Review of Chapter 1
Simple calculations showed the forces
1. What is the name of the first theory that
provides a unified explanation of the Earths
major surface features?
-Geosynclinal theory
2. What is the age of the oldest oceanic
crust?
-200 M.a.
3. Who was the first to propose the existence
of transform faults?
-J.T. Wilson
4. What is Gondwana?
-Southerly supercontinent of the
supercontinent Pangea. Literally it means
land of the Gonds after an ancient tribe of
northern India. Consisted of South America,
Antarctica, Africa, Madagascar. India, and
Australasia
5. Who was the original proposer of the
concept of sea floor spreading?
-H.H.Hess
6. The theory of plate tectonics has been
developed since ____?
-Late 1960s
7. What is a Pangaea proposed by Wegener?
-all of the earth-all continents were joined
into a single landmass, with the present
southern continents centered on the pole
and the northern continents straddling the
equator.
8. Who first proposed that continental drift
was driven by mantle convection?
-A. Holmes
And when did he/she make this proposal?
-1927-1929
9. What is the average thickness of the
oceanic crust?
-7km
10. What is the average thinkness of the
continental crust?
-40km
11. What is the fatal weakness of Wegeners
continental drift hypothesis?
-said it was in response to the centripetal
force experienced by the high-standing
continents because of earths rotation.
exerted by this mechanism to be too small
12. What is the name of the ocean that was
between Laurasia and Gondwana?
-paleo-Tethys Ocean
13. What is the name of the ocean that was
surrounding the Pangaea?
-Panthalassa
14. What is Panthalassa?
-proto-Pacific Ocean surrounding Pangea-
literally means all ocean
15. Who was the first who proposed that the
heat inside the earth is mostly from
radioactive decay?
-A.Holmes
16. Explain the (wrong) concepts of island
stepping-stones, isthmian links, and rafting.
- it had difficulting relating these to present
separation and migration of faunal provinces
17. In the 1950s, what geophysical method
was used to suggest that North America and
Europe had moved apart from each other?
-paleomagnetic method
18. What is the main element of the concept
of sea floor spreading?
-growth of ocean floor and split by
convection currents in the mantle
19. Draw a schematic diagram to show
Hesss original idea of sea floor spreading.
(in book)
20. Why the ocean floors are described as
ephemeral?
-they are described as short-lived because
compared to the older thicker, less dense,
passive continental crusts the oceanic crust
it always creating new material and sub
ducting under the continental crust. The
oldest oceanic crust is Jurassic In age. The
continental crust has much older dates.
21. What is the original concept of
lithosphere coined by R. A. Daly?
-rock layer-plates of comparatively rigid
upper mantle and crust
22. What geophysical observation was used
to confirm the theory of sea floor spreading?
-the magnetic lineations of the sea floor as it
was spreading relative to magnetic reversals
23. Currently, which aspect of the plate
tectonics theory has the most contention?
-the nature of the mechanism that causes
plate motions
24. What is the main (wrong) concept of the
geosynclinals theory?
-static model of the Earth where formation of
tectonically active belts where formed by
vertical movements of the crust
25. Based on the theory of plate tectonics,
where are the places where geosynclines
form?
-subduction zones
26. Who (erroneously) proposed the
existence of the famous Atlantis?
-Francois Placet
27. What is the biblical explanation of marine
fossils and water- lain sediments found on
high lands?
-Flood of Noah
28. What is uniformitarianism?
-actualism-No powers are to be employed
that are not natural to the globe , no action
to be admitted of except those of which we
know the principle, and no extraordinary
events to be alleged in order to explain a
common appearance.
29. Who (erroneously) proposed that the
Moon came out of the Pacific Ocean?
-George Darwin and Oswald Fisher
How was the Moon formed based on his
theory? (check web)
-Moon was formed when the earth was just
created-still spinning and starting to cool
down. Then a meteor hit the earth-and some
debris spewed off and rolled around in space
creating our moon. The earth was reheated
and some of that little melted spot was
forced by centripetal force outwards catching
all the debris and forming the moon.
30. Who first suggested that continental drift
is a slow and gradual instead of a
catastrophic process?
-Antonio Snider
31. What evidence did Alfred Wegener use to
propose that South American and Africa were
once together?
-pre-drift construction which included
continuity of older structures and formations
and fossil faunas and floras across present
shorelines
32. What is the meaning of faunas and
floras?
-Plants and animals (similar on both
coastlines when separated.
33. Explain why the continuity of geological
structures suggests that continents were
once together.
-geologic and geometric similarities of the
opposing Atlantic coastlines
-Since the continents seem to fit together in
a certain way it could have been one big land
mass Pangea and had flora and fauna
growths in certain places. When those
certain places were rifted apart what we see
our earth is now-we can cross-correlate them
to the same continuous places near each of
the separated shorelines as if before they
part of one large landmass.
34. What is Laurasia?
-(from a combination of Laurentia, a region of
Canada, and Asia) consisted of North
America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia.
35. What is Australasia?
-Australasia was part of Gondwana land
36. What is an eugeosyncline?
-with volcanic members
36. What is a miogeosyncline?
-without volcanic members
37.Give some examples that can be
explained by the theory of plate tectonics.
-past distributaions of lfora and fauna
-The patical relationships of volcanic rock
suites at plate margins,
-The distribution inspace and time of the
conditions of defferent types of economic
deposits
38. Plate tectonics theory might need
modification in the study of ___________
-in the consideration of the relevance of
plate tectonic processes in continental areas
and the more distant geologic past
39. What is the meaning of a mobilist view
of the Earth?
-continents had moved intheir relation to the
poles
40. In the 16th century, which two coastlines
were found to be similar?
-Wests coasts of Africa and South America
41. Who first suggested that South America
and Africa were once together?
-Francis Bacon
When did he make the suggestion?
-1620
Chapter 2 questions
1)
What is the most-commonly used study to
explore the internal constitution and
structure of the Earth?
-Seismology, the study of earthquakes and
the waves produced by them provide the
best insight into the Earths internal
structure.
2)
What is the range of earthquake focal depth
on Earth?
-5 to 700 km
3)
What is the name of the (theoretical) point
where an earthquake originates?
-Focus
4)
What is the similarity and difference between
earthquake focus, hypocenter, and
epicenter?
-The focus is the subsurface point where fault
motion occurred/started, synonomous to the
term hypocenter. The epicenter is the
surface location directly above the focus.
5)
If the epicenter is at the equator and the
seismograph is located at the North Pole,
what is the epicentral angle?
-90 degrees.
6)
What is the ratio between the energy release
from a magnitude 5 earthquake and a
magnitude 7 earthquake?
-A magnitude 7 earthquake has an energy
release that is 100 times larger than a
magnitude 5 event.
7)
What type of elastic deformation do P-waves
produce?
-longitudinal/compressional waves.
Expressed as alternating compression and
dilation of the material as the wave moves
through.
8)
What type of elastic deformation do S-waves
produce?
-Shear/transverse waves.
9)
For a P-wave, what is the relationship
between the direction of wave propagation
and the motion direction of the rock (or other
medium)?
-the motion of the rock occurs along the
same path of motion as the wave itself is
traveling.
10)
For an S-wave, what is the relationship
between the direction of wave propagation
and the motion direction of the rock (or
other medium)?
-Ground motion occurs perpendicular to
wave motion. Ex.: Ground motion is up/down
as the wave travels out from its source.
11)
What was the original reason to use "P" and
"S" to describe the two types of body-waves?
-P = primary, S=secondary. P-waves travel
at a higher velocity than s-waves and arrive
first at a recording station.

12) Liquids have no shear-strength. What

is the shear-wave velocity of the Earth's
outer core?
-The outer cores shear wave velocity is zero.

13)
If a strike-slip fault is left lateral, what kind of
fault is its auxiliary fault?
-strike-slip fault is right lateral 19)
Who found the interface between the crust
14) and the mantle?
What kind of motion (i.e., left or right lateral) -Andrijia Mohorovicic (the Moho).
is a sinistral motion?
-Left-Lateral 20)
What is the range of thickness of continental
15) crust?
What kind of motion (i.e., left or right lateral) -35 km average thickness, up to 80 km under
is a dextral motion? young fold areas and less than 20 km in
-Right Lateral some areas.

16)
Draw the ray-path of a pP phase
17)
Draw and explain the lower hemisphere
projection of a thrust fault.
21)
What is the "Moho"?
-A velocity discontinuity at approx. 54 km
depth, marks the boundary between the
crust and the mantle. Velocity jumps to
7.9km/s for p-waves (5.6 km/s before this
discontinuity)

22)
What is the Conrad discontinuity?
-A discontinuity in the continental crust
where velocity increases from 5.6 to 6.3
km/s. It is not universally present

23)
18) What is the normal thickness of oceanic
Draw and explain the lower hemisphere crust?
projection of a normal fault. -7km

24) Which depth range is the mantle

transition zone?
-410-660km

25) What is the depth of the top of the lower

mantle?
-670km
26) At what depth can you find the highest P-
wave velocity?
- at about 2890 km, the lower mantle- outer
core boundary because velocity increases
with depth through the mantle and
decreases in the asthenosphere and outer
core (Fig 7.29 pg 213)
27) At what depth can you find the highest S-
wave velocity?
-V(s) decreases at about 150 km, the
boundary between the mantle part of the
lithosphere and the asthenosphere, due to a
decrease in rigidity. It then increases with
depth and has a max velocity at about 2890
km depth. After this depth the shear waves
cannot exist because rigidity becomes 0 in
the liquid outer core. (Fig 7.29 pg 213)
34) Draw a schematic digrams to show the
direction of the 3 principal stresses for
normal, thrust, and strike-slip faults
-Normal - sigma 1 vertical, sigma 2 into pg,
sigma 3 horizontal / footwall up and hanging
down / 120, 60
Thrust - sigma 1 horizontal, sigma 2 into
pg, sigma 3 vertical / footwall down and
hanging up / 120, 60
Strike slip - sigma 1 into pg, sigma 2
vertical, sigma 3 horizontal
35/36) Continents

28)What is the depth of the Gutenburg

discontinuity?
-2900 km where there is an abrupt change in
seismic waves at the lower mantle/outer core
boundary. V(p) decreases in velocity while
V(s) disappear.

29) How deep is the earths core?

-Outer core starts at a depth of 2890 km,
inner core at 5150 km

30)Where does the earths magnetic field

generate?
- It is believed that the earths magnetic field
is generated in the earths core where it is
produced by the rotation and convection of
the electrically conducting fluid contained
there (iron/nickel alloy) around the magnetic
solid center (solid inner core). This theory is
called Dynamo Theory
There is no brittle-ductile transition zone
beneath oceanic crust because it is thin and
composed of mafic materials which have
higher melting points, there is only the
transition in the upper mantle.

31) Which part of the earth is purely liquid
(ie. With a shear-modulus of zero)
-Outer core is entirely liquid
32)What is the depth of the earths inner
core?
Inner core depth - ~5250 km
33) What is the most likely cause of the
mantle low-velocity zone?
-The low velocity zone found in the mantle is
caused by the decrease in rigidity of the
material. Siesmic waves travel more slowly
through soft (low u) than through stiff (high
u) material. Asthenosphere is soft (creamy
center).
37) What factors control the strength of the
rocks?
-The depth variation of strength in brittle
rocks depends on the temperature, pressure
and composition.
Continental - 10-50 km, upper-felsic comp,
lower-mafic comp
Oceanic- 20- 60 km, mafic comp
38) What is the difference between Airys
model and Pratts hypothesis?
-The difference is the depth of compensation
varies in Airys model for continental and
oceanic crust, but is constant in Pratts
model.

Pratt Model
Airy Model
P 2 gh5 1 gh2 2 gh2
' gram per cubic cm. Calculate the shear
39) What is a solidus?
Solidus is a curve on a phase diagram below
which a given substance is completely solid
(crystallized)
41) What is mesosphere?
Mesosphere is the layer of the earths
atmosphere that is directly above the
stratosphere and directly below the
thermosphere. It is located about 50 to 85
km above the earth.
40)Draw a schematic diagram to show the
solidus in the top 400 km of the earth.
42) Draw a schematic diagram to show the
relationship between wave propagation
direction and particle motion direction for
Rayleigh, Love, P and S waves
43)Most crustal rocks have a shear-wave
velocity of 3.5 km/s and a density of 2.8
modulus (i.e. rigidity). Pay particular
attention to the unit of variables.
V(s) = 3.5 km/s
p(density) = 2.8 g/cm^3
Rigidity is measured in Pascal (Pa) which is
kg/m*s^2 or 1 Nm^2
So, need to change velocity to m/s and
density to kg/m^3
V(s) = (3.5 km/s)(1000m/km) = 3500 m/s
p= (2.8 g/cm^3)(.001 kg/g) = (.0028
kg/cm^3)(1/1*10^-6 cm^3/m^3) = 2800
kg/m^3
Shear Modulus = ((V(s))^2)* density
= (2800 kg/m^3)*((3500 m/s)^2) =
3.43e10 Pa = 34.3 gigapascal
44)If a rocks P-wave velocity is 6 km/s, its
density is 3 gram per cubic cm, and its shear
modulus is 40 Giga Pascal, what is its bulk
modulus?
V(p) = 6 km/s= 6000 m/s
p(density) = 3 g/cm^3 = 3000 kg/m^3
Shear modulus (rigidity) = (40 Gpa )
(1000000000 Pa/Gpa) = 4e10 Pa
K (bulk modulus) = (((V(p))^2)*(density)) -
((4/3)*(shear modulus))
= 5.467e10 Pa = 54.67 gig
Pascal
45) What is dispersion of surface waves?
Dispersion of surface waves (Rayleigh and
Love) is illustrated above. It means that
different periods travel at different velocities.
As you can see the first and last arrival of the
Rayleigh waves as compared to the p and s
waves is more spread out due to the low
velocity at the surface, and decreases in
amplitude due to the dispersion of energy as
the wave travels.
46) Why are surfaces waves dispersive?
-Surface waves are dispersive because of the
varying velocities at the surface, less
homogeneous then deeper within the earth.
For example- Usually, the long periods arrive
first since they are sensitive to the speeds
deeper in Earth, and the deeper regions are
generally faster.
47)What does WWSSN stand for? When was
WWSSN set up?
- WWSSN stands for worldwide standardized
seismograph network
From 1962 to early 1980s WWSSN film chips
were produced
48) What is FDSN and when was it set up?
-FDSN is Federation of Digital Broadband
Seismographic Networks
It was founded in the Spring of 1986.
49) What is a seismic phase?
-Seismic phases are the ray paths for
particular arrivals of seismic energy
50) How to use the arrival time of pP-P to
determine focal depth of teleseismic events?
-Focal Depth is the distance from the
epicenter to the focus, and is restricted to
rigid lithosphere (upper 700 km). They are
related to type of boundary. For example-
deep focus earthquakes occur in convergent
boundaries. Shallow-0 to 70 km,
Intermediate- 70 to 300 km, and Deep - 300
to 700 km.
The most accurate method of
determining the focal depth of an earthquake
is to read a depth phase recorded on the
seismogram. The depth phase is the
characteristic phase PP which is a P wave
reflected from the surface of the Earth at a
point relatively near the hypocenter (focus).
At distant seismograph stations, the PP
follows the P wave by a time interval that
changes slowly with distance but rapidly with
depth. This time interval, PP-P (PP minus P),
is used to compute depth-of-focus tables.
Using the time difference of PP-P as read
from the seismogram and the distance
between the epicenter and the seismograph
station, the depth of the earthquake can be
determined from published travel-time
curves or depth tables.
Other way:
51) What is elastic rebound theory?
-Elastic Rebound Theory is an explanation for
how energy is spread during earthquakes. As
plates on opposite sides of a fault are
subjected to force and shift, they accumulate
energy and slowly deform until their internal
strength is exceeded. At that time, a sudden
movement occurs along the fault, releasing
the accumulated energy, and the rocks snap
back to their original undeformed shape.
52) Draw a set of schematic diagrams to
show strain accumulation and release in the
vicinity of an active fault.
53) What is a focal mechanism solution or
fault plane dissolution?
Focal Mechanism Solution describes the
inelastic deformation in the source region
that generates the seismic waves of an
earthquake. In the case of a fault-related
event it refers to the orientation of the fault
plane that slipped and the slip vector. The
focal mechanism can be derived from
observing the pattern of "first motions", that
is, whether the first arriving P waves break
up (compression) or down (dilation). This
pattern will tell which sections of the focal
sphere (region around focus/fault) are
experiencing compression and which
dilation. From this you can determine the
type of fault as seen in the figure below.
54) What is the auxiliary plane of a fault
plane?
-The auxiliary plane is the fault plane
perpendicular to the actual one that could
have also been responsible for the
earthquake based on the observed first
motions pattern.
55) Draw a left-lateral strike-slip fault, its
auxiliary fault, and quadrantal distribution of
P-wave frist motions.
Auxilliary fault plane (a, b) - N 20 W, 90
Fault plane (c, d) - N 70 E, 90
56) What is a nodal plane?
Nodal planes- EW and NS axes
56.) What is a nodal plane?
-The fault plane and Auxiliary plane. Planes
along which no P Waves propagate pg 13.
57. On an equal area net, what does the scale around
the circumference refer to?
The scale refers to the azimuth, or horizontal
component of direction pg 13
58. On an equal area net, what does the scale along
the radius refer to?
-The scale refers to the dip of a plane pg 13
59. On an equal area net, what do the great-circle-
arcs refer to?
-The great circles refer to planes through an
earthquakes focus pg 13
60. On an equal area net, what kind of fault is
represented by the diameter?
-A vertical plane is represented by the diameter
pg 13
61. On an equal area net, what kind of fault is
represented by the circumference?
-A horizontal plane???
62. What is a "sing-couple" source?
-Discussed on page 17, but not sure how to
summarize it well.
63. What is a double-couple source?
-Discussed on page 17, but not sure how to
summarize it well.
64. What kind of seismic tomography uses the
travel-time of seismic waves?
-???? pg 17 & 18
65. Which kind of tomography (body-wave vs.
surface wave) provides better resolution?
-Body waves provide better resolution pg 18
66. What is a Pg phase?
-P Waves that travel directly from the source pg
19 & 20
67. What is a Pn phase?
-P Waves that are critically refracted at the
Moho pg 19 & 20
68. What is a P* phase?
-P Waves critically refracted at the Conrad
Discontinuity Pg 19 & 20
69. What is the depth range of the LVZ for S-
waves?
-Between 100 and 300 km, although the depth to
the upper boundary is very variable. The LVZ
(Low Velocity Zone) is universally present for
S-waves but may be absent in certain regions for
P-waves.
70. The outer core and the inner core have the same
composition, and the inner core is hotter. But
why the outer core has melted while the inner
core has not?
-The inner core is solid because the pressure
exerted on it by the layers above do not allow it
to melt. Pg 21
71. What is the mean atomic weight of the Earth?
-27 pg 22
72. What are the 4 most abundant elements in the
Earth?
-Iron, Silicon, Magnesium, and Oxygen pg
22
73. Assuming that the crust has a uniform density of
3000 kg/m^3, calculate the rate of increase of
lithostatic pressure.
-30 MPa/km pg 22
74. What is the temperature gradient in the crust?
-25C/km pg 22
75. What is the most likely rock type in the upper
continental crust?
- A felsic rock between granodiorite and diorite.
Pp 2-3
76. What is the most likely rock type in the lower
continental crust?
- If the lower crust is dry then then high pressure
forms of granulite, ranging from granodiorite to
diorite with abundant plagioclase and pyroxene
will be found. If the lower crust is wet then
amphibolites will be found. Pg. 23
77. What is the average water depth of the Earth's
ocean basins?
-4.5km pp2-3
78. How thick is oceanic crust layer 1?
-.4 km, thickens away from the mid-ocean ridges
where it is thin or absent pp2-3
79. How thick is oceanic crust layer 2?
-Mildly variable, 1-2.5 km thick pp2-3
80. How thick is oceanic crust layer 3?
-Averages 5km pp2-3
81) What is the major composition of oceanic crust
layer 2?
-Basalt with olivine tholeiites containing calcic
plagioclase, and are poor in potassium, sodium
and the incompatible elements
82) What is the major composition of oceanic crust
layer 3?
-Gabbro

83) What is an ophiolite (or where do you find
oceanic crust on the continents)?
-They usually occur in collisional mountain
belts, and their association of deep sea sediments basalts
and gabbros and ultrabasic rocks suggest that they
originated as oceanic lithosphere and were
subsequently thrust up into their continental setting by
the process of obduction

84) What are the major differences between the oceanic and continental crust?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Features Continental Crust Oceanic Crust
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Layering highly variable Well defined into 3 distinct layers,
Reflecting complex geological found in all ocean basins, but their
history nature may change with depth
Condrad discontinuity not gllobaly
developed
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thickness Average 35-40 km, Variable : Relatively constant (about 7 km).
thining to few km beneath rifts Although the layer 1 increases in
thickening up tp 80 km beneath thickness towards the ocean margins
young mountains
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Age Old 3960 Ma(the age of the oldest
rocks yet discovered).
The oldest crust consists of
Precambrian cratons or shield
areas which are surrounded by
younger orogenic belts, both active
and inactive
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nowhere older than 180 Ma
Progressively increases in age,.
outwards from oceanic ridges
Oceans are viewed as transient
features of the Earths surface
About 50% of the surface area
of oceans has been created during
the last 65 Ma, implying that 30%
of the Earths surface has been
created during the most recent 1.5%
of geological time

Tectonic May be extensively folded, faulted Very stable and suffered little
Activity being subjected to multiple tectonic deformation(except at plate margins)
events
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Igneous Very little on great majority The activity much greater.

Activity of continental crust. Major locationsOcean ridges and island arcs are
of activity of mountain belts are the location of the earths most active
mountain belts of Andean type areas of volcanic and plutonic activity

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

points), there is no brittle-ductile transition in the

oceanic crust.

85) What percentage of the earth's heat that escapes
from the earth's surface is vented through the
mid-ocean ridge?
-30%
86) What is the main cause of metamorphism in
oceanic crust?
-Because the oceanic crust is thin and is
composed of mafic materials (which have higher melting
87) What is the age of the oldest rocks yet
discovered on Earth?
-Felsic Archean rocks from 2.8 to 3.5 billion
years exists in areas such as the Canadian
Shield. Australian zircon has been dated to 4.4
billion years.
88) Describe the major differences between the
continental and oceanic crust.
 -See attached page
89) Where mantle materials can be found on the
Earth's surface?
Upwelling of mantle material, volcanic settings?
90) Why are Pn velocities along ray-paths
perpendicular to the ocean ridge higher than
those along ridge-parallel paths?
- Pn is a critically refracted wave, and the
velocity increases with distance from the ridge.
There is no distance between the ridge and the
ray-path if it is parallel to the ridge.
91) What is depleted mantle?
-The residue that remains after a given element
has been removed from peridotite to form a basalt melt.
The incompatible elements (e.g. Rb, U, and rare-earth
elements) are preferentially partitioned into a melt, and
during crustal formation these elements in particular
have been removed from the mantle, leaving the mantle
depleted in incompatibles.
92) What is the possible cause of the partial melting
in the mantle LVZ?
-A small amount of water and carbon dioxide is
present in the low velocity zone (LVZ), which
depresses the melting point, allowing for partial melting
93) What is the depth of the olivine to spinel phase
transition in the mantle?
-400 km
94) What is the depth of the spinel to perovskite
phase transition in the mantle?
-670 km
95) What is the D" layer in the mantle?
-The lowest 200-300 km of the mantle ( D
layer) are characterized by a decrease in seismic
velocity. its possible that mantle plumes originate D
layer.
Also possible that the D is the graveyard of
subducted slabs
96) What are the evidences to suggest that the inner
core is solid?
-Certain oscillations of the earth can only be explained
by a solid core; p wave travels through inner core but s
wave travels through outer core
97) What are the evidences to suggest that the inner
core is made up of pure iron?
-Shock experiments show atomic number must be higher
than 23, and only iron is one in abundance in the
universe
98) Calculate the rate of increase of confining
pressure in the crust (hint: find the mean density
of crustal rocks and the gravity acceleration).
99) What effect does strain-rate have on rock
behavior?
-The rock becomes stronger
100)
Name the 3 types of ductile flow and describe
the differences in their formation and behavior.
-p. 36
101)
What is the principle of isostasy? What are the
differences between the Pratt and Airys
hypotheses?
-The weight of rock columns of the same horizontal
crust section area must be the same above the depth of
compensation.
Beneath a mountain, there are two ways to reach
isostatic balance:
1). A flat Moho and different crustal density
(Pratts model)
2). A varying Moho and same crustal density
(Airys model)
(an easy way to memorize it: Pratt sounds like
flat, and Airy sounds like vary)
104) What is isostatic rebound?
-The reattainment of equilibrium after removal of load;
controlled by viscosity of the asthenosphere
105) Which is thicker -- the oceanic or continental
lithosphere? Why?
Continental lithosphere is thicker because of
smaller density than ocenic lithosphere.
106) What is the depth of the bottom of the
asthenosphere?
~ 700 km
107) What are the heat sources on the Earth
(including its interior)?
Sun, Geothermal Energy.
108) Which of the following areas has the highest
heatflow? Archean shield, Paleozoic foldbelt,
and active areas.
-Active areas have the highest heatflow and
decreases from the time of the last major
tectonic activity.
109) What is the average heatflow in continental
areas?
65 mWm-2

110) What is the average heatflow in oceanic areas?
101 mWm-2
111) Review questions 1, 2, 3, and 4 on page 297 (part of
them are covered by questions above)
-(dont know what to tell you for this one-there are no
questions on pg 297)
112) Why does the Earth have an asthenosphere (explain
in terms of the geothermal gradient and the melting
curve of mantle rocks)?
Because of temperature and pressure
combination we have partial melt between
150-340 km which is sandwiched between two
hard layers and helped for the movement of
Lithosphere plates for plate tectonic. So we
are lucky by this asthenosphere layer.
113) What is the strength profile of the continental upper
mantle?
Look at page 40 Figure 2.26 a beneath moho.
114) What is the strength profile of the oceanic upper
mantle?
Look at page 40 Figure 2.26 b beneath moho.
115) What are the differences and their causes between
the seismic thickness and the elastic thickness of a
lithosphere?
-Seismic thickness is measured with the help of
travel time of waves and elastic thickness is measured
by gravity data.
Chapter 3 questions
1. Name the continents that made up
Gondwana
-Africa
-Madagascar
-India
-Australia
-Antartica
2. List the five kinds of geological evidence
for continental drift, and give at least one
example for each.
1.) Fold belts
2.) Age provinces ex:
3.) Igneous provinces ex: the belt of
Mesozoic dolerite can be traced because it
extends though southern Africa, Antarctica,
and Tasmania.
4.) Stratigraphic sections- ex: markerbds of
tillite and coal, and sediments containing
Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora can be
correlated through South America, South
Africa, Antarctia, India, and Australia
5.) Metallogenic provinces-ex: regions
containing the mineral gold can be matched
across adjacent coastlines
3. What is the major controlling factor of
climates?
-on a broad scale, latitude is the major
controlling factor
4. List the 8 major indicators of climate and
give the locations of their occurrence at the
present day.
1. Carbonates and reef deposits
restricted to warm water within 30
degrees of the equator at the present
day where temperatures fall in the
narrow range 25-30 degrees Celcius
2. Evaporites-in arid subtropical high
pressure zones between about 10-50
degrees where the required conditions
prevail, believed that fossil evaporates
formed in a similar latitudinal range
3. Red-beds restricted to latitudes of
less than 30 degrees
4. Coal-occures either in tropical rain
forests where growth rates are very
high, or in temperate forests where
growth is slower but decay is inhibited
by cold winters thus they may form in
high or low latitudes, each type having
a distict flora. Younger coals formed
at high latitiudes.
5. Phosphorites form within 45 degrees
of the equator along the western
margins of continents where
upwellings of cold, nutrient-rich, deep
water occur, or in arid zones at low
latitudes along east-west seaways
6. Bauxite and laterite only form in
strong oxidizing conditions in tropical
or subtropical weathering conditions
7. Desert deposits-these can form in both
warm and cold desert environments
8. Glacial deposits limited to regions
within about 30 degrees of the poles
at present day
5. What is a suture?
-A suture is a representative joint line
between ancient continents brought into
juxtaposition by the consumption of an
intervening ocean.
6. What is paleomagnetism?
-is the studies of fossil magnetism that is
retained in certain rocks at the time the rock
was form. Measurement of its orientation
(direction) can be found to determine the
latitude at which the rock was created.
Provided the first quantitative estimates of
relative continental movements.
7. What is Curie temperature?
-Above this temperature the energy level is
such as to prohibit interatomic magnetic
bonding and the substance then behaves in
a n ordinary paramagnetic manner
8. What is remnant magnetism?
-The retained (permanent) magnetization
results from the internal alignment of linked
atomic dipoles. This causes the domain to
possess a net magnetic direction. Substance
exhibits an overall magnetic directionality.
9. What is the angle between the magnetic
and rotation axes of the Earth?
-approximatley 11 degrees
10. How to determine the paleo-latitude by
using the measured inclination (I)?
-By assuming the axial geocentric dipole
model for the geomagnetic field, the
inclination I can be used to determine the
paleolatitude at which the rock formed
according to the relationship 2tan = tan(I)
11. What is Eulers theorem?
-states that the movement of a portion of a
sphere, are the only two points which remain
in a fixed position relative to the moving
portion
12. This surface is uniquely defined by a
single angular rotation about a pole of
rotation.
-Theorem of Euler
-The surface is: a portion of a sphere
13. Describe the procedure of reconstruction
of continents.
-Assume a series of poles of rotation for each
pair of continents arranged in a grid of
latitude and longitude positions. For each
pole position the angle of rotation is
determined that brings the continental
margins together with the smallest
proportion of gaps and overlaps. The fit is
not made on the coastlines, as continental
crust extends beneath the surrounding shelf
seas out to the continental slope. The rue
junction between continental and oceanic
lithosphere is taken to be at some isobaths
marking the midpoint of the continental
slope, for example the 1000m contour.
Having determined the angle of rotation, the
goodness of fit is quantified by some
criterion based on the degree of mismatch.
This goodness of fit is generally known as the
objective function whose values are entered
on the grid of pole positions and contoured.
The location of the minimum objective
function revealed by this procedure then
provides the pole of rotation for which the
continental edges fit most exactly.
14. Explain the over-lapping areas in
Bullards reconstruction (Fig 3.2) for the
Bahama platform area and the Niger Delta of
Africa.
-Bahama platform area: due to a probable
accumulation of sediment capped by coral
on oceanic crust that formed after the
Americas separated
-The Niger Delta of Africa: also developed in
part on oceanic crust formed after rifting
15. When did the north and south parts of
the Atlantic Ocean start to open?
-N. Atlantic: 180 M.a. ago
-S. Atlantic: 130 M.a. ago
16. Identify the continents that made up
Gondwana in Fig 3.4.
(Look at picture and figure it out-pretty easy)
17. Why the ratio of Oxygen-18 and Oxygen-
16 is an indicator of temperature?
-Oxygen-18 has more neutrons therefore has
more mass to it. When colder temperatures
prevail glaciers start to form and lock up all
the lighter isotopes of oxygen (Oxygen-16).
Oxygen-18, the heavier isotope is left in the
water. If there are warmer temperatures then
the ratio of O-18 and O-16 is better in the
sea. This all has to do with looking at these
isotopes in the ice core.
18. Conduct a web search about the
geological age and distribution of the major
coal fields in the United States, and compare
your results with Tarling and Tarling (1971s)
reconstruction of the continents (fig. 3.9).
-They are pretty accurate compared to
todays distribution and age of the major coal
fields in the U.S.
19. How did continental drift have created
barrier to the dispersal of animals and
plants?
-growth of the ocean between two fragment
s of a supercontinent which prevented
migration between them by terrestrial life-
forms and marine life had too short of life to
cross the whole ocean in time. Plants could
not pollinate from across the ocean-they all
took different evolutionary paths in their
certain continents now just like the animals
did as well
20. What caused the rapid increase in the
number of families of invertebrates since the
Triassic time shown in Fig 3.11?
-continental drift into several segregated
parts and adaptive radiation caused genetic
isolation and therefore more species evolved
as different types occupy similar ecological
niches.
21. What is a paramagnetic mineral?
-minerals that contain atoms which posssess
an odd number of electrons.
22. What is induced magnetization?
-When a paramagnetic substance is placed in
a weak external magnetic field, such as the
Earths field, the atomic dipoles rotate so as
to become parallel to the external field
direction. The induced magnetization is lost
when the field is removed and the dipoles
return to their original orientations.
23. What is primary NRM (natural remnant
magnetization)?
-the natural remanant, as described in above
question, is formed at the same time as the
rock.
24. What is thermoremanent magnetization
(TRM)?
-the primary remanence of igneous rocks-
aquired as the rock cools from its molten
state to below the Curie temperature, which
is realized after solidification. AT this stage
its ferromagnetism in the same sense as the
geomagnetic field at that time, which is
retained during subsequent history.
25. Explain the development of DRM (detrital
remnant magnetization) with the help of a
schematic diagram.
-(first of all this is the primary remanence in
clastic sedimentary rocks). AS the
sedimentary particles settle through the
water column, any ferromagnetic minerals
present align in the direction of the
geomagnetic field. On reaching bottom the
particles flatten out, and if of elongate form
preserve the azimuth of the geomagnetic
field but not its inclination (fig 3.12). After
burial, when the sediment is in a wet slurry
state, the magnetic particles realign with the
geomagnetic field as a result of microseismic
activity, and this orientation is retained as
the rock consolidates.
Diagram:
26. What is secular variation?
-When the geomagnetic field undergoes
progressive changes with time, resulting
from variations in the convective circulation
pattern in the core.
27. What parameters do paleomagnetic
measurements measure?
-intensity, azimuth, and inclination of the
primary remanent magnetization, which
reflect the geomagnetic parameters at the
time and place at which the rock was
formed.
28. If the inclination of a rock is 45 degree,
what is its paleo-latitude?
2tan = tan(I)
=tan -1tan(45)/2
= 22.5
29. If the paleo-latitude of a rock is 45
degree, which is its magnetic inclination?
I=45
30. Why is it that remanent magnetization
cannot be used to determine paleo-
longitude?
-Since the assumed dipole field is
axisymmetirc there is a consequent
uncertainty in the ancient location of any
sampling site, which could have been
situated anywhere along a small circle,
defined by the paleolatitiude, centered on
the pole position.
31. What is the advantage of using apparent
polar wandering paths to show the
movement of continents?
-can be used to interpret motions, collisions,
and disruptions of continents and are
especially useful for pre-Mesozoic continents
whose movements cannot be traced by the
pattern of magnetic lineations in their
surrounding ocean basins.
32. Explain the observation that all the
apparent polar wandering paths converge to
the same point at the present time, as shown
in fig 3.14.
-The southern continents, plus india, are
thought to have formed a single continent,
Gondwana, from late-precambrian to mid-
jurassic time. During this period of 400M.a.
should have had the same polar wander path
when reassembled.
33. Based on the right plot of Fig. 3.15 during
what time periods(s) did the two plates move
away from each other?
-periods 4-8
34. Based on the right plot of fig 3.15 during
what time period(s) did the two plates move
toward each other?
-1-4 and 8-12
35. Based on the right plot of fig. 3.15 during
what time periods(s) did the two plates move
toward the same direction?
-12-14
36. Based on fig. 3.16, during the beginning
stage of the splitting of the Pangea in
Mesozoic, if Africa moved toward the east,
which direction did S. America move?
-west-(but im not sure)
37. Review question No. 5 on pg 297.
-(doesnt exist) so I dont know what to tell
you for this one
Chapter 4
1) In the 1950s, what kinds of methods were
used to obtain most of the information
related to the ocean floor?
-Magnetic surveying from Naval survey
vessels on specific surveys and routinely on
passage to the locations of other
oceanographic investigations.
2) Which of the layers in the oceanic crust is
mostly responsible for generating the
magnetic lineation?
-Oceanic layer 2, which corresponds to the
basaltic composition of the layer. Basalt is
known to contain a high proportion of
magnetic minerals.
3) Where does the material that forms the
oceanic lithosphere come from?
-It consists of the upper mantle and the
oceanic crust. It is created by upwelling and
partial melting of the material from the
asthenosphere at the ocean ridges.
4) Based on today's knowledge, what is the
most likely cause of the Earth's magnetic
field?
-Although there is no general theory, it is
believed to originate by
magnetohydrodynamic processes within the
fluid part of the Earths core.
Magnetohydrodynamic processes are
concerned with fluid motions, electric
currents, and magnetic fields. It is also
believed to be responsible for the magnetic
fields of other planets and certain stars.
5) Is geomagnetic reversal a relatively recent
event on Earth, or has it been occurring over
most of the earth's history?
-Reversal has been occurring over a larger
part of Earths history (at least since the
Carboniferous/Permian), although the rate of
geomagnetic pole reversal seems to be
highly variable over geologic time.
6) In the middle of a magnetic reversal, what
is the minimum strength of the Earth's
magnetic field?
-25% of its normal value with a total
duration of 10,000 years.
7) How many reversals have been found over
the last 3.5 Ma?
-According to Figure 4.8 (page 80) there have
been 6 pole reversals over the last 3.5 Ma
with a stagnant period of almost 1 Ma.
8) Arrange the following rock types based on
the magnitude of the magnetic anomalies
that they cause (highest to lowest):
sedimentary rocks; metamorphic rocks;
ultra-mafic rocks; mafic rocks.
-Ultra-Mafic, Mafic, Metamorphic,
Sedimentary.
9) Using any source (www, papers, textbooks
etc.) to find the strength of the earth's
magnetic field (in nanotesla or nT) at the
equator and at the poles.
-Approx 60,000 nT at the poles and approx
30 nT at the equator. (Wikipedia)
10) What are the major characteristics of
magnetic lineations in the ocean basins?
-10-20 km wide, peak-to-peak amplitude of
500-1000 nT, parallel to M.O.R., symmetrical
about the M.O.R. axis.
11) Based on Figure 4.4 of the textbook
(p.77), approximately how many magnetic
reversals have occurred between 20 and 60
million years ago?
-Approx 25 reversals.
12) What is the age range of the "Gilbert
Reverse" of the Earth's magnetic field?
-Approx .5 Ma.
13) Describe the Vine-Matthews hypothesis
about the formation of magnetic lineation in
the ocean.
-Magma erupted at different times along the
rift at the crest of the M.O.R. and preserved
different magnetic anomalies. (Dr. Gao
PowerPoint)
14) What is the "Konigsberger ratio"?
-Knigsberger ratio (Q, Qn) Originally the
ratio (Q) of the intensity of natural remanent
magnetization (NRM) of an igneous rock to
the intensity of magnetization induced at
room temperature in a magnetic field the
same as that in which the original NRM was
acquired. Now it usually means the ratio (Qn)
of the intensity of NRM to that induced in a
magnetic field of 50T at room temperature
(www.encyclopedia.com)
15) Based on Figure 4.11, what is the age of
magnetic anomaly Number 6?
-20-21 Ma.
16) Based on Figure 4.11, which of the four
ridges (N. Pacific, S. Indian, S. Pacific, and S.
Atlantic) had the highest spreading rate over
the past 40 million years?
-North Pacific (Ch. 4 Group Activity).
17) Based on Figure 4.11, which of the four
ridges (N. Pacific, S. Indian, S. Pacific, and S.
Atlantic) had the lowest spreading rate over
the past 40 million years?
-South Atlantic (Ch. 4 Group Activity).
18) Based on Figure 4.13, which time period
has the longest normal polarity over the past
160Ma?
-Mid Cretaceous.
Chapter 5
1.) Name the 3 types of plate boundaries.
-Ocean ridges, trenches, transform
faults
2.) 2) Is continent-continent collision
constructive, destructive, or
conservative?
-Destructive
3.) 3) Assuming that the Earth is
expanding (this is a fake assumption,
of course), the rate of lithospheric
destruction should be greater or
smaller than that of lithospheric
creation?
- Lithospheric destruction should
decrease, so it should be smaller than
the rate of lithospheric creation.
4.) Why most earthquakes occur along
plate boundaries?
-Because of relatively rapid motions
experienced by plates creates extreme
stresses unlike anywhere else that
produce a number of earthquakes over
a short period of time
5.) Give the depth range of shallow,
intermediate, and deep focus
earthquakes, respectively.
-0-70km(shallow focus), 70-
300km(intermediate focus),
>300km(deep focus)
6.) Why earthquakes along ocean ridges
are all shallow ones?
-because focal mechanism solutions
are of tensional events associated with
plate accretion and strike-slip events
where the ridges are offset by
transform faults. Therefore
earthquakes which are generated
 shallowly because no tension is below
70km when associated with transform
faults.
7.) Draw a focal sphere for a typical mid-
ocean rides earthquake.
(strike-slip left lateral)
- angles to the trends to transform
8.) Where do most of the deep
earthquakes occure?
-at a depth about 670 Benioff Wadati
zones
9.) What is a Benioff zone?
-planes of earthquake foci in the
northern, eastern and western Pacific
Ocean that is ringed by a belt of
earthquakes which lie on planes, in
places offset by transform faults,
dipping at an angle of about 45
degrees beneath the neighboring
plates. Typically associated with
volcanic activity at the surface
10.) What is a small circle?
-The intersection of a sphere and a
plane that does not pass through its
center is called a small circle
11.) What is the maximum
subduction rate and where to find it?
-subduction margins of the Pacific are
between 60-95mm a-1
12.) When the ocean lithosphere is
being subducted, where the island
chains will end up with?
-At margins of continental lithosphere
13.) What is the evidence to suggest
that plates are efficient stress guides?
-stress applied to one margin of a
plate is transmitted to its opposite
margin with no deformation of the
plate interior because of its ridgity.
Intra-plate deformation can also take
place (especially within the
continental crust)such as orogenic
belts exhibiting extensive thrust
faulting, movements along large
strike-slip fault zone, and extensional
deformation.
14.) Describe the procedure to find
the Euler pole using transform faults.
-transform faults must floow the traces
of small circles centered upon the pole
of relative motion. The pole of rotation
of two plates can thus be determined
by constructing great circles at right
faults affecting their common margin
and noting their point of intersection.
Most convenient type of plate margin
to apply this to: accretive type.
15.) Mark the small circles in Fig 5.3
-boundary of transform faults
-small circles defined by transform
faults. Arcs of faults expected to be
small circles and this is where two
plates sharing a mid-ocean ridge is
assumed to be parallel to the
transform faults.
16.) Mark the great circles in Fig. 5.3
-the great circles are at right angles to
the trend of the transform faults
-Great circle lies somewhere on
rotation of pole perpendicular to small
circles. If two or more transform faults
between a plate pair are used, the
intersection of the great circles
approximate position of rotation pole
 17.) Describe the procedure to find
the Euler pole using spreading rates.
-determined from magnetic lineations
by identifying anomalies of the same
age (usually number 3 or less so that
the movement represents a
geologically instantaneous rotation) on
either side of an ocean ridge and
measuring the distance between
them. The velocity of spreading is at a
maximum at the equator
correspoinding to the Euler pole and
thence decreses according to the
cosine of the Euler poles latitude (fig
5.4). The determination of the
spreading rate at a number of points
along the ridges then allows the pole
of relative rotation to be found.
18.) Where do you find the
maximum linear velocity in Fig 5.4?
-Latitude of 0 degrees with respect to
pole of rotation (see diagram)
19.) Where do you find the minimum
linear velocity in Fig 5.4?
-latitude of 90 degrees with respect to
pole of rotation (see diagram)
20.) If the linear plate motion
velocity is 20cm/yr at a location that is
60 degrees from the Euler pole, what
is the velocity at 30 degrees from the
pole?
-60 degrees from the pole, the velocity
as a percentage of Vmax is about 50%
so .5*Vmax = 20 cm/yr
so Vmax=40 cm/yr
30 degrees from the pole, the velocity
as a percentage of Vmax is about 90%
90% of 40 cm/yr is 36 cm/yr
21.) List the authors and the times
of the four studies of global plate
motion.
-Le Pichon (1968), Chase (1978),
Minster & Jordan (1978), and DeMets
(1990)
22.) What is the maximum creation
rate and where to find it?
- More than 15 cm/yr. Found in the
East Pacific Rise near Easter Island, in the
South Pacific about 3,400 km west of Chile.
23.) If the current plate motion
continues, how many years does it
take for the Pacific to close
completely?
-About 50 million years?
24.) The predicted relative
movement between the Pacific and
North American plates is 4.8cm/yr,
while the observed along the San
Andreas system is about 3.5cm/yr.
Explain this difference.
- The several small faults bounding the
San Andreas system act to decrease
the relative movement rate along it as
compared to that between the Pacific
and North American plates.
25.) Draw and name five or more of
the island chains in the Pacific Ocean.
-Hawaiian-Emperor chain, Austral-
Cook islands, Line islands, Louisville
chain, Ontong-Java Plateau. Picture on
p. 99
26.) What is epeirogeny?
- the formation and submergence of
continents by broad relatively slow
displacements of the earth's crust
27.) Which is olderthe island chain
or the ocean crust on which it stands?
-oceanic crust
28.) What is the composition of
island chains?
-lower parts composed of: tholeiitic
basalt. Upper parts: alkali basalts
enriched in Na and K. Have higher
concentrations of Fe, Ti, Ba, Zr, and
REE than mid-ocean ridge basalts
29.) What is the characteristic of the
lithosphere beneath island chains?
-underlain by a thick crust but thinned
lithosphere
30.) Describe the major features of
the Hawaiian-Emperor island chain,
e.g., length, age and age variation
along the chain, and the time when
the bending occurred.
Length: 6000km, age: 74my old, age
variation: anywhere between 5-22my
 when next large hotspot occurred,
bedding occurred: 43my
31.) What are the two most popular
hypotheses about the origin of island
chains?
-islands formed when lithosphere
passed over a hotspot and thin the
lithosphere. The volcanic rocks are
then derived from pressure-release
melting and differentiation within the
plume.
-others suggest magmas simply flow
to the surface from the asthenosphere
through fractures in the lithosphere
resulting from intra-plate tensional
stresses.
32.) Abundant evidence suggests
that the Reunion mantle plume is
responsible for the Deccan Traps flood
basalt (LIPLarge Igneous Province) in
western India (fig 5.9). Explain why
there is a gap in the track of the
Reunion island chain in the Indian
Ocean?
-The gap results from the passage of
the mid-ocean ridge over the hot spot
approximately 33ma ago.
33.) Are hotspots fixed (relative to
the center of the earth)?
-no they are not fixed
34.) What is TPW?
True Polar Wander
35.) What was the sea level during
the period of mid-Cretaceous
superplume?
-250m higher than present day sea-
level
36.) Why was the temperature on
the surface of the Earth high during
the period of mid-Cretaceous
superplume?
-release of large amounts of carbon
dioxide during the volcanic eruptions
which created an enhanced green
house effect
37.) Why was a large percentage of
diamond supply found in Cretaceous
igneous rocks?
-as a result of the diamonds having
been translated to the surface by the
rising plumes
Chapter 6
1. Why ocean ridges are described as
"accretive" or "constructive"?
a. At ocean ridges, new material is
made. Specifically new oceanic
crust is made.
2. What are the total length, typical
width, and typical height (relative to
neighboring ocean basins) of ocean
ridges?
a. Total length = 60,000 km
b. Width = 1000-4000 km
c. Height = 2-3 km
3. What is the range of slow separation
rate?
a. 10-50 mm/a
4. What is the range of intermediate
separation rate?
a. 50-90 mm/a
5. What is the range of fast separation
rate?
a. >90 mm/a
6. Give an example of an ocean ridge
with slow separation rate.
a. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
7. Give an example of an ocean ridge
with intermediate separation rate.
a. Northern East pacific Rise
8. Give an example of an ocean ridge
with fast separation rate.
a. The majority of the East Pacific
Rise
9. Is there a median valley at fast
spreading ridges?
a. There is no median valley at
fast spreading ridges, they only
occur at slow and intermediate
spreading ridges
10.What kind of faults are most common
in the vicinity of ocean ridges?
a. Transform faults

11.What is the major difference in ridge
morphology between fast and slow
spreading ridges?
a. Slow rate spreading ridges are
characterized by rugged
topography, and prominent
median rift
b. along axis
c. Fast rate spreading ridges have
no median rift developed and
have smooth topography
12.What are the two effects of cooling
when oceanic lithosphere moves away
from a MOR?
- The crust gets denser and lower topography
13.Describe the characteristics of the
median rift (or median valley) at slow-
spreading ridges.
a. median rift 30-50 km wide,
1500-3000 m deep
14.Describe the characteristics of the
median rift (or median valley) at
intermediate-spreading ridges.
a. median rift 50-200 m deep,
smoother topography
15.Use any available resource to find the
definition of "free-air" gravity anomaly.
a. s the measured gravity after
a free-air correction is
applied to correct for the
elevation at which a
measurement is made. The
free-air correction does so by
adjusting these measurements
of gravity be what would have
been measured at sea level.[1]
b. The free-air gravity anomaly is
given by the equation:[1]
i. gF = gobs g + gF
ii. Here, gF is the free-air
gravity anomaly, gobs is
observed gravity, g is
the correction for latitude
(because the Earth is not
a perfect sphere),
and gF is the free-air
correction.
16.Explain why the free-air anomaly
across the oceanic ridges is close to
zero, as shown in Fig. 6.5.
a. They are in a state of isostatic
equilibrium
17.Use any available resource to find the
definition of "Bouguer" gravity
anomaly.
a. A value that corrects the
observed gravity for latitude
and elevation variations, as in
the free-air gravity anomaly,
plus the mass of material above
some datum (usually sea level)
within the earth and topography
18.Explain why the Bouguer anomaly
across the oceanic ridges is negative
relative to the older ocean basins, as
shown in Fig. 6.5 on page 126?
-Because there is less dense
materials (astenospheric) at
relatively shallow depth
19.What does "OSC" stand for?
a. Overlapping Spreading Centers
20.What is an OSC and how does it form?
a. OSCs are nonrigid
discontinuities where the
spreading center of a ridge is
offset by a distance of 0.5 to 10
km, with the two ridge portions
overlapping each other by
about three times the offset.
b. It has been proposed that
OSCs originate on fast-
spreading ridges where lateral
offsets are less than 15km, and
true transform faults fail to
develop because the
lithosphere is too thin and
weak
i. These are both quotes
from the book, might
want to put into your own
words on the test
21.Draw a set of schematic diagrams to
show the formation of an OSC.
a. Figure 6.12 on page 135 of book
22.Give the length of each of the 4 orders
of ocean ridge segmentation.
a. 1st order--divide the ridge at
intervals of 300-500 km with
offsets < 15 km
 b. 2nd order--intervals of 50-300 km
with offsets 3-5 km
c. 3rd order--30-100 km with
offsets 0.5-3 km
d. 4th order--10-50 km caused by
small lateral offsets (<0. 5 km)
e.
23.What fraction of the Earth's head loss
is through hydrothermal circulation of
sea water in the upper crust beneath
ocean ridges?
a. 25%
b.
24.What is the main composition of MORB
(mid-ocean ridge basalts)?
a. Olivine tholeiite
i. May contain phenocrysts
of olivine or plagioclase,
or rarely clinopyroxene
ii.
25.What are the three possible sources of
MORB?
a. A small degree of partial
melting of mantle peridotite at
75-90 km followed by
precipitation of olivine as the
melt ascends
b. 20-30% partial melting at
depths in the range 30-60 km
c. Shallow melting with separation
of the melt at 15-25km
26.What is a "xenocryst"?
a. Crystal that is not normally
found in the igneous rock in
which it resides
27.What are the main controlling factors
of ridge morphology?
a. Spreading rate of the ridge
28.Give two or more examples of
expanding oceans on Earth.
a. Atlantic Ocean and Indian
Ocean
b.
29.In expanding oceans, the spreading
rate is normally low or high?
- Lower, there are no subduction zones
associated with them
30.Explain the model of "steady state
necking", which was one of the models
to explain the morphology difference
between fast and slow spreading
ridges.
-steady-state lithospheric neck in
which lithospheric stretching balances
lithospheric accretion. Conversely, the
axial high is a steady-state
lithospheric bulge. The lithosphere is
modelled as a thin plate with a
Newtonian rheology. It is shown that
an axial valley will occur if the rate of
viscosity increase away from the ridge
axis is faster than the rate at which
accretion decreases. An axial high will
occur if the opposite condition holds.
This is consistent with the observation
that axial valleys occur at low
spreading rates and axial highs at high
spreading rates.
31.Based on the formula d=2500 + 350
square_root_of(age), what is the age
of the ocean floor that has a depth of
4 km?
D (m) =2500 + 350 t1/2
a. 18.36 Ma
32.Based on the formula d=2500 +
350*square_root_of(time), what is the
depth of the ocean floor that has an
age of 50 Ma?
a. 4974.87 m or 5km
33.What is the depth of the ocean floor
with an age of 125 Ma based on the
equation of Parsons and McKenzie
(1978)?
a. D=2600 +365t^1/2
i. 6680 m
34.Draw a schematic diagram to show
the cross-section view of a mid-ocean
ridge.

35.Is it possible for an active spreading
center to have a spreading rate of 2
mm per year?
a. Yes, they are known as Ultra
Slow: rate <10mm/a
Chapter 7
1. What is a transform fault?
-is a conservative plate boundary that
is active only between the offset ridge
crests and the relative movement of
the lithosphere on either side of it is
dextral. No material is created or
destroyed. Plates just slide past one
another.
2. What are the major differences
between a transform fault and a
transcurrent fault?
-The transcurrent fault causes a
sinisral offset along a vertical plane
which must stretch to infinity beyond
the ridge crests.-->plates slide past
each other at any and every point
-transform faults only slide past each
other between the offset ridge crests.
3. What is a concave arc?
-is where the left side of a boundry
rises or stayes the same while the
right side of the boundary drops below
or subducts (concave side goes up)
4. What is a convex arc?
-is where the left side of a boundry
drops down or subducts while the right
side remains fixed above(convex side
goes down)
5. How did transform faults form?
-plates subjected to tension which
could approximately parallel to old
 lines of weakness, new fractures
develop preferentially along there.
After rifting a little the portions parallel
to the lines of weakness develop into a
transform faults which are active only
between the offset ridge crests
6. What is transtension?
-the combination of strike-slip motion
and extension
7. What is transpression?
-the combination of strike-slip motion
and contraction
8. What is a pull-apart basin?
-Normal faults and extensional troughs
characterize step-overs where
intervening region is thrown into
tension. More: When the curvature of
a strike-slip falut is pronounced, or
where one fault terminates and side
steps to an adjacent, parallel fault, the
curved zone or area separating the
ends of the faults is thrown into
tension (left-stepping bend). This
tension gives rise to an extensional
trough (pull-apart basin)
9. Inside a pull-apart basin, where do you
find the youngest sediments?
-right in the middle of the basin where
it keeps extending
10.Draw a schematic diagram to show
the displacement of a trench by a
transform fault
-pg. 87
11.Draw a schematic diagram to show
the displacement of a trench by a
transcurrent fault.
-pg. 87
12.Use any available sources to find the
location of the Murray fracture zone.
-is one of the principal east-west rifts
in the crust of the northeast Pacific
basin
13.Why is there a scarp across ocean
fracture zones?
-rocks of different ages are juxtaposed
and therefore a scarp would develop
across the fracture zone from the
higher (younger crust which subsides
more rapidly) to the lower older crust.
14.The age of the ocean flow on one side
of a fracture zone is 20Ma, and that on
the other side is 60Ma. What is the
difference in depth of the ocean floor.
-by using d = 2500 + 350 where d =
depth and t =age, for both numbers
and then taking the difference ends up
being 1145.8km
15.Why the rate of subsidence of oceanic
lithosphere is inversely dependent
upon the square root of its age?
-higher younger crust subsides more
rapidly than lower older crust
16.What is a transverse range?
- A group of mountain ranges of
southern California with an East-West
orientation, making them transverse
to the general North-South orientation
of most of California's coastal
mountains.
17.How did transverse ranges form?
- They were formed as a result of the
interaction between the Pacific and
North American plates along the San
Andreas Fault. In which a crustal
shortening was created due to the
compression between southwest and
northeast California across the San
Andreas Fault.
18.What is the main evidence to support
the statement that the San Andreas
Fault was developed along a pre-
existing fault or zone of weakness?
-topography such as the orogenic
mountains could never have formed
from a transform fault. There must
have been a stronger better
mechanism to form this type of
topography.
19.How did the Transverse Ranges in
southern California form?
- They were formed as a result of the
interaction between the Pacific and
North American plates along the San
Andreas Fault. In which a crustal
shortening was created due to the
compression between southwest and
 northeast California across the San
Andreas Fault. illustrate at large
restraining bend. These ranges have
been uplifted in response to a
combination of dextral motion and
compression across a portion of the
fault that strikes more westerly than
the general strike of the fault system.
Combination has resulted in a zone of
transpression and topographic uplift
referred to as Big Bend.
20.How deep does the San Andreas fault
penetrate?
-extends to the bottom of the whole
lithosphere
Chapter 8
1. Where do island arc systems form?
-Where oceanic lithosphere is
subducted beneath oceanic
lithosphere, the arc forms inland of the
subduction zone on the overriding
plate.
2. What and where is the "first arc"?, 2nd
arc, and 3rd arc?
-1st Arc: Trench, Subduction complex
and the forearc basin, located near
initial subduction area, may have
extensional features.
2nd Arc: Outer sedimentary arc and an
inner volcanic arc, the basic island arc
system.
3rd Arc: Remnant arc, farther into plate
than the 2nd arc, superseded by trench
rollback?
3. What is a Benioff-Wadati zone and
what is its maximum depth?
-An area of deep earthquakes
(max=680 km) occurring on a plane
which dips at an average of 45
degrees, corresponding to the stresses
encountered by a subducting plate.
4. What is "negative buoyancy"?
-Density of an object is greater than
the medium that it is present in,
therefore the object is unable to float
on the surface or at some depth of
compensation (neutral buoyancy) and
sinks to the bottom of that medium.
5. What phase transition takes place at
about 410 km depth?
-The transition of the mineral olivine
into higher density polymorphs that
form at the higher pressures
encountered at depth.
6. What is an "exothermic" phase
transition?
-As an exothermic reaction occurs, the
temperature of the surroundings
increase as heat is released from the
reactants. Olivinespinel transition at
about 400 km depth.
7. What is an "endothermic" phase
transition?
-An endothermic reaction is one that
absorbs heat energy from its
surroundings as it takes place. ? Ex.
spineloxides transition at about 670
km.
8. Relative to the surrounding mantle,
the subducting slab is heavy and
strong. What is the cause of these
properties?
-The elevated pressure and
temperature environment of the
mantle results in material that is more
ductile than the descending crust,
which is still comparatively cold and
rigid. The slab is comparatively
heavy, since it is no longer in
equilibrium and negatively buoyant.
9. List five or more of the factors that
control the temperature distribution in
a subducting slab.
a. Rate of Subduction
b. Thickness of Descending Slab
c. Frictional Heating Restrictions
d. Heat Conduction
e. Adiabatic Heating
f. Derived Heat from Radioactive
Decay of Minerals
g. Latent Heat associated with
Phase Transitions
h. Chuck Norris
10.What are the two hypotheses to
explain the observation that there are
no earthquakes deeper than 700 km?
 At a depth of 700 km
(termination of subduction
zone) the change to spinel is
probably complete
Rocks deform in a ductile
manner?
11.What is an Andean-type orogenic belt?
-Orogeny formed by subduction of
normal oceanic lithosphere, without
allochthonous terrains or continental
collisions.
-Orogenic belts form as a result of
subduction beneath an overriding
continental plate. Ex. subduction along
the west coast of S America that gave
rise to the Andes Mountains.
12.What is the cause of the melting of the
asthenosphere above a subducting
slab?
At depths of >100 km, water is
released by the dehydration of
serpentinite bodies in the oceanic
crust.
The resulting high water vapor
pressure causes partial melting of the
quartz eclogite at depths of 100-200
km producing acidic magmas.
These react with the overlying pyrolite
of the asthenosphere forming diapirs
which rise and undergo partial melt.
During their ascent they fractionate
and produce the calc-alkaline series of
andesite, dacite and rhyolite typical
for mature island arcs.
13.What are the sources of materials in
the subduction complex?
- Ocean water, oceanic lithosphere
(including all of its subdivisions), and
mantle lithosphere
14.List 3 or more types of seismological
studies that provided evidence for the
existence of slab subduction.
- Seismic Tomography, Earthquake
Seismology, and Benioff zone, High Q factor
15.Where is region "a", b, c in a
trench system and what are the
causes of quakes in each
of the regions?
a: earthquakes generated in
response to the bending of the
lithosphere as it begins to descend
b: earthquakes generated from thrust
faulting along the contact between the
overriding and underthrusting plates
c: earthquakes are not generated by
the same processes as a and b, and
occur at depths greater than the
thickness of the lithosphere
a: associated with normal faults at
depths of up to 25 km
b: associated with thrust faulting
16.What caused the seismic gap in the
Aleutian arc?
-A possible cause for seismic gaps in
areas such as the Aleutian-Alaskan arc
may be the presence of large
quantities of terrigenous sediments
within the trench
17.What are the four models for the
formation of marginal seas?
marginal sea extension resulted
from the forcible intrusion of
basaltic mantle diapirs
generated by partial melting at
the top of descending slab
magma upwelling is passive
rather than active and occurs in
response to other factors which
have caused regional
extensional stresses in the
back-arc region
marginal sea extension is a
result of secondary convection
cells in the mantle wedge
overlying the Benioff zone,
which have been induced by
the descent of the
underthrusting slab.
back-arc basins form only
behind trenches where narrow
slabs are subducted ( i.e slabs
restricted in width in the
direction parallel to the trench).
Trench roll-back model.
Chapter 9

1. How many types of orogenic belt does
the subduction of oceanic lithosphere
create?
a. two
2. What are the two types of orogenic
belt created by subduction of oceanic
lithosphere?
a. Subducting beneath oceanic
lithosphere (Island arcs)
b. Subducting beneath continental
lithosphere (Andean-type
orogenic belts)
3. What is the cause of the positive
buoyancy of continental lithosphere?
a. The continental lithosphere is
less dense than that of oceanic
lithosphere
4. What are the likely forces that move
India northward?
a. The rifting of India from Africa
and East Antartica during the
Mesozoic
b. Northward motion caused by
the subduction of the oceanic
lithosphere beneath the
Eurasian plate
5. Define the following terms: suspect
terrain, exotic terrain, displaced
terrain, suture, Cordilleran-type
mountain belt, collisional mountain
belt.
a. Suspect terrain--An area or
region that is suspected of
being a terrane, but whose
boundary faults have not been
identified.
b. Exotic terraindifferent name
for suspect terrain
c. Displaced terraindifferent
name for suspect terrain
d. Sutureresulting space where
two plates of continental
lithosphere collide
e. Cordilleran-type mountain belt
former name for Andean type
mountain rangescollisional
mountain belt
f. Collisional mountain belt--
Formed when two plates of
continental lithosphere collide
6. What is the ultimate fate of the
oceanic plateaux in the western Pacific
Ocean (Figure 9.28)?
a. Eventually brought to a trench
in a shrinking ocean
b. Thickened crust: High
buoyancy; may prevent
subduction
7. What is the angle of subduction
(measured from the horizontal) in
central and southern Peru?
a. Northern to Central Peru: ~10
b. Central part: ~30
8. Why is there a lack of Quaternary and
Neogene volcanism in the area
underlain by shallow subduction?
9. Why is the crust beneath the Andes
thicker than normal?
a. There was a large period of
crustal shortening
accompanying a period of uplift
10.Briefly describe the different models
for the formation of the Himalayas.
a. Slides 12-14 of Ch.9 ppt file or
page 329 Figure 10.27
11.Draw a schematic map to show the
locations of Sub-Himalaya, Lower
Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya, Higher
Himalaya, Greater Himalaya, and
Trans-Himalaya.
a. Figure 10.19
i. Greater Himalaya is the
Gneiss done
ii. Lesser is lower
12.What is indentation tectonics (a.k.a.
extrusion tectonics, escape tectonics)?
a. Indentation is the process by
which a rigid block presses into
and deforms a softer block
during convergence
13.What is the most significant difference
between the Alps and the Himalayas
(both are collisional mountain ranges)?
a. The Himalayas are considered
young and are still
forming/rising
14.What is the meaning of
"allochthonous"?
 a. originating elsewhere; not
native to a place
Chapter 10
1) What is the definition of a rift and what
kind of forces dominate the formation of
rifts?
-Elongate depressions where the entire
lithosphere is deformed under the influence
of extensional forces.
2) Give at least three common
characteristics of rifts.
-Divergent intraplate structures of the
continental lithosphere and are formed due
to horizontal extensional stresses.
-Can extend to about 2500 km along strike
with width of 50-100 km and elevation of 1-2
km.
-Central graben flanked by steep boundaries
made up of a series of normal faults
-Rifts characterized by a series of half-
grabens
-Underlying crust is significantly thinned.
3) At what depth does the alkaline magmas
originate beneath continental rifts?
Defining the following terms: aulacogen,
membrane tectonics, Wilsonian cycle,
active rifting, passive rifting
Aulacogen: failed rift that become
inactive during some part of their evolution
active rifting: results from local tension
associated with upper mantle plume;
characterized by regional doming of crust,
volcanism, and late stage graben formation
passive rifting: response to regional
far field stress; characterized by initial
graben formation, little or no volcanism
Wilsonian cycle: periodicity of ocean
formation and closure; break up of
continental craton, thinning of continental
lithosphere, rifting, continental margin, sea
floor spreading
membrane tectonics: stresses induced
by the non-spherical nature of the earth and
plates traversing latitudes
Re-arrange the following processes (from the
earliest to the latest) related to
continental passive and active rifting:
doming, rifting, volcanism.
4) List three or more of the five common
properties of aulacogens summarized by
Burke (1977).
--initial formation coincides with
continental rupture
-tendency to reactivate by renewed
faulting and subsidence
-accompanied by intrusion of alkaline
igneous rocks
-long duration
5) At what stage does the direction of
sediment transportation reverse along an
aulacogen?
When the ocean was completely closed
6) When a plate moves away from the
equator, the membrane stress at the
center is compressional or extensional?
Compressional
7) When a plate moves away from the
equator, the membrane stress at the
edge is compressional or extensional?
Extensional
8) When a plate moves away from the
poles, the membrane stress at the center
is compressional or extensional?
Extensional
9) When a plate moves away from the
poles, the membrane stress at the edge is
compressional or extensional?
Compressional
10) What are the possible causes of
regional tensional stresses within a
continent?
Membrane stresses: the earth's
curvature is greater at the equator than the
poles so continents drifting across latitudes
experience tensional stresses
Trench suction
Hotspots
11) What are the three types of
continental rifts? Give an example for
each.
Divergent boundaries. Convergent
boundaries, transform boundaries
Africa's Great Rift Valley, Himalayas,
San Andreas
12) Based on the study of Puzyrev et al.,
what is the approximate width of the low
velocity zone in the mantle beneath the
Baikal rift?
400 km
13) Based on the study of Spohn and
Schubert (1982), what is the main cause
of lithosphere thinning beneath rifts?
The presence of high temperature
material in the asthenosphere
14) Who was the first to suggest that
continental splitting occurs as a result of
a seris of R-R-R triple junctions?
Burke and Dewey 1903
15) Which of the three arms of a R-R-R
triple junction is most likely to fail and
why?
The East-West rift are most likely to fail,
because the rotation pole of the most of
the plates are in high latitudes
16) During what period did the Southern
Oklahoma aulocogen evolve into a broad
ocean filled with carbonates?
In the Cambrian period, approximately 525-
550 Ma.
17) When did the proto-Atlantic close?
In late Silurian period, about 420 Ma
Chapter 11
1) What is the most likely mechanism of
heat transfer from the earth's deep
interior to the surface?
-Convection Cells. Page 380
2) What is the mean vertical thermal
gradient at the Earth's surface?
-25Ckm-1. Page 382
3) Which area has the higher heat flow -- an
Archean shield or a Paleozoic platform?
-Paleozoic platform. Heat flow generally
decreases with the age increase of the
crust. Page 383
4) What is the average continental head
flow?
-65 mWm-2. Page 383
5) What are the two forces that are
originated in the vicinity of a mid-ocean
ridge?
-FRP-The ridge push force acting on the
edges of the separating plates due to
gravity
-RR-Minor ridge resistance (opposite to
FRP), originating in the brittle upper crust
(whose existence demonstrated by
earthquake activity at ridge crests)
PowerPoint slide 8
6) When the flowing velocity of the
asthenosphere is lower than the moving
velocity of the plate, the mantle drag
 force enhances or resists plate
movement?
-Resists
-PowerPoint slide 9.
7) What causes the slab-pull force?
-FNB-Major force resulting from negative
buoyancy of the cold,dense downgoing
slab. Part of this force is transmitted to
the plate as the slab pull force FSP
-FNB is greatly enhanced at depths 200-
300km (olivine-spinel transition), causing
the flexure of lithosphere. FSP-slab-pull
force, opposed by RS (slab resistance),
which acts on leading edge and RB
(bending resistance)
-Further resistance to motion is friction
between the two plates RO (responsible
for intense zone of shallow earthquakes)
-If FSP=RS+RO the slab achieve a
terminal velocity .
-If FSP>RS+RO the slab descends at
greater than the terminal velocity and is
thrown into tension at shallow depths.
-If FSP<RS+RO the slab is thrown into
compression
The balance between driving and resistive
forces my control the distribution of stress
types, as revealed by earthquake focal
mechanism solutions, within the
downgoing slab
-PowerPoint slides 10,11,12
8) What was Lord Kelvin's (erroneous)
estimate of earth's age?
~100 Ma
9) What is the major source of heat flow in
continental regions?
-The major source of heat flow in
continental regions is from shallow depths
where a sub-crustal component is
required.
10) For the paired cells model (i.e., layered
convection model) of mantle convection,
what is the boundary separating the two
groups of cells?
PowerPoint slide 7: If the transition zone
represents a chemical boundary, convection
currents could not cross it.
11) There has been heated debate about
whole mantle versus layered mantle
convection over the past 10 years (since
the publication of the textbook). What is
your preferred model? Briefly state your
reasoning.
This is an opinion question. Thus, I
intentionally left this blank for you to
answer.
12) Name and draw schematic diagrams
to show the four possible causes of trench
suction force.
-Pictures on page 390 with descriptions
on pages 389-390.
13) What is the main evidence to suggest
that the asthenosphere is NOT moving at
a large speed (e.g., 200 mm per year)?
-Page 394: studying the different
velocities produced by seismic waves and
the crystal lattice of olivine.
14) What are the three main reasons to
suggest that the edge-force model is
better than the mantle drag model?
1. More thermodynamically accepted
and more effective in transporting
heat from the mantle.
2. Consistent with observed pattern of
intraplate stress.
3. Reconcilable with present plate
motions:
a. Plate velocity independent of plate
area
b. Plates attached to downgoing slabs
move more rapidly than other
plates
c. Plates with large area of
continental crust move more slowly