Chemistry Final Exam Study Guide

Physical Change:
1. Vapor pressurethe partial pressure of vapor molecules that have escaped from a liquid
substance, above a substances surface; relates to a substances evaporation rate, the
tendency of particles to escape from it when the temperature is below its boiling point;
depends on temperature, intermolecular forces, and molecular weight; substances with
high vapor pressure are volatile
2. Solutiona homogeneous mixture composed of only 1 phase in which a solute is
dissolved in a solvent
3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquid:
Increased Decreased Increased Increased
temperature temperature pressure pressure
Solid Increase Decrease N/A N/A
s
Gase Decrease Increase Increase Decrease
s
4. Solubility rules:
1) Most Ag, Pb, and Hg salts are insoluble except their nitrates and perchlorates.
2) Most hydroxides (OH-) are insoluble except those of alkali metals and barium.
3) All nitrates (NO3-) and perchlorates (ClO4-) are soluble.
4) All alkali metal and ammonium (NH4+) compounds are soluble.
5. Ways to separate mixtures:
1) Filtrationinterposing a medium (like porous paper) through which only fluid,
called filtrate, passes; large particles of solid are held back; utilizes the
substances different phases
2) Distillationseparating component substances from liquid mixtures through
vaporization and condensation; utilizes the substances different boiling points
3) Decantationremoving a layer of liquid from which a precipitate has settled;
utilizes substances insolubility
4) Siftingusing a sieve/sifter to separate out large particles; utilizes substances
insolubility and different particle sizes
5) Chromatographyseparating substances by passing them over an absorbing
surface; the substances that stick to the surface with greater attraction move more
slowly than the substances that are less attracted; utilizes substances different
degrees of absorption onto a surface
6) Use of magnetspassing magnets over a mixture to separate substances; uses
substances different magnetic charges

Chemical Change:
1. The 7 elements that exist as diatomic molecules are H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2.
2. Common Gases:
Formula Name
O2 Oxygen
O3 Ozone
N2 Nitrogen
 CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
SOx Sulfur _oxide
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NH3 Ammonia
HCl Hydrogen
chloride
HF Hydrogen fluoride
F2, Cl2 Fluorine, chlorine
H2 Hydrogen
3. Enthalpy changethe difference in potential energy between the reactants and products
bonds
4. A reaction with negative enthalpy is exothermic, or releases heat; a reaction with positive
enthalpy is endothermic, or absorbs heat.
5. Heat of formationthe energy released or absorbed when a molecule is created from its
constituent elements
6. Oxidation state rules:
1) When oxygen is in a compound, its oxidation state is usually -2 (it has been
reduced). One important exception is oxygen in a peroxide such as hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2). In a peroxide, oxygen has an oxidation state of -1.
2) When an alkali metal (Li, Na, etc.) is involved in a compound, its oxidation state
is always +1.
3) When an alkaline earth metal (Be, Mg, etc.) is involved in a compound, its
oxidation state is +2.
4) When a halogen (F, Cl, etc.) is involved in a compound, its oxidation state is often
-1. The oxidation state of fluorine in a compound is always -1.
5) When hydrogen is combined with a nonmetal, its oxidation state is +1. When
hydrogen is combined with a metal, its oxidation state is -1.
6) In any compound, the sum of all oxidation states is 0.
7. Redox/oxidation reactiona reaction in which one or more atoms are reduced and one or
more other atoms are oxidized
8. Half-reactiona representation of just the reduction or oxidation in a redox reaction
9. Types of redox reactions:
1) Synthesis
2) Analysis
3) Single metallic/nonmetallic replacement
4) Combustion
10. Double replacement/ion exchange reactiona reaction in which part of one reactant is
replaced by part of another reactant, so that AB + CD AD + CB; not a redox reaction;
for example: precipitation reactions, acid/base neutralization, salt hydrolysis
11. Electrochemistrythe study of the relationship between chemical reactions and
electricity
12. Electrochemical/voltaic/galvanic cella device used to produce an electric current from
a spontaneous redox reaction
13. Standard electrode potential (E0)measures, in volts, the electric potential difference of a
given half-reaction relative the half-reaction 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- H2(g); if measuring reduction
 potential (E0red), the above reduction is used; if measuring oxidation potential (E0ox), the
reverse of the above reaction is used
14. To determine if a redox reaction is spontaneous, add the E0red and E0ox for the reactions 2
half-reactions. This gives E0cell. If E0cell is positive, the redox reaction is spontaneous; the
energy that it releases can be converted into electrical energy. If E0cell is negative, the
redox reaction is nonspontaneous; electrical energy must be put into it and converted to
chemical energy in order for the reaction to occur.
15. Converting chemical to electrical energy:
- Electrodea strip of metal that participates in the redox reaction
- Anodethe electrode in the vessel in which oxidation occurs
- Cathodethe electrode in the vessel in which reduction occurs
- Salt bridgea device used to neutralize excess charge buildup; filled with an aqueous
ionic solution; as positive charge accumulates in the anode, anions flow into it from
the salt bridge; as negative charge accumulates in the cathode, cations flow into it
from the salt bridge
- The anode and cathode are each placed in containers filled with an aqueous solution
containing the ions participating in the reaction; the 2 containers are linked by a wire
and the salt bridge
- Voltmetermeasures the electrochemical cells electric potential
- Electric potential is theoretically equal to E0cell; however, electrical resistance in the
wire always causes the actual electric potential to be less than E0cell
- As an electrochemical cell runs, its voltage decreases; when it becomes 0, the
spontaneous redox reaction has reached equilibrium, and the electrochemical cell is
dead
16. Electrolysisthe process by which electrical energy is put into a nonspontaneous redox
reaction to force it to occur
- Electroplatinga type of electrolysis in which one metal is deposited on another

Naming Compounds:
1. Memorize polyatomic ions (http://quizlet.com/27208418/bscience-chemistry-quiz-10213-
flash-cards/).

Lab Equipment and Techniques:

1. Manometeran instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure
2. Barometeran instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure
3. Burettea device used to dispense variable, measured amounts of a chemical solution
4. Gas-collecting tubean oblong, cylindrical gas-tight container with a valve at either end;
used to take gas samples
5. Volumetric flaska glass flask calibrated to contain a precise volume at a specific
temperature; used to prepare standard solutions and precise dilutions
6. When diluting acid, always add the acid to the water to avoid spattering the acid solution.
7. Heat substances slowly. Things that are heated too quickly can spatter, burn, or explode.
8. Allow hot objects to return to room temperature before weighing them. A hot object on a
scale creates convection currents that can make the object seem lighter than it is.
 9. When titrating, rinse the burette not with water but with the solution used in the titration.
Rinsing the burette with water might dilute the solution and cause the volume added from
the burette to be too large.

Gas Laws:
1. Units of pressure: 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 1 atm
2. Ideal gas assumptions:
1) Molecules of an ideal gas do not attract or repel each other
2) Molecules of an ideal gas occupy 0 volume
3. Gases behave most ideally under low pressure and at high temperature; under these
conditions, a gas has high entropy.
4. Kinetic molecular theorystates that a gas molecules kinetic energy increases
proportionally with temperature in degrees Kelvin
5. Ideal gas equation: PV = nRT
L atm
- Ideal gas constant (R) = 0.082
mol K
6. Daltons Lawstates that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of nonreactive gases
equals the sum of the individual gases partial pressures
1 12
7. A gass velocity is directly proportional to ( )
MW
.

Stoichiometry:
1. Colligative propertiesproperties of solutions that depend upon the ratio of the number
of solute particles to the number of solvent molecules in a solution, not on the type of
chemical species present
2. When a nonvolatile solute is added to a solution, the solutions melting point decreases;
its boiling point increases. The size of the change in melting and boiling points depends
on the solutes concentration.

Acids and Bases:

1. Acid/base definitions:
Arrhenius Acids produce H+ in aqueous solution.
Bases produce OH- in aqueous solution.
2. pH = Lewis Acids accept electron pairs in solution. log[H+]
pOH Bases donate electron pairs in solution. = log[OH-]
pH + Bronsted-Lowry Acids donate protons. Bases accept protons. pOH = 14
3. Acid dissociation:

++ A( aq)
HA (aq ) H (aq )

++ A(aq)
HA (aq )+ H 2 O (l) H 3 O(aq )
Reaction of a base:
 HA (aq )
++ A (aq)
H ( aq)

+ H 2 O (l ) HA(aq) +OH (aq )
A (aq )
4. Amphoteric compoundscompounds that can act as either acids or bases, donating or
accepting H+(aq) in response to the other molecules/ions in solution; for example: H2O,
HCO3-
5. Strong acids:
1) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
2) Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
3) Hydroiodic acid (HI)
4) Nitric acid (HNO3)
5) Sulfurid acid (H2SO4)note: only the first H is strong
6) Perchloric acid (HClO4)
6. Strong bases (group 1 hydroxides):
1) LiOH
2) NaOH
3) KOH
4) RbOH
5) CsOH
6) Ca(OH)2
7) Sr(OH)2
8) Ba(OH)2
7. For a 1.0 M solution of any strong acid, pH = 0. For a 1.0 M solution of any strong base,
pH = 14.
8. Conjugate pair2 molecules with identical formulas except that one has an additional
H+; the member with the extra H+ is the conjugate acid, and the other is the conjugate
base; just because a molecule is called a conjugate acid/base does not mean its actually
acidic/basic in solution, as with OH-/O2; for example: HCl/Cl-, H2O/OH-, H3O+/H2O,
H2PO4-/HPO4-2
9. Conjugate rules:
1) The conjugate acid of a strong base is neutral.
2) The conjugate base of a strong acid is neutral.
3) The conjugate acid of a weak base is an acid.
4) The conjugate base of a weak acid is a base.
10. Buffera solution used to minimize (not prevent) a pH change when an additional
acid/base is introduced into solution; made of conjugate weak acids and basesthe
acid/base pair must be conjugates because if they werent, they would instantly react,
neutralize each other, and fail to establish a reversible reaction
11. Acid-base titrationan experimental technique used to figure out concentration of an
acid/base or whether an unknown acid/base is strong or weak
- MacidVacid = MbaseVbase
- Titranta strong acid/base of known identity and concentration that is added to the
unknown acid/base solution
 - Equivalence pointthe point when just enough titrant (in moles) has been added to
completely neutralize the unknown acid/base; no unreacted titrant or unknown
acid/base remains in solution; however, conjugate acids/bases do not need to be
neutral
- The pH at the equivalence point indicates whether the unknown acid/base is strong or
weak. If the pH is exactly 7, then the unknown acid/base is strong; if it is greater or
less than 7, the unknown acid/base is weak.
- Indicators often used include phenolphthalein (which is clear in acid and pink in base)
and litmus (which is pink in acid and blue in base)

Thermodynamics:
1. Heat capacitythe amount of heat a substance must absorb for its temperature to be
raised 1 K
2. Specific heat capacitya substances heat capacity per 1 g
3. Q = mcT
4. Exothermic reactiona reaction that releases energy; H is negative; enthalpy decreases
5. Endothermic reactiona reaction that absorbs energy; H is positive; enthalpy increases
6. Heat of formationthe amount of heat released or absorbed when 1 mole of a compound
is formed from its elements
7. G = H TS
If G is positive, the reaction is spontaneous. If G is negative, the reaction is
nonspontaneous; its reverse is spontaneous.

Equilibrium:
1. Kineticsthe study of reaction rate, or speed at which reactants are converted to products
2. Equilibriumthe point in a chemical reaction when the concentration of all reactants and
products stops changing
3. Activated complex/transition statean extremely unstable, high-energy intermediate
arrangement of atoms during a chemical reaction, when bonds are breaking and new
bonds are forming
4. Factors that influence reaction rate:
1) Reactants concentrationaffects molecules collision rate; for example: wood
burns much faster in pure oxygen than in air; only the concentrations of reactants
that are gaseous or in solution can be changed
2) Reactants surface areaaffects molecules collision rate; for example: a cube of
sugar dissolves more slowly than ground sugar in water; only solids and liquids
surface areas can be changed
3) Temperatureaffects molecules collision rate and energy involved in reaction;
influences reaction rate most profoundly; as their temperature increases,
molecules move around faster, causing more frequent, energetic collisions and
increasing the chance that a collision will have enough energy to break bonds
4) Reactants natureaffects energy involved in reaction; reactant molecules
composed of weak bonds react more quickly than reactant molecules composed of
strong bonds, since their bonds require less energy to break; for example:
dissolved ions reaction is rapid, since bond-breaking has already occurred
 5) Catalystsaffect energy involved in reaction; substances, like enzymes, that
increase reaction rate without being consumed by the reaction; work by enabling
the reaction to proceed through different steps, with a lower activation energy,
than it normally would
- Activation energythe minimum energy that must be supplied to form an
activated complex; an energy barrier that reactants must overcome; reactant
molecules acquire activation energy by absorbing surrounding heat
5. Dynamic equilibriumoccurs when forward and reverse reaction rates are equal and
reactants and products concentrations are constant, but not necessarily equal
6. For the reaction a A + b B c C + d D:
K
[ C] c [D] d
Equilibrium constant ( eq)=
[ A ]a [ B]b

If Keq > 1, the forward reaction is favored; products concentration is greater than
reactants.
If Keq < 1, the reverse reaction is favored; reactants concentration is greater than
products.
7. Le Chateliers Principlestates that when stress (like changing temperature, pressure, or
amount of reactants or products) is placed on a reaction at equilibrium, equilibrium shifts
in a direction that relieves that stress
- If the amount of reactant is increased, equilibrium shifts to the right
- If the amount of product is increased, equilibrium shifts to the left
- If temperature is increased, equilibrium shifts to the right
- If pressure is increased, equilibrium shifts to the right
8. Temperature change is the only type of stress that causes an equilibrium shift and changes
Keq.
9. Solubility product constant (Ksp)the equilibrium constant between an insoluble ionic
solid and its dissolved ions; typically a very tiny number, since the forward reaction
(dissolving an insoluble precipitate) is so meager; the smaller Ksp is for a given ionic
solid, the more insoluble it is

Atomic Structure:
1. Orbitala region in an atom where an electron can be found
2. Subshella set of orbitals with the same shape in a given energy shell
3. Energy shella collection of orbitals with roughly similar sizes
4. Valence electronsthe electrons in an atoms outermost energy shell
5. Heisenberg principlestates that it is impossible to know both an electrons position and
momentum at once
6. De Broglies hypothesisstates that electrons behave similarly to waves of
electromagnetic radiation
7. The order of subshells is s, p, d, f.
8. Aufbau principlestates that a subshell is completely filled before electrons are placed in
the next subshell; because half- and completely filled d subshells give an atom extra
stability, chromium (Cr) and copper (Cu) violate this by promoting a 4s electron to the 3d
subshell
 9. Hunds rules of filling orbitals:
1) Every orbital in a subshell will have 1 electron before any orbital has 2
2) A subshells electrons will have parallel spin before the subshell starts filling up
with opposite-spin electrons (after the first orbital gains a second electron)
10. Radioactive decaythe spontaneous decay of radioactive atoms, atoms whose nuclei
have unstable combinations of protons and neutrons; results in the emission of high-
energy radioactive particles, which include alpha () particles, beta () particles,
positrons, and gamma () rays; radioactive atoms decay to become either another element
or another isotope of the same element
11. Nuclear fissionthe splitting of a large atom into 2 or more smaller ones; does not
normally occur in nature; produces many highly radioactive particles; requires little
energy; releases a million times more energy than chemical reactions but less than
nuclear fusion; exemplified in the atom bomb
12. Nuclear fusionthe fusing of 2 or more smaller atoms into a larger one; occurs in stars,
like the sun; produces few radioactive particles; requires a lot of energy and heat to bring
protons close enough that nuclear forces overcome their repulsion; releases 3-4 times
more energy than nuclear fission; exemplified in the hydrogen bomb
13. 4 types of radioactive decay:
1) Alpha decaythe atom emits an particle, which consists of 2 protons and
neutrons and is often abbreviated as 24He; as a result, the atoms atomic number
decreases by 2, its mass number decreases by 4, and it becomes another element
2) Beta decaythe atom emits a particle, an electron, and converts one of its
neutrons to a proton; as a result, the atoms atomic number increases by 1, its
mass number stays the same, and it becomes another element
3) Positron emission/positive beta decaythe atom emits a positron, a positively
charged particle with the same mass as an electron, and converts one of its protons
to a neutron; as a result, the atoms atomic number decreases by 1, its mass
number stays the same, and it becomes another element
4) Gamma decaythe atom emits a gamma photon, a high-energy particle; as a
result, the atoms nucleus becomes more stable but is otherwise unchanged
14. Half-lifea substances rate of radioactive decay; the time for half the mass of a
substance to decay

Periodic Table:
1. Elements in the same period have electrons in the same energy shells.
2. Elements in the same group/family have similar chemical and physical properties.
3. Important families:
1) Alkali metals (group 1A, except hydrogen)1 valence electron; shiny, grayish-
white metals; extremely reactant (active metals); melt more easily and have lower
densities than other metals
2) Alkaline earth metals (group 2A)2 valence electrons; less reactive than alkali
metals but more reactive than other common metals; resemble alkali metals;
highly reactive (active metals)
3) Halogens (group 7A)7 valence electrons; highly reactive; no common
appearance or phase at room temperature
 4) Noble gases (group 8A)8 valence electrons, except for helium, which has 2;
unreactive
4. Properties of metals, nonmetals, and semimetals:
Physical Properties Bonding Behavior
Metals Shiny, good conductors, Tend to give up electrons
malleable, ductile
Nonmetals Poor conductors, brittle, low Tend to gain electrons in ionic bonds
melting point or share electrons in covalent bonds
Semimetals Possess properties of metals Can either gain, lose, or share
and nonmetals electrons
5. Periodic trends:
1) Atomic radiusthe distance from an atoms center to its edge; increases down a
family due to the growing number of energy shells; decreases across a period due
to growing attraction to the nucleus (because of a growing number of protons) and
no change in the numbers of energy shells and electrons shielding the nucleus
2) Metallic characterhow easily an atom gives up an electron in a bond; increases
down a family due to the growing number of electrons; decreases across a period
due to the growing number of valence electrons, making it more practical for
atoms to gain rather than lose electrons to complete their valence shells
3) Ionization energythe energy required to remove an electron from an atom;
decreases down a family due to the growing numbers of energy shells and
electrons shielding the nucleus; increases across a period due to growing
attraction to the nucleus (because of a growing number of protons) and no change
in the numbers of energy shells and electrons shielding the nucleus
4) Electronegativity/electron affinityhow much an atom pulls on electrons in a
bond; decreases down a family due to the growing numbers of energy shells and
electrons shielding the nucleus; increases across a period due to growing
attraction to the nucleus (because of a growing number of protons) and no change
in the numbers of energy shells and electrons shielding the nucleus

Bonding:
1. Single bonds are called sigma bonds. Additional bonds are called pi bonds.
2. Bond strength and bond order (number of bonds) are directly proportional. Bond strength
and bond length are inversely proportional.
3. To name compounds with carbon backbones, remember:
Number of Carbon Atoms Prefi
x
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
4. 4 types of bonds:
1) Ionica bond between a metal and nonmetal; the metal gives up 1 or more
electrons to the nonmetal; atoms are held together by electrostatic attraction
between positive and negative ions; for example: NaCl, MgO, CaF2
 2) Polar covalenta bond between 2 nonmetals with different electronegativities,
causing them to share electrons unequally; one atom has a partial positive charge,
while the other has a partial negative charge; atoms are held together by the
shared electrons attraction both atoms nuclei; for example: H2O, NH3, HCl
3) Nonpolar covalenta bond between 2 nonmetals with similar electronegativities,
causing them to share electrons equally; atoms are held together by the shared
electrons attraction to both atoms nuclei; for example: O2, N2, CH4
4) Metallica bond between 2 metals; the atoms give up electrons that move around
freely, producing an attraction that keeps the cations in place; for example: Cu,
Ag, Fe
5. 6 types of intermolecular forces of attraction:
1) Ion-dipoleattraction between an ion and a polar molecule; for example: Na to
H2O
2) Hydrogenattraction between a hydrogen atom in a polar molecule with fluorine,
oxygen, or nitrogen and another polar molecules fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen;
for example; H2O to H2O
3) Dipole-dipoleattraction between a polar molecules partially positive atom and
another polar molecules partially negative atom; for example: HCl to HCl
4) Ioninduced dipoleattraction between an ion and a nonpolar molecule; for
example: Fe+2 to O2
5) Dipoleinduced dipoleattraction between a polar molecules partially charged
atom and a nonpolar molecule; for example: HCl to Cl2
6) London dispersion (LDF)attraction between nonpolar molecules; the bigger the
molecules electron clouds, the stronger the LDF forces; for example: F2 to F2
6. Lattice/binding energythe energy required to completely split a mole of a solid ionic
compound into its ions; the higher the lattice energy, the stronger the ionic bond
7. Bond energythe energy required to break a bond
8. Properties of ionic, molecular, and metallic substances:
Ionic Molecular Metallic
1. Only form 1. Form various structures 1. High melting
crystals; crystals 2. Low melting and boiling and boiling
are harder than points points
molecular crystals 3. Low heats of fusion and 2. High heats of
2. High melting and vaporization fusion and
boiling points 4. Soft, flexible, very vaporization
3. High heats of flammable 3. Shiny,
fusion and 5. Dissolve in water only if malleable,
vaporization polar ductile
4. Hard, brittle 6. Dont conduct electricity 4. Insoluble in any
5. Dissolve in water solvent but can
6. Conduct Note: Network solids, which have react with polar
electricity only covalent bonds, violate these rules; solvents to form
when melted or they are hard, transparent, and solutions
dissolved in water have high melting and boiling 5. Conduct
points and heats of fusion and electricity
vaporization.
9. To determine a molecules shape from its formula:
1) Assume the first atom in the formula is the molecules central atom (unless it is
hydrogen, which is never central).
2) Draw the molecules Lewis structure.
3) Count the number of electron pairs and lone pairs around the central atom.
10. Memorize molecule shapes (http://quizlet.com/34039935/electron-and-molecular-
geometries-flash-cards/).
11. Diatomic molecules are polar if their bond is polar and nonpolar if their bond is nonpolar.
Molecules with 3 or more atoms are nonpolar if they have all nonpolar bonds or have a
central atom with no lone pairs surrounded by atoms of the same element; otherwise, they
are polar.