n d itio n s for proposed cuts. Sm ith fo u n d , to his dism ay,
th at th e ra ilro a d s construction engineers w ere using this descriptive
classificatio n : ( 1 ) solid rock, ( 2 ) sandstone, ( 3 ) cem en t, ( 4 )
shale, ( 5 ) e a rth . T h e engineer' responsible fo r to d ay s p ro jec t (
m ay re s o rt to sim ilarly unique classifications, unless rock co n d i
tions are described in clear, m eaningful term s (e.g ., V anserve,
1 9 5 2 ).
D eere, M erritt and C oon ( 1 9 6 9 ) go farth est to w ard the e n
g ineering classification of in-situ rock, based o n extensive field and
laboratory testing. --However, econom ics precludes testing the full
length o f an y tunne! geophysically (V o ig h t, 1 9 6 8 ); th erefo re, the
o b serv atio n s o f the tunnel m ap p er are of the utm ost im p o rtan ce,
bo th d u rin g construction and after, for the h isto rical record (see jj
discussion o f as-built draw ings b elo w ). T h ree of the m ost c o m p re
hensive recen t books on tunneling are by M ayo, et al. ( 1 9 6 8 ) ,
S /ech y ( 1 9 6 7 ) , and P equinot ( 1 9 6 3 ) .
T h e n eed for guides for the tunnel m ap p er has becom e evident
to the w riter because of his association w ith T h e M etro p o litan
W ater D istrict of Southern C alifo rn ia, w hich npw has six tunnels
u n d er c o n tra c t and six m ore scheduled for s ta rtio f co n stru c tio n in r r
the nqxt few years. T he tunnels arc a p a rt o f the F o o th ill F eed er,
w hich will contain 52 m iles of tu n n els w ith b o te i d iam eters u p to
1 . i
I \
\ {
% \ * ,
t :* feet. Esus system ,-as par< o f Thfc C kiifom ia_A gu 6d uct o r F eather
1 | R iver P ro ject, will distribute surplus n o rth e rn C alifornia w ater
ah lo u g h o u t so u thern C alifornia. (T h e w a te r will supplem ent im-
pfjrtations by way o f the C o lo rad o R iver a n d Owens V alley Aque-
cts, w hich now supply 11 m illion peo p le in southern C alifornia.
I p n g a n d P ro cto r, 1966, C h a p te r 2 .) F iv e o f these tunnels have
h |e n o r are being excavated by m eans o f m echanical boring
i m achines. T h e tunnel rock descriptions subm itted by the six
reside-* geologists who are engaged in th e D istricts current work
Were initially as varied as their backgrounds! A bout h alf of these
tiunnels are o r will be in sedim entary ro c k an d alluvium , and the
rem ain d er in h ard igneous rocks.
I
1
l.c/VJiV. N U . \ , .j 1 . vJ.NO ilN k t .Ni*UJl.2> c
p 1".' . . . ,v f .1?*
: In tightly lagged o r shotcreted tu n n els, th e geologist m ust m ap
; the w orking face c o n c u rre n t w ith h ead in g advance. He cannot
retu rn a t som e later d ate to recheck a specific are:; unless, just prior
to concrete lining, the ow ner rem oves som e of the lagging. Some
types of tu n n el b o rin g m achines ( m oles ) derive their forward
th ru st by h y draulic ram s th at force against the walls o f a tunnel.
In shotcreted tunnels, the ground m ay be exposed only where the
ram s chip the shotcrete. O ften the floor o f a shotcreted tunnel
does not set firm, because o f rebound accum ulation during shot
crete application, a n d easy digging m ay expose the rock.
M any m oles presently in use m ust p ush off steei-rib tunnel sup
ports fo r th eir fo rw ard progress. T his p ro ced u re often requires a
heavily lagged tu n n el ( a w ine b arrel tu n n el ) w hereby evenly
spaced ribs o r p recast concrete segm ents provide needed resistance
for the hydraulic jack s. T hus, even a firm -ground tunnel is often
lagged so tightly th a t the geologist cannot m ap adequately. U nder
these conditions, the P olaro id cam era is an im portant tool. Even
w hen the geologist is not available, tunnel inspectors can then take
pictures color p referred at specified intervals of advance, or at
every rock change, an d m ark the station and date on the photo
graphs. T h e geologist can then reco n stru ct rock structures at his
convenience. T he c a m e ra should be c a rrie d in a clear plastic bag.
w ith a dehum idifier o r o th er pro tectio n from dust and water. O ther
cam eras m ay be used if rib num bers o r statio n s are clearly m arked
w ith keel o r spray-can paint.
P h o tographs are especially helpful w hen the advance of boring
m achines exceeds 100 feet p er day, and the geologist works onlv
one shift, thus actually seeing fa r less than one third of the excava
tion. In this reg ard , a perm anently m o u n ted time-lapse movie
cam era m ay be installed with ap p ro p riate settings, such as one
fram e p er m inute. N ew m ethods of m ap p in g mole tunnels have
been described by C o o p e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) and J a c k (1 9 6 9 ). See Proctor
(1 9 6 9 ) for o th er co m m ents on boring m achines.
T h e follow ing re p o rt form and rock description guide may help
provide m ore uniform descriptions w here several persons have
m apping responsibilities.
j< O , J V K liA K M j . J KW t I U K \ It <U . . , g,
(N am e of Company or O w n e r ) I lf
r G EO LO G IC PROGRESS Rt >ORT W EER l M S U M M A R Y 1
* - T U N N E L : _____________________- 1 |
H E A D IN G : ______ ).......................... f V
Week e n d in g i-'!............................ s'
,1
v Reported by ....uj______ ____________ |
1 1. Mapping progress:..............Sta...................t o ____ }Approx.. ft.
< I
_
j 2. Excavainon progress: Sta---------------to--------.*(Approx______________ ft.
3. Avg. n b sp acin g ............................. . c.c. Rib s iz e /...........................................
4. Struts used?_______ Size ... Spiling used?...)! Size ............. .
5. Water inflows, gpm and locations ....< V. LM -............................. ..........
1.
Rock T P C- (Include definitive adjectives such asuplitic, prophyritic.
cherty. silty, etc.: also formation name.)
2. Color and range.
3. Gram size and range. i
4. Prominent minerals or percent rock clasts; type of cementation. |
5. Water inflows or seeps: temperature; pressure; estimated ormeasured
(low in gpm; duration. // I
f>. Rock defects: jv
Join ts open or closed, type of filling, cemented (h ealed ), attitudes,
spacing, number and orientation of prominent sets. *
Poults type (dip-slip, normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip), attitude,
displacement, filling (mylonite, gouge, breccia), thickness of zone.
W eathering and decom position degree of mechanical or chemical
weathering, hydrothermal alteration, oxidation, etc.
7. Rbck struct tires:
S edim entary stratified, massive, lensed, attitudes, degree of cementa-
r . i
r - * v tL o i- U u ic L l / i n d h i o . u t a* ^ a o b A L L i 7
Vv * 7
-"-------44------------ T *i tE Ih -C-rmtinmyi- * .: ... . .
h = hard,
mh = moderately hard,
ms = moderately soft. ?
s = soft.
w =: weathered or decomposed,
sw = slightly weathered,
rs = rust stains on joints,
cr = crushed,
g - gouge,
br = breccia,
jt = joint,
mas := massive,
blky = biocky.
fr = fractured.
d.g. = "decomposed granite. (Popular term in construction.)
G = gravel.
S = sand. r
M = silt (after Swedish word m o ).
C clay.
H ard very abrasive, dense rock that rings when struck with a hammer.
May be broken with repeated heavy hammer blows. Grossly equiv
alent to Mohs hardness > 5 .
M oderately hard rock has dull ring and hammer produces minor
indentations. May be broken with one sharp blow of hammer.
Grossly equivalent to Mohs 3 -5 .
M oderately soft rock is considerably deformed when struck by ham
mer. May be broken in the hands, but does not crumble readily.
Grossly equivalent to Mohs 1-3.
Soft material can be dug out and crumbled with fingers. Mohs <1
t
syg; . / . . . . . . ___ ........................................... ...... ........ t .L
T h r J is -s B td ft -D m w fngs iA s -C o n s tr u c ttd T u n n el L o g )
K
ir *'
gp r - Tabi.k VO. 'As-Built P r e w i n ^ i u t k - ^ ^ ^ . J ^ - - .
# ^ ' t f ! P ^ P P S ^ N V
- v - a V * * M w ? : ' ' : ^ i - 5- - * r ^ - V ? > - 7 - i -~ -' ,
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^ SAh f J tffstO fm Cfwk { [
, ; ^ f c V ' m**jim* 0 / AcOcAttA . f n ^ A >&W A n 4 m f farm A w y i, /Ay; <p*cstfxT x>/yfkixiy j *
* ** JiVffVV*#wwfcj AY-Hf J*>w /r/V. i&c-wtout f *n*M/vt, atAsreoot truest(y / ... I -
bAm.-H & f i b atAA, f i t w u / S t e n t to /o c # # v f# O i.
j rA*'W t * * /
, . GEOLOGIC LOG
---------------
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t i f
Controct No 1009 s<eafrei7p
SpecificationsNo. Bi4 1
+4U
INDEX TO SH EETS
Geologyby Richard Crook,Jr.
[ T h T A iirR o T o u taJ T w a t Ie * ~ d i s t r i c t I
f_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Of SOUTHERNCAUfORNIA |
DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
SEPULVEDA EEEDEH
SE PU LV ED A TU NNEL
NORTH PORTA/.
STA 7 0 9 + 5 4 TO STA. 7 7 5 + 0 0
------ -------| GEOLOG Y A N D A S -B U IL T
IDESIGNEDu e
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - ---- \DRAWN set ' RECOMMENDED. ................
------------ j CHECKEDPfrR CkAPPROVED........... 1
Lunuic OUDFfi
REVISION REC. APP.)hO 55035 kOSANGELES 070 /969 B-52655-/ j
\
)
1 K ) .
Tahi.1! IV. -Suggested jQutltne ja r Historical Record of_fu m e ! Rrofea
! ~ iimMNi* ~i ~ ~~ " T"'' w -
1. Introduction:
Tunnel name, length, diameter, location, purpose, contractor. Date ;
Utart and finish. Major delays. Reference drawings. (As-bui!ts). ,f
Num ber of sheets, scale.
2. Distribution of rock types and rock conditions: ^
); U*e nn<! explain Ter/.aghi Nos. Mapping problems, exposures. Per
cent tunnel in each rock type and condition.
3. Major faults:
Sta. localities, thickness of zone.
Troublesome to tunneling?
4. Groundwater inflows:
Major intlpw localities by Sta.
Quantities at localities and total tunnel discharge.
How fast inflow diminished? How measured at portals?
Temperature, pressure.
5. Tunneling methods used. Minimum and maximum cover.
6. Typical supports for each rock type.
Size, spacing: spiling or struts used? Any remining?
7. Typical blasting round any unusual blasting?
8. Reasons for large overbreaks; large grout takes.
9. Ca* or oil?
10. Reinforcing steel or tunnel liner where used and why?
11. Significant instrumentation readings and localities.
12. Comments hv geologist (nam e of writer). Was tunneling efficient.
Ws type of support effective? Cooperation between the geologist,
engineer, and contractor.
m apped tit lurger scales and d rafted as sep arate draw ings, or are
included as insets on the as-built draw ings,
|
C o m b in ed Terzaghi R o c k a n d S o ft-G ro u n d
T unnel ( ondiilons G u id e
~ i
'y C - T a b l e V , . C om bined Terzaghi R o c k <i/^HSoft-Ground Tunnel ^Conditions
F Uide | | | |
;V 1 Hard and intact. \ ( wig1
I'. 2 Hard stratified or schistose. !U
p 3 Massive, modi . itely jointed; very hrm. ground.
! 4 Moderately blocky and seamy; firj\>, ground.
5 Very blocky and seamy (closely jjijinted); may he raveling
k ground.
:i 6-Crushed but chemically intact jjock or unconsolidated
U sand; m ay he running or flowing ground.
7 Squeezing rock, moderate depth, ,|j
' 8 Squeezim rock, great depth.
9 Swelling ck. ?!
-------------- 4-----------------------------------------------
Notes: In practice, there are no sharp Boundaries between these categories,
and a range of several Terzaghi Numbers may best describe some rock and
soft-ground conditions, ^ee Glossary (pr definitions of terms, and Table II for
definitions of hard andisoft rock.
\
I
/ '( . IV* . I*-
ll Rock
1 Condition Sedimentary Sediments
No. Iinvoui induratnd soft around Mctamorphic
7 ii ii H ii
8 H H H ti |
9
Serpentine- Bentonitic tuff, Montmorillonite- Altered mica
i/ed ultra- anhydrite rich clay schist (esp.
basic rock vermicuiite) |
111 Ry definition,Rock Condition No. 2 comprises stratified and schistose rock;
how m r, tgnrousrocks are often layered, as bynow-bunding, by prismatic min
erals forming linear structure" or "(low llneatlon," or by schlieren (Wahlstrom,
I'M*), I
l>' The direction of dip of beds or schlstosity in a tunnel is important. For
ruimpl*. s' *ta with weak bedding planes dipping downward out of the heading
may tkld fersaghi Rock Condition No. 5; it iliey dip into the heading, then
ler/ttghl W.Kk Condition No. 3 could apply because the rock "stands well."
I limbing and vertical beds striking normal to the tunnel arc not as troublesome
as dipping Nrds. Vertical beds parallel to the tunnel may not ground-arch, owing
to a iteungular-section dead load at the crown.
'Commonest soft-ground materials include alluvium, glacial till, and poorly
consolidated or poorly cemented late-Cenozoic formations. (
tim e" ( see G lo ssary ). P ractically till failures in such tunnels are
caused h \ groundw ater pressures. F o r exam ple, a fairly com petent
sandstone or shale, ranging from h ard stratified to m oderately
biocky ( R ock C on d itio n N os. 2 to 4 ) , m ay be changed into ra v el
ing g ro u n d (R o ck C on d itio n N o. 5 ) by w ater inflows.
T he te rm "biocky and seamy, ro c k is often equated with jointed i
rock in R ock C ondition N os. 3, 4, a n d 5. Indeed, jointed an d \
biocky ro c k are often synonym ous, and w here clay occurs in joints,
the rock m ay be term ed seam y even if it is not layered. T h e care
required in m apping jointed rock is em phasized by R u th T erzag h i
jp L i v ____ __________ ............. .
-(1 9 6 5 , 1 9 6 6 ) . B r e k k e ( 1 9 6 8 ) s u g g e s t s a m odification o f rock
loads in the category blocky an d seam y ro c k .
T ab le V sh ould be used only as a key to supplem ent the detailed
descriptions required of the tunnel m ap p er.
|
pf.
H
T u n n el S u p p o rts
\r
D eere, P eck , et al. (1 9 6 9 ) have given a com prehensive evalua
tion of tunnel, sup p o rt systems. A w idely used tunnel estim ating
p ro ced u re h as been presented by the C a lifo rn ia D epartm ent of
W ater R esources (1 9 5 9 ) . T erzaghi (1 9 4 3 ) has suggested a m ethod
of estim ating w here liner plates can be used for support of tunnels
in soft g ro u n d . Snow (1 9 6 8 ) has suggested a m ethod of relating
fractu res en co u n tered in borings to porosity an d future grout take.
W hen tw in-bore parallel tunnels are b e in g driven, or at wyes,
one head in g should be advanced about 200 feet, o r two weeks'
driving tim e, beyond the o th er heading. T h is spacing allows for
norm al rock stress relief and avoids o v erlap p in g stresses th at greatly
w eaken the intervening rock, which in tu rn necessitates using m ore
supports th a n should have been required, a n d adds to the cost of
the tunnel.
T he first use of shotcrete (R abcew icz. 1 9 6 4 ), or pneum atically
applied fine-aggregate m ortar for tem p o ra ry tunnel support, was
in 1929 by C arl R. P.ankin (personal com m unication, 1968).
He w'as the engineer for the C oast R ange H etch H etchy Tunnels,
w hich supply w ater to San Francisco. P neum atically applied m or
ta r rings o r collars up to 3 feet thick w ere constructed between
16 x 16-inch tim ber sets that had becom e deform ed; then the sets
were rem oved, and additional shotcrete" w as added. Shotcrete,"
or gunite w ith 4 -inch aggregate, was also used in the period b e
tween 1930 to 1934 for placing the p erm a n en t concrete lining in
these tunnels. Shotcrete was used a secon d time in 1934, in the
San Jac in to T u nnel of the C olorado R iv er A queduct, w hich was
also un d er th e direction of engineer C arl R . R ankin (H artm an n ,
1966, p. 3 0 ).
T ab le V II gives a rough estim ate of tunnel supports required
for various ro c k conditions. T h e guide assum es a m oderate-sized
tunnel d iam eter. Obviously, m ore supports a re required in a large-
, I - I
v ^ . i .................... I
TaL* V 8tri, -Typical JTumuit Supports R e w ir e d with- Each Terzaghi
Rock C ondition . __
' h^ i u ^
Condiikm No. t Typical tunnel supports
8 See No. 7.
: ; ' I
...; r - : - . - !|- T y N N E L IN G -GX>SSARV- ~ ~ :^ - .-.i:'^^^^ 1 _ ...J-I
. 111 ' ' r ;>.v : 4- .
D | i!]|n i t i o n s of T unnel T erms * -
.
,, / m drdhd boh /
-V A X / / X IO W o od tagging
-f ,jVnV a a Jji / A
V \ mm Chonr,*/ tpiJing or ( ^ ' ^ - \
A n c h o r ptot , ' - ' j
TUnotoning bott^- ^ s 0* ^ X/ \ j
A rrh r t b i / Mr 4w < j v 's /*
/ / A' L Ctntortin* \ \ \ j
/ / N n n a l l in t r I H , , u % U.4 . \ \ \ r. . j
i t H mortm c*f/n* i \ \^ y \ ^
I I I ^ S p rin g line \ I v
[ X * " v. :
* " '* * * f* * J J J . C o lla r broc*
I U I / n
///)<# I Rk
Inutrl strut -
B ridge-action (see G ro u n d -a rc h .)
B u ll gang slang for m iners w ho lay track , fan an d w a te r lines.
B urn holes (burn c u ts ) ce n te r holes o f a b lasting ro u n d . M ay
be larger diam eter thtvn o th er holes and m ay not be loaded
thus allowing space for blasted rock to m ove into.
C alifornia sw itch a p ortable co m b in atio n of siding an d sw itches
superim posed on the m ain track , th at can be pulled forw ard 1
as a unit, so as to be w ithin a few h u n d re d feet of the w orking
face. The double track allow s one tra in to pass a n o th e r and |
allow s the switching of m uck cars.
C hange h ouse tem porary stru ctu re provided with show ers and
clo th es lockers. A lso called hog house o r d ry house.
C h erryp icker a track -m o u n ted gantry used fo r sw itching m uck
cars.
C la y classified as plastic m aterial w ith a p artic le size less than
1 /2 5 6 m illim eter in d iam eter, o r less th a n 0 .0 0 5 to 0 .0 0 2 '
Sjp-' -s, - \ i \ s *:/'
\ v T'
H O . V t
' J
l
rtW XA.GU-GKiJU k_ U.Ni Hi AtN I L .<oLU jL*) k
j g ^ ..... ............ - '______ .. .. ., : ................'
Ij the heading to w ork, thus interfering w ith the m uck trains. | >j
Lagging longitudinal m em bers, usually lim b e r, o f the support
system w hich span the spaces b etw een the m ain supporting hSj
ribs.
L ifters low er holes o f a blasting round. {.*
L iner plates pressed steel plates sh ap ed to tunnel dim ensions,
bolted together and installed betw een the webs o f the ribs,
o r w ithout any ribs, to m ake a co n tin u o u s steel skin support.
M assive rock (R o c k C ondition N o. 3, see T able V .) R ock is f
nearly in tact; joints and h air crack s a re at s p r i n g s of six feet
o r greater. L arge cracks an d o th e r ro ck defects <Aay be
naturally cem ented to yield a m assive rock. B edding planes
are not significant. If overbreak o ccu rs, it is usually a residt
of poor blasting techniques ra th e r th a n rock Condition. Sup
port ribs m ay be set o n six-foot cen ters with very little o r no
lagging, o r light roof bolting. R ock "stan d s w ell.
Misfire, m issed hole a drill hole in w hich all o r p a rt of the ex
plosive has failed to detonate.
M o le p o p u lar nam e for any type of m echanical boring m achine.
M u c k ex cav ated tunnel debris; tailings. ,
M ultiple drift excavation a m ethod in w hich two sm all drifts are
driven along each side of the tunnel allow ing wall plates o r
other side supports to be placed. A top drift is then driven
and w idened out slowly to take the ro o f supports. This m ethod
is used in b ad tunneling g round in large diam eter tunnels.
O verbreak (see Pay line.)
O verburden all m ateria! above a tunnel, w hether unconsolidated
or hard rock; the cover over a tunnel. In subaqueous tunnels,
it is the distance betw een the riv erb ed and the tunnel crown.
Panning the use of sheet m etal to divert inflows o f w ater from
w orking areas so th at concrete can b e placed against a drier
surface.
Pay line the line, o r tunnel section, w h ich constitutes limits of
paym ent fo r excavation and co n crete lining. O verbreak is
any excavation beyond! the pay line, a n d overrun is any excess
concrete placed b eyond the pay line.
Popping rock ( rock burst)-]-\a rock co n d itio n involving the spon
taneous and violent d etach m en t o f ro c k slabs. It is caused by
I 1
< 1
| 1 - i i . . i _ . . . . j \ '! .........
su d d en stress re le ase i n the rixlc. O ccu rs conim clfly in h a r d . .
in tact rock to m o d era tely jointed rock at g reat d m t |.
Portal th e n ear-h o rizo n tal en tra n ce to a tu n n el o r adiWij
Posts th e vertical m em b ers o f a steel rib o r tim b e r s u p p M system.
P osts serve to tra n sm it rock load 1 "m th e arc h rMs to the
footings of th e tu n n e l. j|
P ow der m o n k e y slan g fo r m an w ho handles explosives.]!
R a kers support tim b e rs placed at an angle. jV
R a velin g ground (R o c k C o n d itio n N o. 5, see T ab le Vij) Pooriy
consolidated o r cem en ted m aterials th a t c a n stand up for
several m inutes to several hou>, at a fresh cu t, b u t then start
to slough, slake, o r scale off. Si yhtly cohesive sand is assigned
to this category. R aveling g ro u n d m ay b ecom e ru n n in g or
flow ing ground below the w ater tatyle.
R ib s cu rved steel su p p o rts, u su ally .c o ld -ro lled o r pressed stru c
tu ral beam s m ad e to conform to the re q u ired tunnel shape.
H -beam s o r w ide flange beam s are p re fera b le to I-beam s, as
w id er flanges p ro v id e m ore surface for blo ck in g an d lagging,
a n d the section has a g re ater resistance to tw isting. ( H = heavy
ribs, M m edium rib s.)
R ift, grain and h a rdw ay term s com m on in q u arry in g , indicating
the three o rth o g o n al directions of p referred splitting within
m assive, q u artz-b earin g , igneous rock. T h e rift is the direction
o f easiest splitting an d is usually ho rizo n tal o r nearly so. T he
grain, usually p e rp e n d ic u la r to the rift, is the directio n of next
easiest splitting. T h e hardw ay (o r head g ra in ) is the plane of
m ost difficult sp littin g am ong the three directions. In hard
rock tunneling, if the hardw ay d irectio n is norm al to tunnel
adv ance, co n sid erab le pow der is re q u ired for rem oval.
R o ck b o ltin g a m eans o f rock support using steel rods of various
lengths that fit in to predrilled holes. T h e rods are threaded
and bolted to a n a n c h o r plate on one en d , a n d fitted with an
ex p an d ab le a n c h o r on the oth er. W hen the bolt is tightened
w ith a w rench, the rock m ass is held to g eth er by tension. The
space betw een the rod and the drilled hole is often grouted.
R o c k b u rst (see Popping, ro c k .)
R o u n d a blajst at the heading an d th e 'r e s u lta n t tunnel advance
len g th; the length o f holes drilled for inserting explosives.
A lso, the co n figuration o f the drill holes, as V -cut ro u n d .
1
1
ir.vi- . .
S & i3=U h .R u n n in g ro /u f---(R o c k C ondition N b7.^, ^ ^ a b l < V , j M aterial
of n o cohesion, such as clean sand o r gravel, is referred to as
ru nning g ro u n d regardless o f w h e th e r it is located above o r
below th e w a te r table. S tand-up tim e is nearly zero. T unnel
ing usually is uneconom ical below th e w ater table w ithout
p rio r d ew atering o r grouting. R u n n in g ground above the w ater
table will stabilize on a slope of 3 0 to 40 degrees; the grain
size, shape, driving force of w ater pressures, and m oisture
content g overn the angle o f repose. B reastboards or other
m eans o f securing the heading are re q u ired for advance.
Sandhog slang fo r tunnel m iners w ho w ork under com pressed air.
S egm ents sections th at m ake u p a ring o f su p p o rt o r lining; com
m only steel o r p recast concrete.
S h a ft an ex cavation which proceeds fro m the ground surface in
a vertical o r near-vertical direction. A raise or stope is ex
cavated upw ard from a tunnel o r drift, usually for exploratory
purposes.
Shield an arch ed o r cylindrical steel sk in m ade of heavy steel
plates, used for excavation in soft ground. It protects the
u n su p p o rted p art of the heading a n d affords a m ethod of
excavation w hereby a cutting edge is forced ahead, usually
by h ydraulic jacks pushing against the previously installed
supports. In flowing ground, as in subaqueous river tunneling,
ports o r w indow s are opened at the breasted face to allow
m aterial to flow in.
Shotcrete sm all aggregate fluid concrete pneum atically shot from
hoses o n to the rock so th at the rock lo ad is distributed equally
over the entire surface. As a type o f tufmel support, it is
generally ap p lied in layers tw'o inches thick. Quicksettinp
additives are used fo r high early stren g th , and often a rock-
adhesive additive is used.
S h o ve the act of advancing a m ole o r shield forw ard w'ith hy
draulic jacks.
S k ip a co n tain er used for raising m uck u p a shaft from the tunnel
to the surface.
Spoiling a rock condition in w hich spalls o r slabs of rock drop
off the ro o f several hours o r weeks a fte r blasting. It is caused
by rock loosened during blasting.
Spiling (fo rep o lin g ) usually steel ch an n els, strong tim bers, or
I
iwt " t G .
2; ilfaveBiln ljhc~aircJhi a h e a d 'o f. th e la s t'r ib
to su p p o rt loose g ro u n d , ""hey act as cantilevers w hich ca rry
th e w eight o f the g ro u n d u ntil th eir forw ard ends are su p p o rted
by installing the next rib.
Spreaders (sec C o lla r b ra c e s.)
S p rin g lin e a horizontal p la n e th ro u g h the center o f a circ u la r
tu n n e l; the point w here th e curved portion of the ro o f in ter
sects the top of the w all in a horseshoe-shaped tunnel.
S q u eezin g rock (R o c k C o n d itio n s N os. 7 an d 8 , see T a b le V .)
Slow m ovem ent o f ro c k in to the tunr.el w ithout p ercep tib le
v o lu m e increase. A ll tu n n els in soft clay experience squeeze.
T h e difference betw een T erzag h i category 7, m oderate d ep th ,
a n d 8 , great depth, is a rb itra ry depending on rock types an d
co n d itio n s in a given tu n n e l; assum e 1,000 feet of cover as
the dividing line b etw een m oderate and great dep th . R ock
pressure expressed by squeeze can occur in a tunnel in three
w ays, including ( 1 ) ch e m ica lly induced squeeze: T erzag h i
(1 9 4 6 , p. 8 9 ) attrib u ted m ost squeeze to this cause: P re
requisite for squeeze is a high percentage of m icroscopic and
subm icroscopic particles o f m icaceous m inerals o r o f clay
m in erals with a low sw elling capacity. ( 2 ) M echanical
sq u ee ze (gravity): T h is o cc u rs where rock is adversely jointed
o r fractu red and loosened by overblasting, o r w here a shallow
o r w eakly consolidated o v erb u rd en inhibits d evelopm ent of
a n o rm al gro u n d -arch ab o v e the crow n. G ravity then ca n act
on the blocks of rock to load and deform the sup p o rt system .
If ribs are the m ain type o f support, backpacking and w edging
1 beh ind ribs to m aintain interlocking of rock frag m en ts are
essential in preventing o r retard in g this type of squeeze. (3 )
T ecto n ic squeeze (" m o u n ta in pressure): L aten t stresses
w ithin a rock m ass, w hich usually increase with depth o f cover.
T h e tunnel pros ides a cavity fo r relief of stresses, and the rock
o ften deform s plastically. Som e m inerals also expand elasti
cally w hen coiirining p ressu re is relieved. Pressures as high as
20 to n s per square foot h av e been recorded.
S ta n d -u p tim e the tim e th at elapses betw een the exposure o f an
area at the roof of a tu n n el an d the beginning o f noticeable
m ovem ents of the g ro u n d above this area. F o r exam ple, the .
sta n d -u p time of raveling g round m ay be several m inutes, o r
I
I
fr r -V , ' ................... _ ' \
j. long en ough to m stffi tem p o rary su p p o rts,T ju l ttic ktand-up j "
tim e of flowing ground is zero. T u n n e l size is a n im portant 1
j; factor.
Sw elling rock (R o c k C ondition N o. 9 , see Table V .) E xpands
( in volum e upon exposure to w ater. (Sw elling is a r rticular
type of squeezing g ro u n d .) E x ca v atio n m ay require blasting,
o r the rock m ay be soft enough to require shield m ethods.
U sually lim ited to those rocks th at co n tain m inerals with an
expanding-lattice m o lecular s tru c tu re ; exam ples are mont-
m orillonite clay (com m only volcanic ash altered 'o bentonitic
tu ff), and serpentinite; sedim entary' form atio;, containing
. anhydrite m ay hydrate to gypsum w ith great piessurey .an d
volum e increase. T ru e sw elling in clays is totally reversible
only with com plete d eh ydration. In v e rt struts, circular ribs,
o r yielding ribs are required fo r su p p o rt in swelling ground.
T ie rods Steel rods, usually % -in ch o r H4-inch diam eter, with
threaded ends. T hey are inserted th ro u g h holes in the ribs
and are used, to tie the ribs together and to tighten the ribs
to the collar braces.
T o p heading and bench excavation the head in g is first excavated
the full w idth of the tunnel from the crow n to the springline.
It is usually advanced ah ead of the bench W-i to several
times the length of one round. T h e bench is then used as a
tem porary w ork platform . T his m eth o d is used in difficult
ground w here full face tunneling is hazardous, and in very
large d iam eter tunnels.
T rem ie concrete concrete directionally p lace d under w ater through
a steel or plastic pipe.
T rim holes p erim eter holes of a blasting ro und.
T u n n el-a horizontal or n ear-horizontal excavation th at is open
to the ground surface at each end.
T unneling cycle in rock tunneling, the 6 -p art excavation cycle is
drilling holes for explosives, lo ad in g , blasting (sh o o tin g ),
ventilating, m uqking, an d erecting supports.
T u n n el liner (steel qylinder) w elded c irc u la r steel plate sections
placed inside the concrete lining to resist internal pressure
and for w atertightness. '
W all plate a longitudinal su p p o rt, com m only used in the top
heading and bench m eth o d ,'w h ich rests first on the bench and
l
\
*, u/o _ \ . 'V.
- -44 . l a i r r bridges to p o f th e posts a n d su p p o rts th e arc h ribs. ~ T " __ ^
V *' T h re e types a te(co m m o n ly used: D o u b le B eam W all Plates
co m p rise two p f e a m s set side by side w ith th e webs vertical;
S in g le Bean) w J l Plates a re H -b eam s w ith the w eb vertical
a n d a T -sh a p ei||sectio n w elded w h ere the ribs and posts are
k o n n e c te d ; F latjfV all P lates a re I-b eam s o r w ide flange beam s
used w ith their yvebs h o rizo n ta l (th e se arc the w eakest type,
a n d a re used on 1$ in sm all d ia m e te r tu n n e ls ) .
J ^
f!I
' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
c\ 1 ;V
I
T u n n e l in g Bib l i o g r a p h y and R eferences
I
Abel, J F . 1967, Tunnel Mechanics: C olorado School of
M i n e s Q u a r t e r l y , V . 6 2 , N . 2. (3)
Agricol.i. Georgius, 1556, Dc Re M etallica: Translated
from the first latin edition of 1556 by H. C. Hoover
and L. H. Hoover, 1950, Dover Publications, New
York. 638 pp. (The oldest work on mining, geology,
and metallurgy readily available in libraries.) (1 )hs
Alberts, C . and Brannfors, S., 1965, Method of Driving
Tunr.els in Rock: U. S, Patent Office, Pat. No.
3,224.203. (l)h
Alexander. L, G., Worotnicki, G., and Aubrey, K., 1964,
Stress and Deformation in Rock and Rock Support,
Tum ut 1 and 2 Underground Power Stations: Pro
ceedings, 4th Australian-New Zealand Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. (1 )h ( 3 )
r v
These references are keyed to the categories of (1) Tunneling Methods and
Support# (h = hard rock tunnels, s =. soft-ground), (2) Tunnel Logging, (3)
Rock Mechanics, and (4) Tunnel Case History Sources.
L
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- ... - . '. '- u JM
i i p .7 1. 7 . - : -
Am erican Civil Engineers H andbook: T M errim an p ed . ------- |
r 1962, (5 th ed .), WUey, New Y ork, Vol. III, Tun
n els, 1962, p. 1 6 1 4 - 1 6 5 2 . (l)hs
Am erican Civil Engineering Practice: R. W. A bbett, ed.,
!
1956, W iley, N ew Y ork , V . 1, Tunnels (by O le
S in g sta d ),p . 1 0 -1 to 10-94. (l)hs