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Z
(x) Hop (x) dx = h| Hop |i , (5.1)
= h| i , (5.2)
with
|i = Hop |i . (5.3)
For example, complex functions of one variable, (x), that are square inte
241
grable, i.e. Z
(x) (x) dx < , (5.4)
As see above expressions look like a bracket he called the vector |n i a ket
vector and hm | a bra-vector.
|i + |i = | + i . (5.7)
The sum of two elements is commutative and associative
Commutative : |i + |i = |i + |i , (5.8)
Associative : |i + | + i = | + i + |i . (5.9)
The product of the vector with a complex quantity c is again a vector of the
Hilbert-Space
c |i |ci . (5.10)
The product between vectors and numbers is distributive
Distributive : c | + i = c |i + c |i . (5.11)
h| i = a . (5.12)
Ths scalar product obtained by exchanging the role of |i and |i results in
the complex conjugate number
h |i = h |i = a . (5.13)
The scalar product is distributive
Distributive : h |1 + 2 i = h |1 i + h |2 i . (5.14)
h |ci = c h |i . (5.15)
And from Eq.(5.13) follows
hc| i = h| ci = c h| i . (5.16)
Thus if the complex number is pulled out from a bra-vector it becomes its
complex conjugate. The bra- and ket-vectors are hermitian, or adjoint, to
each other. The adjoint vector is denoted by the symbol+
(|i)+ = h| , (5.17)
(h|)+ = |i . (5.18)
The vector spaces of bra- and ket-vectors are dual to each other. To transform
an arbitrary expression into its adjoint, one has to replace all operators and
vectors by the adjoint operator or vector and in addition the order of the
elements must be reversed. For example
(c|i)+ = c h| , (5.19)
h| i+ = h| i = h| i . (5.20)
This equation demands that a scalar product of a vector with itself is always
real. Here, we even demand that it is positive
The equal sign in Eq.(5.21) is only fullled for the null vector, which is dened
by
|i + 0 = |i . (5.22)
Note, we denote the null vector not with the symbol |0i but rather with the
scalar 0. Because the symbol |0i is reserved for the ground state of a system.
If the scalar product of a vector with itself is always positive, Eq.(5.21),
then one can derive from the scalar product the norm of a vector according
to p
kk = h |i. (5.23)
For vectors that are orthogonal to each other we have
h |i = 0 (5.24)
Completeness:
If there is a sequence of vectors in a Hilbert space |1 i , |2 i , |3 i , |4 i , ...
that fullls Cauchys convergence criterion then the limit vector |i is also
an element of the Hilbert space. Cauchys convergence criterion states that
if kn m k < , for some n, m > N() the sequence converges uniformly
[2].
Separability:
The Hilbert space is separable. This indicates that for every element |i in
the Hilbert space there is a sequence with |i as the limit vector.
Every vector in the Hilbert space can be decomposed into linear indepen
dent basis vectors |n i . The number of basis vectors can be innite
X
|i = cn |n i . (5.25)
n
5.2. LINEAR OPERATORS IN HILBERT SPACES 245
The components cn of the vector |i with respect to the basis |n i are com
plex numbers denoted with index n. It is advantageous to orthonormalize
the basis vectors
hn | m i = nm . (5.26)
The components of the vector |i can then be determined easily by
X X
hm | i = cn hm | n i = cn mn , (5.27)
n n
or
cm = hm | i , (5.28)
This leads to X
|i = |n i hn | i . (5.29)
n
L (a |1 i + b |2 i) = (a L |1 i + b L |2 i)
= a |1 i + b |2 i , for a, b C. (5.31)
(L + M) |i = L |i +M |i . (5.32)
L M |i = L (M |i) . (5.33)
scalar has the same meaning. The two operators are dened by their action
on arbitrary vectors of the Hilbert space
0 |i = 0, |i , (5.34)
1 |i = |i , |i (5.35)
L M |i 6= ML |i , |i , (5.36)
or in short
L M 6= M L. (5.37)
The expression
[L, M] = L M M L (5.38)
is therefore called the commutator between L and M. If [L, M] = 0, the
operators commute. The following rules for commutators apply:
[L, L] = 0 , (5.40)
[L, 1] = 0 , (5.41)
L, L1 = 0 , (5.42)
|i h| . (5.49)
The dyadic product is the formal product between a ket- and a bra-vector.
If applied to a vector, it projects the vector onto the state |i and generates
a new vector in parallel to |i with a magnitude equal to the projection
|i h| i = h| i |i . (5.50)
Eq.(5.35) implies
X
1= |n i hn | . (5.52)
n
Lmn = hm | L |n i . (5.54)
The matrix elments Lmn represent the operator in the chosen base |n i .
Once we choose a base and represent vectors and operators in term of this
base, the components of the vector and the operator can be collected in a
column vector and a matrix. The table below shows a comparison between a
representation based on Hilbert space vectors and operators in term of vectors
and matrices in an euclidian vector space. Initially matrix mechanics was
248 CHAPTER 5. THE DIRAC FORMALISM AND HILBERT SPACES
Ket-vector Column
vector
X a1
a2
|a i = an |n i
n
..
.
Bra-vector
X Row vector
h| = an hn | a1 a2
n
Inner product Scalar product
XX b1
ha |b i = am bn hm |n i a1 a2 b2
m n
..
.
X
= an bn =a1 b1 + a2 b2 +
.
n
Operator Matrix
X L11 L12
L21 L22
L= Lmn |m i hn |
.. .. . .
m,n . . .
Dyadic Product
X a1
a2
|a i hb | = am bn |m i hn | b1 b2 =
m,n
..
.
a1 b1 a1 b2
= a2 b1 a2 b2
.. .. ...
. .
|i , |i = L |i = |i = L1 |i , (5.55)
5.2. LINEAR OPERATORS IN HILBERT SPACES 249
which leads to
LL1 = 1 (5.56)
The inverse of a product is the product of the inverse in inverse order
(ML)1 = L1 M1 (5.57)
|Li = L |i . (5.61)
there is
hL| = h| L+ (5.62)
and
h| L |i = h| Li = L+ (5.63)
The matrix elements of the adjoint operator are
L+ +
mn = h m | L | n i = h n | L | m i = Lnm (5.64)
The following rules apply to adjoint operators
+ +
L = L, (5.65)
+ +
(aL) = a L , (5.66)
(L + M)+ = L+ +M+ , (5.67)
(L M)+ = M+ L+ . (5.68)
250 CHAPTER 5. THE DIRAC FORMALISM AND HILBERT SPACES
U1 = U+ , (5.70)
U+ U = UU+ = 1. (5.71)
we obtain
Pn |i = cn |n i . (5.76)
5.3. EIGENVALUES OF OPERATORS 251
L |n i = Ln |n i , (5.79)
with eigenvalues Ln . If there exist several dierent eigenvectors to the same
eigenvalue Ln , this eigenvalue is called degenerate. For example, the energy
eigenfunctions of the hydrogen atom are degenerate with respect to the in
dices l and m. The set of all eigenvalues is called the eigenvalue spectrum
of the operator L. As shown earlier the eigenvalues of hermitian operators
are real and the eigenvectors to dierent eigenvalues are orthogonal to each
other, because
hm | L |n i = Ln h m |n i = Lm hm |n i , (5.80)
or
(Ln Lm ) hm |n i = 0. (5.81)
If the eigenvectors of the operator L form a complete base of the Hilbert
space, the operator L is represented in this base by a diagonal matrix
Lmn = hm | L |n i = Ln hm |n i = Ln mn (5.82)
The operator can then be written in its spectral representation
X X
L= Ln |n i hn | = Ln Pn . (5.83)
n n
252 CHAPTER 5. THE DIRAC FORMALISM AND HILBERT SPACES
|nm i = |n iA |m iB = |n iA |m iB . (5.90)
Operators that only act on system A can be extended to operate on the
product space by
254 CHAPTER 5. THE DIRAC FORMALISM AND HILBERT SPACES
L = LA 1B . (5.91)
or similar for operators acting on system B
M = 1A MB . (5.92)
LM = LA MB . (5.93)
LM |nm i = L |n iA M |m iB . (5.94)
Since, the vecotrs |n iA and |m iB build a complete base for system A and
B, respectively, the product vectors in Eq.(5.90) build a complete base for
the interacting system and each state can be written in terms of this base
X X
|i = amn |nm i = amn |n iA |m iB . (5.95)
m,n m,n
2
p
H= + V(x
). (5.97)
2m
5.7. QUANTUM DYNAMICS 255
in chapter 4. Using the eigenvalue property of the states and the orthogo
nality relations we obtain from Eq.(5.104)
~
j~ (x, t) = H(x, p = ) (x, t) . (5.106)
t j x
| (t)i
j~ = H | (t)i , (5.111)
t
plus the initial state
j~ U(t) = H U(t). (5.114)
t
For a time independent Hamiltonian Operator the formal integration of this
equation is
and the state of the system is time independent and equal to its initial state
Clearly an expected value for a time dependent operator using the Heisenberg
state (5.120) is identical with Eq.(5.116).
This is identical to describing a unitary process in an eucledian vector
space. Scalar products between vectors are preserved, if all vectors are un
dergoing a unitary transformation, i.e. a rotation for example. An alternative
description is that the vectors are time independent but the coordinate sys
tem rotates in the opposite direction. When the coordinate system changes,
the operators described in the time dependent coordinate system become
time dependent themselves.
From the denition of the time evolution operator we nd immediately
an equation of motion for the time dependent operators of the Heisenberg
picture
AH (t) U+ (t) + U(t)
j~ = j~ AS U(t) + U (t)AS j ~ (5.121)
t t t
+ AS
+U (t) j~ U(t)
t
AH (t)
j~ = U+ (t)H+ AS U(t) + U+ (t)AS HU(t) (5.122)
t
+ AS
+U (t) j~ U(t)
t
with
Note, that the last term in Eq.(5.124) is only present if the Schroedinger
operators do have an explicit time dependence, a case which is beyond the
scope of this class.
p2 1
H = + K x2 , (5.127)
2m 2
with
[x, p] = j~. (5.128)
~ 0 2
H = P + X2 , (5.131)
2
[X, P] = j . (5.132)
We nd
1 2 j 1 2
aa+ = X + P2 [X, P] = X + P2 + 1 , (5.136)
2 2 2
+ 1 2 2
j 1 2
a a = X + P + [X, P] = X + P2 1 , (5.137)
2 2 2
and the Hamiltonian operator can be rewritten in terms of the new operators
a and a+ as
~0 +
H = a a + aa+ (5.138)
2
+ 1
= ~0 a a+ . (5.139)
2
We introduce the operator
N = a+ a, (5.140)
which is a hermitian operator. Up to an additive constant 1/2 and a scaling
factor ~ 0 equal to the energy of one quantum of the harmonic oscillator it
is equal to the Hamiltonian operator of the harmonic oscillator. Obviously,
N is the number operator counting the number of energy quanta excited in a
5.8. THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 261
a |0i = 0, (5.173)
where
1
a = (X + jP) , (5.174)
2
264 CHAPTER 5. THE DIRAC FORMALISM AND HILBERT SPACES
see problem set 8. In fact we can show that every eigenstate to the annihi
lation operator
a |i = |i , for C (5.175)
h| a |i = , h| a+ |i = , (5.176)
+ 2 +
2
h| a a |i = || , h| aa |i = || + 1 , (5.177)
1 j
h| X |i = ( + ) , h| P |i = ( ) , (5.178)
2 2
h| a+ a |i = ||2 , h| aa+ |i = ||2 + 1 , (5.179)
h| a2 |i = 2 , h| a+2 |i = 2 , (5.180)
1 2 1
h| X2 |i = + 2 + 2 + 1 = h| X |i2 + , (5.181)
2 2
1 1
h| P2 |i = 2 + 2 2 + 1 = h| P |i 2 + . (5.182)
2 2
1
X P = C. (5.183)
2
In fact one can show that the statistics of a position or momentum measure
ment for a harmonic oscillator in this state follows a Gaussian satistics with
the average and variance given by Eqs.(5.178), (5.181) and (5.182). This can
be represented pictorially in a phase space diagram as shown in Figure 5.1
5.8. THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 265
P 2X
<P> 2P
0 <X> X
j~ aH (t) = [aH , H] (5.184)
t
= ~ 0 aH , (5.185)
Therefore, the expectation values for the creation, annihilation, position and
momentum operators are identical to those of Eqs.(5.176) to (5.182); we only
need to subsitute ej0 t . We may again pictorially represent the time
evolution of these states as a probability distribution in phase space, see
Figure 5.2.
266 CHAPTER 5. THE DIRAC FORMALISM AND HILBERT SPACES
2X
<P> 2P
0 <X> X
-jOt
e
The eigenvectors are orthogonal to each other and the eigenvalues are real
269