CHAPTER 1

INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM

1.1 INTRODUCTION

We have pleasure in introducing our new project INTELLIGENT BRAKING

SYSTEM, which is fully equipped by IR sensors circuit and Pneumatic breaking circuit. It is
a genuine project which is fully equipped and designed for Automobile vehicles. This forms
an integral part of best quality. This product underwent strenuous test in our Automobile
vehicles and it is good. Accident prevention has been one of the leading areas of research
today. Our paper is designed to prevent accidents due to loss of control, drunken driving, and
rash driving, using circuitry aided by a microcontroller kit. In our work, braking distance and
the distance of the obstacle are taken into consideration along with the speed of the vehicle.
The microcontroller kit is powered with a microcontroller Amega8-16pi. The Hall sensor
helps in finding the speed of movement of the vehicle and the ultrasonic sensor senses the
distance of the object in front. These sensors provide real- time inputs to the microcontroller
program. Using a Hall sensor the system will sense the speed of the vehicle and with the
microcontroller; it will calculate the distance required to bring the vehicle to a complete stop
for that speed. Braking motors is incorporated to activate the brakes thereby achieving
automatic braking procedures. The system helps in conjunction with the driver judgment if
the driver doesnt sense the obstacle and applies the brake at the right time then the
microcontroller initiates braking motor to apply the brakes automatically. Our future work
deals with incorporating real time brake shoe wear system to provide enhanced feature for the
intelligent braking system

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1.2 NECESSITY OF USING INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM

The rider while in action may drive in different speeds depending on

his needs and his mind tendency. This may lead to negligence of visual
indication of the speed that in his driving which may cause many
Accidents that have been a major disaster in our AUTOMATIC SENSOR
BRAKING SYSTEM enables the control unit and automatically stops the
vehicle by activating the solenoid valve.

To prevent high speed in automobiles,

To reduce the accidents caused by over speed,
To provide additional brake in addition to the conventional braking
system,
To reduce the deviation of the rider by the usage of alarm facility

This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as

replacement of manual effort by mechanical power in all degrees of
automation. The operation remains an essential part of the system
although with changing demands on physical input as the degree of
mechanization is increased. Automation can be achieved through
computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics, etc., of these sources,
pneumatics form an attractive medium for low cost automation. The main
advantages of all Intelligent Sensor Braking systems are economy and
simplicity. Sensor braking plays an important role in automobile. The
automobile vehicle is being atomized by sensor braking system for the
following reasons.

To achieve high safety

To reduce man power
To increase the efficiency of the vehicle
To reduce the work load
To reduce the vehicle accident
To reduce the fatigue of workers
To high responsibility
comfort of the human being

1.3 COMPONENT USED

1. Sensor unit
2. Wheel
3. Pneumatic cylinder
4. Piston

2
 5. Brake lever
6. Solenoid valve
7. Flow control valve
8. Polyurethene tube
9. Frame stand
10. Motor
11. Chain drive

1.4 WORKING OPERATION

The IR TRANSMITTER circuit is to transmit the Infra-Red rays. If any obstacle is

there in a path, the Infra-Red rays reflected. This reflected Infra-Red rays are received by the
receiver circuit is called IR RECEIVER. The IR receiver circuit receives the reflected IR
rays and giving the control signal to the control circuit. The control circuit is used to activate
the solenoid valve. If the solenoid valve is activated, the compressed air passes to the Double
Acting Pneumatic Cylinder. The compressed air activate the pneumatic cylinder and moves
the piston rod. If the piston moves forward, then the breaking arrangement activated. The
breaking arrangement is used to break the wheel gradually or suddenly due to the piston
movement. The breaking speed is varied by adjusting the valve is called FLOW
CONTROL VALVE. In our project, we have to apply this breaking arrangement in one
wheel as a model. The compressed air drawn from the compressor in our project. The
compressed air flow through the Polyurethane tube to the flow control valve. The flow
control valve is connected to the solenoid valve as mentioned in the block diagram.

1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM

IR
TRANSMITTER
CONTROL

POWE UNIT
R IR RECEIVER

FLOW SOLINOID
CONTROL VALVE
VALVE

PNEUMATIC BRAKE
AIR TANK CYLINDER ANGEMENT
3
(COMPRESSOR)
 Fig. No. 1 Block diagram of intelligent sensor braking system

1.6 DIAGRAM OF INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM

FIG NO 1.2

Diagram of intelligent braking system

1.7 ADVANTAGES

Brake cost will be less.

Free from wear adjustment.
Less power consumption
Less skill technicians is sufficient to operate.

4
 It gives simplified very operation.
Installation is simplified very much.
To avoid other burnable interactions viz. (Diaphragm) is not used.
Less time and more profit.

CHAPTER 2
BRAKING SYSTEM
2.1 TYPES OF BRAKING

Drum brake or Mechanical brake

Hydraulic brake

Air brake

Vacuum brake

2.2 Drum brake or Mechanical brake

A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press
against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum. The term drum brake usually means
a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum. When shoes press on the
outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between
two shoes, similar to a conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum brake,
though such brakes are relatively rare. A related type called a band brake uses a flexible belt
or "band" wrapping around the outside of a drum

In a motor vehicle, the wheel is attached to an auxiliary wheel called drum. The brake shoes
are made to contact this drum. In most designs, two shoes are used with each drum to form a
complete brake mechanism at each wheel. The brake shoes have back linings on their outer
surfaces. Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by on anchor pin; the other end is operated by
some means so that the brake shoe expands outwards. The brake linings come into contact
with the drum. Retracting spring keeps the brake shoe into position when the brakes are not
applied. The drum encloses the entire mechanism to keep out dust and moisture. The wheel
attaching bolts on the drum are used to contact wheel and drum. The braking plate completes
the brake enclosure, holds the assembly to car axel, and acts the base for fastening the brake
shoes and operating mechanism. The shoes are generally mounted to rub against the inside
surface of the drum to form as internal expanding brake as shown in the figure.

2.3 PARTS OF THE DRUM BRAKE

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 1. Cam to expand shoe
2. Brake lining
3. Brake shoe
4. Toes
5. Retracting spring
6. Anchor spring
7. Drum

2.4 DRUM BRAKE DIAGRAM

Fig no -2.1 drum brake

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2.4.1 DRUM

The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat-conductive
and wear-resistant. It is positioned close to the brake shoe without actually touching it, and
rotates with the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the brakes, the lining pushes against
the inner surface of the drum, generating friction heat that can reach as high as 600
F (316 C).

2.4.2 BRAKE SHOE

Brake shoes are typically made of two pieces of sheet steel welded together. The
friction material is either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive. The crescent-
shaped piece is called the Web and contains holes and slots in different shapes for return
springs, hold-down hardware, parking brake linkage and self-adjusting components. All the
application force of the wheel cylinder is applied through the web to the lining table and

2.4.3 BRAKE LINING.

The edge of the lining table generally has three V"-shaped notches or tabs on each
side called nibs. The nibs rest against the support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes
are installed. Each brake assembly has two shoes, a primary and secondary. The primary shoe
is located toward the front of the vehicle and has the lining positioned differently than the
secondary shoe. Quite often the two shoes are interchangeable, so close inspection for any
variation is important.

2.4.4 ADVANTAGE OF DRUM BRAKE

Drum brakes are used in most heavy duty trucks, some medium and light duty trucks,
and few cars, dirt bikes, and ATVs. Drum brakes are often applied to the rear wheels since

7
most of the stopping force is generated by the front brakes of the vehicle and therefore the
heat generated in the rear is significantly less. Drum brakes allow simple incorporation of a
parking brake. Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and emergency) brake
even when the rear wheels use disc brakes as the main brakes. The vast majority of rear disc
braking systems use a parking brake in which the piston in the calliper is actuated by a cam or
screw.

2.5 HYDRAULIC BRAKE

The hydraulic brakes are applied by the liquid pressure. The pedal
force is transmitted to the brake shoe by means of a confined liquid
through a system of force transmission. The force applied to the pedal is
multiplied and transmitted to brake shoes by a force transmission system.
This system is based upon Pascals principle, which states that The
confined liquids transmit pressure without loss equally in all directions. It
essentially consists of two main components master cylinder and wheel
cylinder the master cylinder is connected by the wheel cylinders at each
of the four wheels. The system is filled with the liquid under light pressure
when the brakes are not in operation. The liquid is known as brake fluid,
and is usually a mixture of glycerine and alcohol or caster-oil, denatured
alcohol and some additives Spring pressure, and thus the fluid pressure in
the entire system drops to its original low valve, which allows retracting
spring on wheel brakes to pull the brake shoes out of contact with the
brake drums into their original positions. This causes the wheel cylinder
piston also to come back to its original inward position. Thus, the brakes
are released

2.6 DIAGRAM OF HYDRAULIC BRAKE

8
 Fig 2.2 hydraulic brake

2.7 AIR BRAKE

Air brakes are widely used in heavy vehicle like buses and trucks
which require a heavier braking effort that can be applied by the drivers
foot. Air brakes are applied by the pressure of compressed air, instead of
foot pressure, acting against flexible diaphragms in brake chamber. The
diaphragms are connected to the wheel brakes. These diaphragms are
controlled through a hand or foot operated valve. The brake valve controls
brake operation by directing the flow of air from a reservoir against
diaphragms in the brake chamber when the brakes are applied and from
brake chambers to tube atmosphere when the brakes are released. The air
compressor, driven by the engine furnishes compressed air to the
reservoir fall below a set valve.

2.8 VACUUM BRAKES / SERVO BRAKES

A serve mechanism fitted to the braking system reduces the

physical effort the driver has to use on the brake pedal most servo
mechanisms are of the vaccum assistance type. A pressure differential
can be established by subjecting one side of the piston to atmospheric

9
pressure and the other side to a pressure below atmospheric pressure by
exhausting air from the corresponding end of the servo cylinder.

CHAPTER 3

COMPONENT AND ITS DESCRIPTION

3.1 SINGLE PHASE MOTOR

INTRODUCTION

In electrical engineering, single-phase electric motor refers to the distribution

of alternating current electric power using a system in which all the voltages of the supply
vary in unison. Single-phase distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating,
with few large electric motors. A single-phase supply connected to an alternating
current electric motor does not produce a revolving magnetic field; single-phase motors need
additional circuits for starting, and such motors are uncommon above 10 or 20 kW in rating.

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3.2 POWER SUPPLY

A 12V direct current is required to make function of the timer and

control unit, which operates only in current. Since all electronic circuits
work only with low D.C. voltage we need a power supply unit to provide
the appropriate voltage supply. This unit consists of transformer, rectifier,
filter and regulator. A.C. voltage typically 230V rms is connected to a
transformer which steps that AC voltage down to the level to the desired
AC voltage. A diode rectifier then provides a full wave rectified voltage
that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage.
This resulting DC voltage usually has some ripple or AC voltage variations.
A regulator circuit can use this DC input to provide DC voltage that not
only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same DC value
even the DC voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to the
output DC voltages changes.

3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig no 3.1 block diagram of power supply

3.4 APPLICATION

Single-phase Motor power distribution is widely used especially in rural areas, where
the cost of a three-phase distribution network is high and motor loads are small and
uncommon. The largest supply normally available as single phase varies according to the
standards of the electrical utility. A single-phase household supply may be rated 100 A or
even 125 A, meaning that there is little need for 3 phase in a domestic or small commercial
environment. Single-phase power may be used for electric railways the largest single-phase
generator in the world, at Neckarwestheim Nuclear Power Plant, supplies a railway system on
a dedicated traction power network.

3.5 DOUBLE ACTING PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

INTRODUCTION

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 Double-acting cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to move in both extend and retract
strokes. They have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for in stroke. Stroke
length for this design is not limited, however, the piston rod is more vulnerable to buckling
and bending The cylinder is a double acting cylinder one, which means that the air pressure
operates alternatively (forward and backward). The air from the compressor is passed through
the regulator which controls the pressure to required amount by adjusting its knob. A pressure
gauge is attached to the regulator for showing the line pressure. Then the compressed air is
passed through the directional control valve for supplying the air alternatively to either sides
of the cylinder. Two hoses take the output of the directional Control valve and they are
attached to two ends of the cylinder by means of connectors. One of the outputs from the
directional control valve is taken to the flow control valve from taken to the cylinder. The
hose is attached to each component of pneumatic system only by connectors.

Pneumatic cylinder consist of

PISTON
CYLINDER

3.5.1 PISTON

The piston is a cylindrical member of certain length which reciprocates

inside the cylinder. The diameter of the piston is slightly less than that of
the cylinder bore diameter and it is fitted to the top of the piston rod. It is
one of the important parts which convert the pressure energy into
mechanical power. The piston is equipped with a ring suitably
proportioned and it is relatively soft rubber which is capable of providing
good sealing with low friction at the operating pressure. The purpose of
piston is to provide means of conveying the pressure of air inside the
cylinder to the piston of the oil cylinder.

Generally piston is made up of

Aluminium alloy-light and medium work.

Brass or bronze or CI-Heavy duty.

The piston is double acting type. The piston moves forward when
the high-pressure air is turned from the right side of cylinder. The piston
moves backward when high pressure acts on the piston from the left side
of the cylinder. The piston should be as strong and rigid as possible. The
efficiency and economy of the machine primarily depends on the working
of the piston. It must operate in the cylinder with a minimum of friction

12
and should be able to withstand the high compressor force developed in
the cylinder and also the shock load during operation.

The piston should possess the following qualities.

The movement of the piston not creates much noise.

It should be frictionless.
It should withstand high pressure.

3.5.2 PISTON ROD

The piston rod is circular in cross section. It connects piston with

piston of other cylinder. The piston rod is made of mild steel ground and
polished. A high finish is essential on the outer rod surface to minimize
wear on the rod seals. The piston rod is connected to the piston by
mechanical fastening. The piston and the piston rod can be separated if
necessary.
One end of the piston rod is connected to the bottom of the piston. The
other end of the piston rod is connected to the other piston rod by means
of coupling. The piston transmits the working force to the oil cylinder
through the piston rod. The piston rod is designed to withstand the high
compressive force. It should avoid bending and withstand shock loads
caused by the cutting force. The piston moves inside the rod seal fixed in
the bottom cover plate of the cylinder. The sealing arrangements prevent
the leakage of air from the bottom of the cylinder while the rod
reciprocates through it.

3.6 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

The cylinder should be enclosed to get the applied pressure from the compressor and
act on the pinion. The cylinder is thus closed by the cover plates on both the ends such that
there is no leakage of air. An inlet port is provided on the top cover plate and an outlet ports
on the bottom cover plate. There is also a hole drilled for the movement of the piston. The
cylinder cover plate protects the cylinder from dust and other particle and maintains the same
pressure that is taken from the compressor. The flange has to hold the piston in both of its
extreme positions. The piston hits the top plat during the return stroke and hits the bottom
plate during end of forward stroke. So the cover plates must be strong enough to withstand
the load.

3.6.1 CYLINDER MOUNTING PLATES

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It is attached to the cylinder cover plates and also to the carriage with the
help of L bends and bolts.

3.7 DIAGRAM OF DOUBLE ACTING PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Fig no 3.2 Double Acting Pneumatic Cylinder

3.8 WHEEL ARRANGEMENT

3.8.1 CONSTRUCTION

The wheel is fitted top the base plate so as to read the speed of the
wheel with help of the Speedometer. The starting switch is fitted within
the speedometer

3.8.2 FUNCTION

Whenever the speed limit exceeds fixed speed value the starting
switch touches timer circuit at it ground points. This enables the timer
circuit to activate the solenoid valve.

3.9 FLOW CONTROL VALVE

A flow control valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid
or air (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing
various passageways Valves have many uses, including controlling water for Irrigation,

14
industrial uses for controlling processes, residential uses such as on / off & pressure control to
dish and clothes washers & taps in the home. Even aerosols have a tiny valve built in. Valves
are also used in the military & transport sectors. This valve is used to speed up the
piston movement and also it acts as a one way restriction valve which
means that the air can pass through only one way and it cant return back.
By using this valve the time consumption is reduced because of the faster
movement of the piston.

CHAPTER-4
15
 SOLENOID VALVE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by

an electric current through a solenoid in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on
or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports.
Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold Solenoid valves are the most
frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose,
distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and
safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials
used, low control power and compact design.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION

The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system. Commonly
known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in the pneumatic system.
The directional valve does this by changing the position of its internal movable parts. This
valve was selected for speedy operation and to reduce the manual effort and also for the
modification of the machine into automatic machine by means of using a solenoid valve. A
solenoid is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into straight line motion and
force. These are also used to operate a mechanical operation which in turn operates the valve
mechanism. Solenoids may be push type or pull type. The push type solenoid is one in which
the plunger is pushed when the solenoid is energized electrically. The pull type solenoid is
one which the plunger is pulled when the solenoid is energized. The name of the parts of the
solenoid should be learned so that they can be recognized when called upon to make repairs,
to do service work or to install them.

4.3 PARTS OF A SOLENOID VALVE

4.3.1 COIL

The solenoid coil is made of copper wire. The layers of wire are
separated by insulating layer. The entire solenoid coil is covered with a
varnish that is not affected by solvents, moisture, cutting oil or often
fluids. Coils are rated in various voltages such as 115 volts AC, 230 volts

16
AC, 460 volts AC, 575 Volts AC, 6 Volts DC, 12 Volts DC, 24 Volts DC, 115
Volts DC & 230 Volts DC. They are designed for such frequencies as 50 Hz
to 60 Hz.
4.3.2 FRAME

The solenoid frame serves several purposes. Since it is made of

laminated sheets, it is magnetized when the current passes through the
coil. The magnetized coil attracts the metal plunger to move. The frame
has provisions for attaching the mounting. They are usually bolted or
welded to the frame. The frame has provisions for receivers, the plunger.
The wear strips are mounted to the solenoid frame, and are made of
materials such as metal or impregnated less fibre cloth.

4.3.3 SOLENOID PLUNGER

The Solenoid plunger is the moving mechanism of the solenoid. The

plunger is made of steel laminations which are riveted together under
high pressure, so that there will be no movement of the lamination with
respect to one another. At the top of the plunger a pin hole is placed for
making a connection to some device. The solenoid plunger is moved by a
magnetic force in one direction and is usually returned by spring action.
Solenoid operated valves are usually provided with cover over either the
solenoid or the entire valve. This protects the solenoid from dirt and other
foreign matter, and protects the actuator. In many applications it is

necessary to use explosion proof solenoids.

4.4 DIAGRAM

Fig no 4.1 5/2 solenoid valve

17
4.5 WORKING OF SOLENOID VALVE

The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensure easy exhausting of

5/2 valve. The spool of the 5/2 valve slide inside the main bore according
to spool position; the ports get connected and disconnected. The working
principle is as follows.

Position-1

When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port P gets

connected to B and S remains closed while A gets connected to R

Position-2

When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port P and A gets
connected to each other and B to S while port R remains closed.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONTROL UNIT

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The control unit coordinates the components of a computer system. It fetches the
code of all of the instructions in the program. It directs the operation of the other units by
providing timing and control signals the control unit is the circuitry that controls the flow of
data through the processor, and coordinates the activities of the other units within it.

5.2 PARTS OF THE CONTROL UNIT

555 IC (integrated circuit)

Capacitor
Diode
Resistor
Rectifier
Transformer
Control panel

5.3 FUNCTION OF 555 IC

A single 555 Timer can provide time delay ranging from microsecond to hours,
whereas counter timer can have a maximum timing range of days. To vary time electronically
a modulation voltage is applied to the control voltage input terminal. In the stable state the
output Q of the control flip flop is HIGH. This makes the output LOW, because of power
amplifier which is basically an inverter. A negative going trigger pulse is applied to pin 2 and
should have its DC level greater than the threshold level of the lower comparator (i.e. Vcc/3).
At the negative going edge of the trigger, as the trigger passes through (Vcc/3), the output of
the lower comparator goes HIGH and sets the FF (Q=1, Q=0). During the positive

19
excursions, when the threshold voltage at pin 6 passes through 2/3 Vcc, the output of the
upper comparator goes HIGH and resets the FF (Q=0, Q=1).

5.3.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF 555 IC

Fig no 5.1 pin diagram of NE555N IC

5.3.2 CONSTRUCTION

Three 5 k resistances act as voltage divider, providing bias voltage of 2/3 Vcc to the
Upper comparator and 1/3 Vcc to the lower comparator where Vcc is the supply voltage.
Signe tics Corporation first introduced this device as the SE555/NE555 and is available in
two package styles, 8-pin circular style. TO-99 can or 8-pin mini DIP or as 14-pin DIP. The
control flip flop, power amplifier and the transistors Q1, Q2 are used for the construction of
555 timer.

5.4 TIMER CIRCUIT

5.4.1 CONSTRUCTION

The 555 Timer circuit is a stable device for generating accurate time
delay or oscillation. Timer circuit is constructed with the help of 555 IC and
relay. It gets the supply voltage of +12V and it can drive load up to

20
200mA. Pin connections are given with respect to the pin diagram. From
the timer circuit there is a way to connect the exposure lamp. To enable
the Timer circuit starting switch is fixed with the speedometer. To vary the
time delay the potentiometer R3 is fitted in series with the resistance R1
and parallel to the resistance R3. Diodes are used for magnetizing the
relay.

5.4.2 FUNCTION

Time is set by potentiometer R2 that provides a range of one second

to hundred seconds with timing capacitance C1 of 100 F. The output at
pin 3 is normally low and the relay is held of momentary push on switch
S1 energizes the relay which is held closed for a time 1.1 * (R1+R2) * C1
and then released. The exact length of the timing interval will depend on
the actual capacitance of C1. The circuit should be calibrated for various
positions of the control knob of R2 after the timing capacitor has had a
chance to age. Once the capacitor has reached its stable value, the
timings provided should be well within the requirements. Most electrolytic
capacitors are rated on the basis of minimum guaranteed value and the
actual value may be higher. When the circuit enables diode D1 is in

forward bias and the diode D2 is in reverse bias.

Fig no 5.2 Timer Circuit

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5.5 TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive

coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a
varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through
the secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force
(emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.

Fig no 5.3 transformer

5.6 CAPICITOR

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator);
for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of
insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one
plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An
ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads.
This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them.

22
 Fig no - 5.4 capacitor

5.7 DIODE

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an

asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most
common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a pn
junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode is a vacuum with
two electrodes, a plate (anode) and heated cathode. The most common function of a diode is
to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction),
while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be
viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behaviour is
called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including
extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers, these diodes are forms
of rectifiers. However, diodes can have more complicated behaviour than this simple onoff
action. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage
or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to
be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with
the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature
sensor or voltage reference.

23
 Fig no 5.5 diode

5.8 RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to
the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohms low:

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential

difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohm.

Fig no 5.6 resistor

24
5.9 CONTROL PANEL

5.9.1 CONSTRUCTION

Control panel consists of speedometer and relays. This relay is activating

the solenoid valve.

5.9.2 FUNCTION

If the speed of the vehicle is increased the settled speed limit, the
control unit gives the signal to the solenoid valve. The solenoid valve
activates the pneumatic double acting cylinder, so that the brake is
applied. If the speed of the vehicle is zero, the control unit disenables the
solenoid valve. The pneumatic double acting cylinder is back to its original
position, so that the brake was released.

5.10 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The
process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including
vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, solid-state diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and
other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous
electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal
radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sullied) to
serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector". Rectifiers have many uses, but are
often found serving as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct
current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate
direct current for use as a source of power. As noted detectors of radio signals serve as
rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame.

The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by pulsating voltages

and currents (although still unidirectional). Depending upon the type of end-use, this type of
DC current may then be further modified into the type of relatively constant voltage DC

characteristically produced by such sources as batteries and solar cells.

25
 Figure no 5.7 Rectifier

5.11 SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this is to provide a brief review of sensor

technology and to assess the high Level technical requirement of the
complete sensing system, independent of the technology Implode to
achieve those requirement.

Sensing technology comprises following types of sensors

Radar sensor
Basic infrared sensor
Active infrared sensor
Laser sensor
Ultrasonic sensor
Basic wave sensor

A basic infrared sensor detect its naturally emitted radiation.

Infrared radiation sits between the visible and microwave region of the
electromagnetic spectrum and has wavelength range approximately
750mm infrared sensor have numerous application in object detection.

CHAPTER 6

CALCULATION

6.1 CYLINDER TECHNICAL DATA

Piston Rod:

Mild steel

Seals:

Nitrile (Buna N) Elastomer

End Covers:

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Cast iron graded fine grained from 25mm to 300mm

Piston:

Aluminium.

Media:

Air.

Temperature Range:

0^c to 85^c

Stroke length: Cylinder stoker length 160 mm = 0.16 m

Piston rod : 18 mm = 18 x 103 m

Pressure range: 2-7 bar

6.2 FLOW CONTROL VALVE

TECHNICAL DATA

Size:

Pressure: 0 to 10 kg / cm2

Media: Air

This valve is used to speed up the piston movement and also it acts as a one way
restriction valve which means that the air can pass through only one way and it cant return
back. By using this valve the time consumption is reduced because of the faster movement of
the piston.

6.3 DESIGN OF PISTON:

We know diameter of the piston which is equal to 50 mm

6.3.1 THICKNESS OF PISTON

The thickness of the piston head is calculated from flat-plate theory

Where,

t = D (3/16 x P/f)

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Here,

P - Maximum combustion pressure = 100 bar

f - Permissible stress in tension = 34.66 N/mm

Piston material is aluminium alloy

.t = 0.050 (3/16 x 100/34.66 x 106/105) x 1000

= 12 mm

6.3.2 NUMBER OF PISTON RINGS

No. of piston rings = 2 x D

Here,

D - Should be in Inches = 1.968 inches

No. of rings = 2.805

We adopt 3 compression rings and 1 oil rings

6.3.3 THICKNESS OF THE RING

Thickness of the ring = D/32

= 50/32

= 1.5625 mm

6.3.4 WIDTH OF THE RING

Width of the ring = D/20

= 2.5 mm

The distance of the first ring from top of the piston equals

= 0.1 x D

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= 5 mm

Width of the piston lands between rings

= 0.75 x width of ring = 1.875 mm

6.3.5 LENGTH OF THE PISTON

Length of the piston = 1.625 x D

Length of the piston = 81.25 mm

Length of the piston skirt =Total length Distance of first ring from top of

The first ring (No. of landing between rings x

Width of land) (No. of compression ring x

Width of ring)

= 81.25 5 2 x 1.875 3 x 2.5

= 65 mm

6.4 DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Force to be exerted is 40N

Force = pressure x Area

Pressure in the cylinder = 0.4 x105 N/m2

Area of the piston, (d2)/4 = Force/pressure

= 40/ 40000

= 0.001m2

Bore diameter = 0.0356 m = 35.6 mm

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From pneumatic products catalogue we have selected 40mm bore diameter cylinder

6.4.1 FOR FORWARD STROKE

For 40mm bore diameter

Corresponding rod diameter = 16mm

Area of the piston = (d2)/4

= (x402)/4

= 1256.8mm2

Force (modified) to be exerted = pressure area

= 0.4 x105 x1256.8

= 50N

6.4.2 FOR RETURN STROKE

On the return stroke, when the pressure is applied to the reverse direction, the force on the
Piston due to the pressure is

= P (A-a)

Where,

P = Pressure in the cylinder (N/m2)

A = Area of the piston (m2)

a = Cross sectional area of the piston rod (m2)

Therefore

Area of the piston (A-a) = {( d2)/4}-{( d12)/4}

= {( 402)/4}-{ (162)/4}

= 1256.6-201

= 1055mm2

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6.5 FORCE TO BE CONVERTED

On the reverse direction = Pressure Area

= 0.4 1051055

= 42.2 N

For working pressure of 0.4105 N/m2

Extending force = 50.3 N

Retracting force = 42.2 N

CHAPTER 7

OBJECTIVES AND APPLICATIONS

7.1 OBJECTIVES

To provide automatic braking system.

To provide mind free ride for the motorist.
To provide the nation with an accident free roads.

7.2 APPLICATIONS

Automatic braking system can be used in both light moving vehicles

such as two wheelers as well as in heavy moving vehicles such as
buses and trucks etc
Automatic braking system is flexible enough to be used in any type
of braking system.

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 Automatic braking system can be implemented in institutional
vehicles, taxis, driving school vehicles, etc.

7.3 DISADVANTAGES

Need separate air tank

In this system there is no speed controlling system
Addition cost is required to install this system to four wheeler

CHAPTER 8

NO. OF MATERIAL USED

NAME OF MATERIAL NO. OF MATERIAL

Solenoid valve 1
Control unit 1
Flow control valve 1
Sensor unit 1
Pneumatic cylinder 1
Motor 1
Chain drive 1
Wheel 1
Piston 1

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Brake liver 1
Polyurethane tube 3

CHAPTER 9

COST ESTIMATION

NAME OF MATERIAL COST IN RUPEES

Solenoid valve 1500

Control unit
Flow control valve 875
Sensor unit 2200
Pneumatic cylinder 1800
Motor 2500
Belt drive 850
Wheel and braking system 1900
Piston 485
Brake liver 510

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Polyurethane tube 260
Transportation expenditure 1640

Total 14520/-

CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSION

The project adventured by us is the one that is flexible for all sorts of vehicles like cars and

heavy vehicles. This is one of the feasible project considering the cost and simplicity of

wheel arrangement. If the engine arrangement is used gear, clutch comes into action for

controlling the speed, hence the setup becomes bulky and complex for which we have done

using wheel arrangement. Tests had been carried out for checking the condition of wheel

arrangement with fuel supply using solenoid valve, pneumatic cylinder, and brake

arrangement. In future this project can be modified by using the same solenoid valve set up in

the muffler and based on engine speed considering various speed ratios.

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 CHAPTER 11

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering (Vol. 1 & Vol. 2)-, Nemchand Jain Standard
Publishers, New Delhi.

2. William H. Crouse, Automotive Mechanics-, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company

Ltd, New Delhi.

3. Roy Choudary, Linear Integrated Circuits New Age Integrated Publishing Pvt. Ltd, New
Delhi.

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 SNAP SHOT

Figure 1: Single acting pneumatic cylinder

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Figure 2: Solenoid valve with Control unit

Figure 3: Single phase AC motor

Figure 4: Sensor kit

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