International project

Atlas of Geological Maps

of Asia and Adjacent Areas

VSEGEI Publishing House

St. Petersburg 2016
UDC: 55(98)(054.4):528:001.83(5)

International project. Atlas of geological maps of Asia and adjacent areas. Eds.
O. V. Petrov (VSEGEI), Dong Shuwen (CAGS), E. A. Kiselev, A. F. Morosov (Rosne-
dra). SPb.: VSEGEI Publishing House, 2016. 48 p.

ISBN 978-5-93761-249-6

International project Atlas of geological maps of Asia and adjacent areas is aimed at
creating a modern integrated geological basis for Northern, Central and Eastern Asia in the
form of an Atlas of general geological maps at 1: 2.5 M scale, with databases and explana-
tory notes. Works under this joint project have been carried out since 2002 by the geological
surveys of five countries: Russia, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan and the Republic of Korea.
The study involved representatives from the National Academies of Sciences, higher education
institutions, commissions and subcommissions for the Geological Map of the World under the
auspices of UNESCO.
Atlas outlines a brief history of the project and presents the geological, tectonic, mine-
ragenic and metallogenic maps that have been compiled. Joint activity by the geological
surveys from five countries resulted in development of new knowledge in geology, tectonics,
and mineralization of large crustal blocks of the Asian continent and in compilation of a new
innovative 3D cartographic product and evaluation of the mineral potential in the continental,
shelf, and oceanic domains of Central, Northern and Eastern Asia.

Commission for the Geological Map of the World

President Dr. Philippe Rossi

Secretary General Dr. Manuel Pubellier

9 785937 612496
A. P. Karpinsky Russian Geological
ISBN 978-5-93761-249-6 Research Institute, 2016
 CONTENT

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1. Atlas of geological maps of Central Asia and adjacent areas in scale
1: 2.5 (20022008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. 3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and
Eastern Asia (20082013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1. Geological map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia in scale 1: 2.5M 13
2.2. Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia in scale 1: 2.5M 15
2.3. Metallogenic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia in scale
1: 2.5M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4. Minerogenic map of energy resources in Northern-Central-Eastern
Asia (oil, gas and coal) in scale 1:2.5M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3. Deep processes and metallogeny of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia . . 35
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
INTRODUCTION
International cooperation in the study of geo-
logical structure of Asia, initiated by the geological
surveys from five countries (Russia, China, Mon-
golia, Kazakhstan and the Republic of Korea), was
launched fifteen years ago under the project Atlas
of geological maps of Northern, Central and Eastern
Asia and adjacent areas at 1: 2.5M scale. The aim
of the project was to create a modern integrated
geological basis for Northern, Central, and Eastern
Asia in the form of an atlas of general geological
maps. An important task was to evaluate the metal-
logenic potential in cross-border areas of the partici-
pating countries.
Area covered by the project is extremely di-
verse in geological structure and incorporates more
than 11% of the total area of the world continents
Fig. 1. The areas of maping covered in the International
project on geological maps of Northern-Central-Eastern
Asia and adjacent areas. Atlas of Central Asia and adja-
cent areas at 1: 2.5M (stage 1); 3D Geological Structures
and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia
(stage 2) and Deep processes and metallogeny of Northern-
Central-Eastern Asia (stage 3)
(fig. 1). The Pacific mobile belt is on its east; the
long-lived near E-W belt of active interaction be-
tween the Laurasian and Gondwana cratons and
paleooceanic and collision systems of different age
dividing them passes in the central part. This Earths
segment is the key to solve the fundamental issues
in regional geology, tectonics, structural geophysics,
geochemistry, metallogeny, and mineralogy. This
area is extremely rich in mineral resources.
Works under the project was organised by the
national geological surveys and assisted by repre-
sentatives from the national academies of sciences,
higher education institutions, commissions and sub-
commissions for the Geological Map of the World
under the auspices of UNESCO. To achieve this
goal, an organizational and financial mechanism of
the interaction has been realized between the par-
ticipating countries, where each country finances
its part of the work independently, and methodical,
technical, and technological issues are addressed
collectively during the annual workshops and field
trips. All this served as a basis for launching a
unique information resource on geology, tecton-
ics, and metallogeny of Central Asia based on the
world-level digital geological mapping.
The first stage of this international cooperation
started from 2002 was named the Atlas of the geo-
logical maps of the Central Asia and adjacent areas
at the scale 1: 2.5M (fig. 2). Six workshops of
countries participating in the project were held since
the beginning of this project stage until its comple-
tion (fig. 3). These efforts resulted in linking of geo-
logical maps for border areas of the CIS countries
and compilation of a set of seven maps at 1: 2.5M
scale, including geological, tectonic, metallogenic,
energy resources, maps of magnetic anomaly and
gravity fields, space image of the CIS countries. In
August 2008, the project was completed by presen-
tation at the 33rd International Geological Congress
in Oslo of four maps from the Atlas: geological, tec-
tonic, metallogenic, and map of energy resources.
These maps enabled to specify the geological
structure features in border areas of the Russian
Federation, Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan, and to
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
Fig. 2. Signing of the agreement on the starting of the
International (China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia
and the Repulbic of Korea) project Atlas of the geo-
logical maps of the Central Asia and adjacent areas
at the scale 1:2.5M (Beijing, October 2002)
identify cross-border metallogenic belts promising
for discovery of new mineral deposits.
The second stage of the project titled 3D Geo-
logical Structures and Metallogeny of Northern,
Central and Eastern Asia started in 2008. Mapped
area was extended to the north and north-east of
Russia (to the border of the shelf) and to the south-
ern half of China to cover the Meso-Cenozoic ore-
bearing volcanic-plutonic belts of the Pacific active
continental margin. Draft integral digital maps, geo-
logical, tectonic, metallogenic, and energy resourc-
es, have been prepared for the extended project
area. Compilation of such maps is impossible with-
out a broad involvement of materials on potential
fields and deep structure; therefore, one of the main
objectives to the project was passing to 3D geologi-
cal mapping and wide use of geophysical data.
In 2012 the Atlas of geological maps was shown
at the 34th IGC in Brisbane in Australia (fig. 4).
It included the geological, tectonic, metallogenic
maps, and map of energy resources.
Geological map of the Atlas (coordinator
China) allowed generalization and integration of
recent cartographic materials in border areas of
Fig. 3. Fifth working meeting in
Daejeon, Korea (2006)
5
Russia and adjacent states as well as preparation in
a generalized from of the geological map for a huge
territory of Central Asia in a unified legend based
on the international geological time scale.
Tectonic map (coordinator Russia) was com-
piled by the specialists of Russian Academy of
Sciences and leading experts from different geo-
logical institutions. The map shows large structures
composed of consolidated crust of six age stages.
Indicator structural-material rock complexes charac-
terizing different geodynamic settings are reflected.
Metallogenic map of the Atlas is a unique sum-
mary of data on the ore content in Central Asia.
Tectonic map of Central Asia is used as a basis; it
is supplemented with structural material and metal-
logenic characteristics of tectonic units.
Map of energy resources of the Atlas contains
information on distribution of coal- and oil-and-gas
bearing sedimentary basins, large and unique depos-
its and local areas of coal- and oil-and-gas accumu-
lation in the project territory, reflecting geodynamic
types of productive sedimentary basins. The map is
accompanied by a database made using modern GIS
technologies.
6 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

Fig. 4. , B. Tectonic and metallogenic maps of Northern, Central, and Eastern Asia at 1: 2.5M scale displayed during
the International Congress in Brisbane at the Chinese and Russian booths (2012)

During the third stage of the project, which re-
ceived its own name Deep processes and metallo-
geny of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia, the project
area has covered most of the Eurasian continent,
including the shelf seas of the Arctic and Pacific ba-
sins. The present stage of the project enables to fur-
ther put into practice procedures of 3D geological
mapping. Map compilation is based on deep seismic
data and drilling of superdeep parametric wells.
The project is also aimed on the compilation of
a set of geophysical maps at 1: 5M scale including
a map of crustal thickness, a map of crustal types,
a map of sedimentary cover thickness and others.
There is also work in progress to compile geo-
transects that cross the main tectonic structures of
Northern, Central and Eastern Asia.
An important element of collaboration under the
project is to hold workshops, geological field trips,
and scientific exchange of young professionals. To
date, we have already conducted 17 international
workshops and 18 joint field trips to study the key
geological features, sequences, and individual de-
posits in the participating countries (fig. 5, 6).
Ten international geological field trips were or-
ganized from 2010 to 2015, including the Norilsk
ore region, North and Central Mongolia, South
Ural, Tibet, Lake Baikal region, Kamchatka Penin-
sula, southern and southeastern provinces of China.
In December 2014, the Chinese party organized a
geological field trip to the third worlds largest in
reserves platinum-copper-nickel deposit Jinchuan
and to the oldest in China Shandong Province gold
deposits, which was attended by the Russian de-
legation. In August 2015, a field trip for the leading
Chinese experts in metallogeny visited the Central
Aldan gold-uranium ore region. This excursion ena-

Fig. 5. Field trips: Tibet (2012), Karelia, Russia (2007)

INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
Fig. 6. 12th Workshop (Korea, 2014), 11th Workshop (Russia, St. Petersburg, 2013)
bled participants to expand their understanding of
the peculiarities of geological structure and forma-
tion of the unique gold objects in the Aldan Shield.
These field trips were attended by more than
120 geologists from various states, including heads
of geological surveys of the participating countries.
The third stage of the project, the development
of which is planned out to 2020, has not yet been
accomplished. Thanks to the joint efforts, we hope
that the project will develop dynamically and con-
tinue in spite of the natural change of generations
of geologists.
As a result of the project, which summarizes the
leading-edge technologies in geological mapping,
geophysical and isotope-geochronological research
methods, we have to show that the overview and
7
summary geological mapping, which has always
been the essence of the state geological survey
activity in most countries of the world, is an effec-
tive way of geological study of large cross-border
crustal blocks and evaluation of their metallogenic
and fuel and energy potential.
Although the current maps of the Atlas of geo-
logical maps of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia
and adjacent areas already cover a large part of the
Asian continent, the range of issues related to the
geological structure, tectonics, and evaluation of
metallogenic potential in our countries is constantly
growing, representing wide opportunities for inter-
national cooperation of geologists who specialize in
different areas of the geological science.
8 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

1. ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF CENTRAL ASIA

AND ADJACENT AREAS IN SCALE 1: 2.5M (20022008)

Coordinating Board of Atlas: DONG Shuwen,

LI Tingdong (China), B. Uzhkenov, A. Kiselev (Kazakhstan),
LEE Tai Sup, KIM Bok Chul (Republic of Korea),
O. Chuluun, D. Javkhlanbold (Mongolia),
A. F. Morozov, O. V. Petrov (Russia)

Compilation of the Atlas of geological maps of
Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1:2.5
was realized from 2002 to 2008. The Atlas consists
of geological, tectonic, metallogenic maps and map
of energy resources with databases on deposits of
solid minerals, oil and gas. Digital maps are com-
piled on a unified geographic base; they cover the
Asian part of Russia, Northern China, Mongolia,
Kazakhstan, countries of Central Asia, Northern
and Southern Korea.The international project Atlas
of geological maps of Central Asia and adjacent
areas was implemented within a five-sided (Russia,
China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea)
international project.
A compilation of the Bedrock geology map and
the Map of energy resources was coordinated by
CAGS, while VSEGEI was responsible for tectonic
and metallogenic maps.
Each of five countries-participants of the project
compiled digital maps on its territory in a unified
coordinated legend at its own expense. Such orga-
nizational-financial mechanism provided detailed
coordination of geological surveys during project
execution.
In the Geological map (fig. 7), well-known and
new data on the geological structure of a consider-
able part of the Asian continent with an area of
more than 20M km2 are summarized and unified in
one legend.
Tectonic map (fig. 8) was based on the two main
conceptions: consolidated earth crust and double-
layered structure of the Earth crust. Consolidated
earth crust the Earths layer with base and roof,
which has undergone (partially or completely) fold-
ing, metamorphism and granitization, distinguished
on composition, structure and physical parameters
from overlapping (plate cover) and underlying (up-
per mantle rocks) formations of lithosphere. Earth
crust has double-layered structure consolidated fold-
ed basement of various age and plate cover (some-
times with pre-plate complexes).
Tectonic map shows geological structures
formed as a result of interaction of two main types
of tectonic processes, deep mantle diapirism and
lithosphere plate tectonics. From the Russian part,
Russian Academy of Sciences and CGMW Subcom-
missions for Northern Eurasia and Tectonic maps
took an active part in map compilation.
Metallogenic map (fig. 9) reflects spatial-time
regularities of deposits formation in conditions of
two main types of tectonic processes show: 1. Ore
deposits of intraplate settings; 2. Deposits of ac-
tive- and passive marginal-continental geodynamic
settings. Tectonic map of Central Asia was used as
a special-purposed base for the metallogenic map.
Minerogenic map of energy resources (fig. 10)
contains information on distribution of coal- and
oil-and-gas bearing sedimentary basins, large and
unique deposits and local areas of coal- and oil-and-
gas accumulation in the project territory, reflecting
geodynamic types of productive sedimentary basins.
 INTERNATIONAL PROJECT

Fig. 7. Geological map of Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1: 2.5M (avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-
northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

Fig. 8. Tectonic map of Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1: 2.5M. The map was published in 2008 before the 33rd International Geological Congress (August 2008, Oslo, Nor-
way) (avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
 INTERNATIONAL PROJECT

Fig. 9. Metallogenic map of Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1: 2.5M (avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-
northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
 Fig. 10. Minerogenic map of energy resources in Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1: 2.5M
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

(avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 13

2. 3D GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
AND METALLOGENY OF NORTHERN, CENTRAL AND EASTERN ASIA (20082013)

The second stage of the project titled 3D Geo-
logical Structures and Metallogeny of Northern,
Central and Eastern Asia have started in 2008.
Mapped area was extended to the north and north-
east of Russia (to the border of the shelf) and to the
southern half of China to cover the Meso-Cenozoic
ore-bearing volcanic-plutonic belts of the Pacific
active continental margin. Geological map and Map
of energy resources (coordinator China), Tectonic
map and Metallogenic map (coordinator Russia)
are compiled for the extended project area.

2.1. Geological map of Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia in scale 1:2.5M

Authors: Li Tindong, Geng Shufang, Fan Benxian, Ding Xiaozhong,

Ju Yuanjing, Ye Dingheng, Liu Yanxue, Wang Liya, Deng Danyun,
Fu Derong, Wang Zhenyang, Liu Ping, Li Wei, Zhao Min, Han Kunying,
Wang Wei, Yao Peiyi (China), B. S. Uzhkenov, A. K. Mazurov
(Kazakhstan), B. C. Kim, J. H. Hwang, S. R. Lee (R. O. Korea),
O. Tomurtogoo, H. Gantumur, B. Zul, T. Minjinsor (Mongolia), O. V. Petrov,
E.A. Kiselev, A. N. Klushkin, V. I. Kolesnikov, O. A. Kondiaian,
I. M. Migovich N. A. Rumyanceva, S. P. Shokalsky, V. V. Starchenko,
S. I. Strelnikov, N. G. Vlasov, A. S. Volsky (Russia)

The compiled geological map is the first-of-its-
kind international geological map of Asia depicting
the geology of both the continent and offshore areas
(fig. 11). The map spans the main territory of Asia
and its peripherical regions from the Alps in the
west to the Mariana Trench in the east, and from
the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Java Trench in
the south.
It is an essential document for users to explore
the geology of Asia from a global perspective and a
helpful tool to understand the tectonic relationship
between the Asian continent and its neighbouring
continents and oceans. Asia is a composite conti-
nent consisting of three major cratons the Sibe-
rian, Indian and Arabian and three huge orogenic
belts including a number of minor cratons and mi-
crocontinents.
The main body of the Asian continent took its
shape during the Mesozoic. The orogenic belts be-
long respectively to three global tectonic domains:
the Paleo-Asian, Tethyan and Pacific. The small
cratons, such as Sino-Korea, Yangtze, Tarim, and
Sibumasu, are assumed to be related to the tectonic
transform zone between Gondwana and Siberia. Ini-
tially situated in the northern margin of Gondwana
before the disappearance of the Paleo-Asian Ocean,
these cratons, after the closing of the Paleo-Asian
Ocean and then the opening of the Tethys, were lo-
cated in the southern margin of Paleo-Asia. The fact
that ophiolites in Asia appear to get progressively
younger from north to south sheds some light on the
Phanerozoic evolutionary process of the dispersion
of Gondwana and the accretion of Asia accompa-
nied by a southward migration of its orogenic belts.
14 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

Fig. 11. Geological map of the Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia in scale 1: 2.5M (avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcoop-
eration/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 15

2.2. Tectonic map of Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia in scale 1: 2.5M

Editors-in-Chief: O. V. Petrov, Yu. G. Leonov (Russia), Li Tingdong (China), O. Tomurtogoo (Mongolia)
Authors: O. V. Petrov, S. P. Shokalsky, I. I. Pospelov, F. V. Zanin, G. A. Babin, S. Yu. Belyaev,
N. A. Berzin, A. N. Bulgatov, I. V. Gordienko, N. I. Gusev, A. I. Khanchuk, T. N. Kheraskova,
G. L. Kirillova, A. E. Kontorovich, V. N. Melnikov, V. N. Puchkov, N. A. Rumyantseva,
A. V. Ryazantsev, G. A. Shatkov, M. A. Shishkin, A. P. Smelov, S. D. Sokolov, V. S. Staroseltsev,
V. I. Shpikerman, I. N. Tikhomirov, hen inwei, Geng Shufang, Chen Tingyu, Ren Liudong,
V. Ya. Koshkin, B. S. Tsirelson, G. Dedjidmaa, . Tomurtogoo, Hwang Jae Ha,
Kim Bok Chul, Kee Weon-Seo, Kim Sung Won

Fig. 12. Tectonic map of the Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia in scale 1: 2.5M (available online on http://ccgm.org/en/maps/172-
tectonic-map-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-9785937612151.html, http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/internation-
al-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
16
The Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern
Asia and adjacent areas at 1: 2.5M scale (fig. 12)
was compiled by the A. P. Karpinsky Russian Geo-
logical Institute VSEGEI (CGMW Subcommis-
sion for Northern Eurasia) and the Geological In-
stitute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (GIN-
RAS), (CGMW Subcommission for Tectonic Maps)
in the framework of the International project 3D
Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern,
Central and Eastern Asia.
In this project, the Russian party (years 2007
2013) was represented by the Federal Agency on
Mineral Resources of the Ministry of Natural Re-
sources and Environment, VSEGEI, GIN-RAS
and geological institutes of the Siberian Branch
of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The geologi-
cal surveys of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and
the Republic of Korea were associated participants.
The compiled map of the Atlas covers the territory
of the Asian part of Russian (including Urals and
Pre-Uralian region), Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia,
Korean Peninsula and Central Asian republics Kyr-
gyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan.
The Explanatory Note of this map results from
10-years of international collaboration of geolo-
gists from six countries: Russia, China, Mongolia,
Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea and Democratic
Peoples Republic of Korea. In addition to the
above-mentioned states, the map also exhibits the
tectonic structure of a number of Central Asian
countries: Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan.
Structurally, the map covers three major Eur-
asian tectonic domains. The Central Asian (Ural-
Mongolian) mobile belt is the central structure of
the map. On the map, it covers such regions and
structures as the Urals, Kazakhstan, Tien Shan, Altai
and Sayan Mountains, Trans-Baikal region, Mongo-
lia, and overlying younger platforms and sedimen-
tary basins (West Siberian, Turan, Junggar, Amur-
Zeya, and partially Songliao). The Central Asian
mobile belt is located between the largest and most
ancient cratons of the Earth: East European, Sibe-
rian, North China (Sino-Korean), and Tarim. To the
south, the Central Asian mobile belt is constrained
by the Tethyan domain that includes structures of
the Pamirs, Kunlun, Tibet Himalayas and Indo-
china. The eastern Pacific domain encompasses the
following folded regions: Verkhoyansk Kolyma,
Chukotka Koryak, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and Sik-
hote Alin Mountains, as well as the Southeastern
Coastal fold zone of Southern China.
The Explanatory Note is greatly enhanced by
numerous new determinations of absolute age of
rocks, in particular old metamorphic complexes
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
from cratonic basements and magmatic complexes.
Special attention was paid to the age of ophio-
lites as a key to understanding the most important
stages in the crustal evolution and the Earth as a
whole.
The writing and editorial work of the Explana-
tory Note was carried out by a team that associ-
ated compilers, authors of the maps and, for a
large part, leading scientists and tectonic specialists
from institutes of the GIN-RAS: Institute of Geo-
logy of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, and
Geochemistry (IGEM RAS), Institute of Geology
(Ufimian Scientific Centre of the RAS), AN, Zava-
ritsky Institute of Geology and Geochemistry (Ural
Branch of the RAS), Geological Institute (Siberian
Branch of the RAS). It is worth to mention Chapter
16 Tectonic evolution of the Ural-Mongolian mo-
bile belt during the Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic for
the successive paleogeographic reconstitutions and
conclusions it presents in this note.
The compilation of the Tectonic map of North-
ern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas at the
scale of 1:2M, as well as the other maps of the
3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of
Northern, Central and Eastern Asia can be con-
sidered as the first major international experience
for the generalization of integrated geological data
and a successful example of cooperation of experts
from different countries whose knowledge and re-
search potential brought about increasing contacts
in the geoscience community and innovative car-
tographic products.
Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia
and adjacent areas reflects the current state of
knowledge about tectonics of this vast area.
Legend for the Tectonic map of Northern-Cen-
tral-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas practically is
the broadened legend to the tectonic map of Central
Asia and adjacent areas published in 2008 as the
map of the Atlas of Geological maps of Central
Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1:2.5M [Tectonic
Map, 2008].
Fundamental principle of the legend to the Tec-
tonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and
adjacent areas appeared in the legend to the 3rd
edition of the International Tectonic map of Europe
[International Tectonic Map, 1996]. In it, the
legend for the first time was presented tabular which
has shown the sequence of tectonic events in the
geological history of the European continent and the
main stages of formations of the sedimentary covers
and sedimentary basins on ancient (Archean-Proter-
ozoic) and young (Paleozoic-Mesozoic) crystalline
and folded basements. The periods of ophiolite and
ophiolite structure originations, stages of continen-
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
Fig. 13. Informational block of the legend to the Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia
tal riftogenesis, fold deformations in the structures
of for-deep and intra-mountainous depressions and
basins etc. corresponded to this sequence of tec-
tonic events. That legend was created for tectonic
map at scale 1:5M and reflected not only the main
stages of origination and deformation of the earths
crust (continental, transitional or oceanic) but also
the principal rock assemblages (sedimentary, volca-
nogenic, and intrusive) of different paleodynamic
settings.
The same principle of composition was built into
legend of the started in 2000 International Tectonic
map of Asia at scale 1:5M as the project of the
17
Commission for the Geological map of the World
(CGMW). For this legend, the consecutive row of
tectonic events was increased, their geochronologi-
cal correlations, tectonic events exclusive for South
and East Asia (Indosinian and Yanshanian tectonic
ones) were added.
Legend to the International Tectonic map of Asia
at scale 1:5M was directly used in the Tectonicmap
of Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1:2.5M.
Without changing the principles of legend creation,
the maps executive editors and editors-in-chief had
to supplement it considerably with some new parts
and symbols pursuant to the following conditions.
18
1. Considerable changing of the scale gave in
detail the image data in the map, tectonic bodies
with different rock assemblages. The legend for the
following blocks was added:
Rock assemblages of paleooceanic crust,
Volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rock assem-
blages of continental and transitional crust,
Sedimentary rock assemblages of continental
and transitional crust,
Metamorphic rock assemblages,
Mafic, ultramafic and alkaline rock assem-
blages,
Granite assemblages.
2. There appeared the possibility to show in the
map the tectonic nappes and thrusts formed by both
rocks of basement and sedimentary cover, or only
by sedimentary cover. Great importance was at-
tached to ophiolitic allochtons.
3. Considerable extension of legend is explained
by the destination of Tectonic map in the Atlas. It
reflected not only the composition of consolidated
crust and sedimentary layer but was also planned
as a base map for the Metallogenic map. Therefore,
it was very important to show in the Tectonic map
a great diversity of rock associations with different
mineragenic orientation. This makes clear not only
the wide spectrum of volcanic, volcano-sedimenta-
ry, intrusive rocks (including different granitoids).
The authors were compelled to include into legend a
large group of non-scale symbols (first of all, for in-
trusive complexes). In contrast to non-scale symbols
for glaucophane schist (blueschist) and eclogite, the
non-scale symbols for magmatic rock do not carry
the tectonic information.
Legend to the Tectonic map of Northern-Central-
Eastern Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1: 2.5M has
underdone the insignificant changes in connection
with broadening of map territory and including
into map the new structural elements which did not
come into previous tectonic map of 2008.
Informational block of legend (fig. 13) in-
cludes the sequence of tectonic events com-
bined into tectonic cycles: Pre-Riphean, Riphe-
an-Cadomian, Caledonian, Variscan, Kimmerian,
Alpine-Himalayan. Pre-Caledonian part of tecto-
nic events shows the correlation of Russian and
Chinese geochronological subdivisions and corre-
sponding tectonic events. This scheme appeared
as a result of cooperative investigations of the
authors of the Atlas in the Pre-Uralian part of
the East-European Platform in Russia and North
China (Sino-Korean) and Yangtze platforms in
China in 20052007. Therefore, for convenience
of the Tectonic map users, the authors have kept
the traditional Russian and Chinese stratigraphic
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
(geochronological) subdivisions and names of im-
portant tectonic events.
Tectonic events in informational block corre-
spond to the following reorganizations of the Earths
crust: age of cratonization (mainly in the Archaean-
Proterozoic), age of crust consolidation (metamor-
phism, magmatism, and deformations), time of fold-
thrust deformations (both in fold-thrust belts, and in
sedimentary covers), and time of remobilization and
destruction of the crust (continental riftogenesis,
thermal-magmatic and structural reworking).
Column Ages of tectonic units includes the
color spectrum for all tectonic bodies reflected in
the tectonic map and indexes for their designation.
Column Platform cover shows the diversity
of sedimentary covers of the ancient and young
platforms (and sedimentary basins) in dependence
from the age of the lowermost rocks in sedimentary
succession. By this indicator (time of the beginning
of sedimentation) all sedimentary covers are divided
into the following groups:
Riphean Early Vendian (for North China Plat-
form this sedimentary complex starts earlier that the
Early Riphean with accumulation of Changcheng
Fm. with the age of basal layers of 1800 , while
in the Bashkir anticlinorium in the Cis-Urals part of
the East European Platform, since 1600 );
Late Vendian Early Paleozoic. These sedi-
mentary complexes started to form during interval
of the Late Vendian (in China from Sinian) Cam-
brian;
Late Paleozoic beginning of sedimentary
covers formation in the Early Middle Devonian,
corresponds to origination of the epi-Caledonian
platforms.
Late Permian Triassic. In that time the largest
epi-Variscan platforms started to form; among them
Turan young platform, West Siberian sedimentary
basin and others.
Jurassic. Origination of such sedimentary ba-
sins as Songliao, Huabei in China.
Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous.
Paleogene Neogene. Numerous intra-moun-
tainous and fore-deep depressions are mostly situ-
ated in South Eurasia and along the Pacific active
continental margins; their origination depended on
the active Cenozoic tectonics. Sedimentary covers
of this age continue to accumulate along the Arctic
Ocean coast.
Block Rock assemblages of paleooceanic crust
includes the standard complex of symbols for des-
ignation both preserved successions of paleooceanic
crust (ophiolite with preserved sequence) and dis-
membered ophiolite (ultramafic protrusions etc.),
the outcrops of which occur more frequent than
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
ophiolitic successions. Symbol ophiolitic mlange
(serpertinite mlange) is more widespread because
namely mlanges accompany the majority of col-
lisional and accretionary structures formed at the
places of paleooceanic basin and marginal seas.
The symbol Basalt-carbonate cover of intraoce-
anic seamounts is used much rarely because
these paleostructures very rarely remain in the fold-
thrust belts and areas (the examples are known in
the Mongol-Okhotsk belt of the Central Mongolia
and in some ophiolite sutures of Kunlun Mts. and
Tibetan Plateau).
Volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rock assem-
blages of continental and transitional crust. This
block mostly includes the symbols for widespread
volcanic associations; among them there are recent
complexes and paleoanalogues: rock assemblages of
ensimatic and ensialic island arcs, active Andean-
type continental margins, and also assemblages of
marginal seas and intra-arc basins. Special place in
the legend belongs to volcanic complexes associated
with destruction of the crust: rift and riftogenous
structures, hot spots, basaltic floods etc.
Sedimentary rock assemblages of continental
and transitional crust. This part of legend reflects
the variety of sedimentary rock assemblages of pas-
sive continental margins (with separated troughs in
limits of continental slope), marginal seas. Molasses
are represented by marine, continental (including
coal-bearing) and volcanogenic types. Special note
is given to platform sedimentary covers (cratons
occupy the largest part of the tectonic map) and
adjoining passive margins (including shelves): car-
bonate, and terrigenous-carbonate, terrigenous, car-
bonate-turbidite (calcarenite, calcilutite and others)
rock assemblages. For intracontinental basins the
following rock assemblages are determined: tuff-
turbidite for rift basins and terrigenous (sometimes
coal-bearing) for overlapping basins. Symbol non-
lithified marine sediments is mainly used for the
Cenozoic sediments of the Arctic and Pacific coasts.
Metamorphic rock assemblages. Here the main
accent is made at three principal facies of meta-
morphism (granulite, amphibolite, and green-schist
facies). As metamorphic rocks of ultrahigh pressure
(eclogite) or low-temperature (blueschists) have a
huge geotectonic importance, they are shown by
non-scale symbols.
Separate symbol group shows the metamorphic
degree in collisional belts and sutures. Symbol of
the Precambrian greenstone and granite-greenstone
belts intends for basements of cratons.
Mafic, ultramafic and alkaline rock assemblages.
This group of symbols is created especially for
reflecting mineragenic orientation of mafic, ultra-
19
mafic, and alkaline rocks, some of them have wide-
spread distribution (for example, Platinum-bearing
belt of the Urals, see Chapter 4), or peridotite-gab-
bro differentiated massifs like Norilsk one. Also the
anorthosite plutons and kimberlite pipes are shown
in the map for the cratons.
Granitoid assemblages. This group of symbols
unites granitoids of all most important paleodynam-
ic settings of their formation. We determined among
them: plagiogranites of ensimatic island arcs, gran-
ites of ensialic island arcs and volcano-plutonic
belts, wide variety of granites of collisional belts,
syntectonic granites of shear zones. Also granites
with specific mineralization (scale and non-scale
symbols) are presented in the legend. Rapakivi, grey
gneisses and tonalite-trondhjemite gneisses (TTG
complex) are shown as unique granitoides for the
basements of cratons.
Mixtite and tectonic rock assemblages. Com-
plexes of the accretionary prisms are very wide-
spread in the fold-thrust belts and sutures, especially
in the Phanerozoic ones. Olistostromes are typical
of rock assemblages underlying tectonic allochtons,
overthusts, nappes. Olistostromes are very often
presented in the fore-deep basin complexes and are
the elements of continental molasses.
Mylonites and blastomylonites in some outcrops
have enough width to be shown as lengthy shear
zones (Irtysh shear zone, several zones of the Ana-
bar Shield).
Structural and metamorphic reworking of rock
assemblages. Structural and metamorphic (or ther-
mal-magmatic) reworking of ancient rock assem-
blages results in progressive (with intensive mag-
matism) or regressive (without magmatic events)
changes of older complexes. In the map, the time
of reworking is shown by the color of the strongest
changing (with recombination and origination of
new metamorphic mineral association), or the time
of the latest reorganization (in case of retrograde
metamorphism).
Zones of superimposed structural reworking in-
volve substantially the pre-mountainous parts of
the fore-deep depressions and basins. The best ex-
amples are represented by the folded sedimentary
cover of Tajik block, pre-Kopet Dagh depression,
Kalpin fold-thrust system in the north of Tarim Ba-
sin and numerous others.
Faults. This block of legend includes practically
all types of faults (with the exception of tectonic
nappes) which are needed to explain the structural
features of both consolidated crust and deformed
sedimentary covers, basin sedimentary complexes.
Nappe boundaries. Among nappe boundaries,
three main types are distinguished: involving only
20
sedimentary cover (thin-skinned tectonics), involv-
ing both fragments of the basement and sedimentary
cover rocks (thick-skinned tectonics), ophiolitic al-
lochtons. In the map, the most famous ophiolitic
allochtons such as West Uralian are shown (see
Chapter 4): Sarmara, Kraka (southern part of the
Urals), and Polar Uralian allochtonous mafic-ultra-
mafic massifs.
Mesozoic complexes of cordillera-type metamor-
phic cores and elements. Here, the typical faults as
listric and detachment displacements are shown.
For the Mesozoic metamorphic cores authors have
included the special scale symbol.
Other elements. This block of legend mostly
consists of widespread symbols usually used in tec-
tonic maps. But it contains such specific symbols as
Boundaries of fold regional elements for the areas
with removed sedimentary cover and Boundary
of craton. The first of them shows the position
of front of overthrusting (or detachment displace-
ments) along the areas between platform and its
cover (or sedimentary basin), on the one hand, and
younger fold-thrust belt, on another one.
Tectonic zoning
Being a part of the Tectonic map of Northern-
Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent area, the terri-
tory of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia, by the
tectonic essence, represents a compound ensemble
of tectonic structures of different age and origin
(fig. 14). This ensemble includes ancient cratons
(Siberian, East European, Sino-Korean, or North
China), massifs and blocks with thick continen-
tal crust of different age (Cathasian blocks, Yang-
tze Platform, Paleo-Gondwanaland blocks of Ti-
bet and Pamirs, Himalaya, Tarim-Tajik Platform)
and blocks of unidentified origin (basement of the
Junggar Basin, Qaidam, Hami-Turpan, Fergana
depressions etc.).
Central position of the map belongs to the Cen-
tral Asian fold belt (in Russian part to the Ural-
Mongolian mobile belt), originated as a result of
long-time (more than 400 Ma) evolution at the
place of the Paleoasian Ocean as a part of the Pale-
opacific Ocean. During evolution of the Paleoasian
Ocean, accretion processes prevailed over others
when isolated cratons (paleocontinents) accreted
by paleooceanic, paleo-island arc and others com-
plexes, joined to the paleocontinent margins by the
processes of subduction or obduction. Simultane-
ously, separated blocks with continental type of
crust (microcontinents) of different origination were
accreted Paleo-Siberian, Cathasian, Laurentian
and others.
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
Ultima analysi, originated structure at the place
of the Paleoasian Ocean acquired the features of a
mosaic structure which is characteristic of accre-
tionary type (or Pacific style) of the Earths crust
evolution.
Linearity of the accretionary complexes of the
Urals is conditioned, first of all, by the structural
homogeneity of the continental margin of the East
European craton, to which paleooceanic, paleo-is-
land arc complexes and isolated microcontinents
(such as East Uralian block) have been accreted.
In tectonic plan, accretionary and obduction
complexes of the Urals are similar to those of
the Eastern Appalachians on the structurally ho-
mogenous margin of the North American craton.
It is quite interesting because Appalachian struc-
tures have been formed along the Iapetus boundary
which was a direct prolongation of the Paleoasian
Ocean.
Repeated processes of accretion and destruction
in the internal parts of the Paleoasian Ocean (in the
modern structure in the central part of the Central
Asian fold belt), presence of numerous continental
blocks with different sizes (microcontinents), re-
peated redistribution of the structures and fragments
of new-formed crust have determined the mosaic
structures of Kazakhstan, Altay-Sayan mountain
area, Northern Mongolia and other regions.
Peculiarities of mosaic structure of the Central
Asian fold belt are demonstrated in the Tectonic
map. Structures of Kazakhstan, Altay-Sayan area,
and Northern Mongolia are represented as agglom-
erate of blocks (or collage of terranes), differing by
the age and origination. Age of these blocks (Bai-
kalian, Early and Late Caledonian, Early Variscan
are predominant) is shown by color. Therefore, the
largest regional structures look like color mosa-
ics. Different specks of rock assemblages explain
their paleodynamic or structural-material properties
(oceanic and marginal sea complexes, island arc and
intra-arc volcanic and volcano-sedimentary asso-
ciation; blocks with mature, granite-gneiss, or with
newly-formed, granite-metamorphic, crust). Multi-
phase, expanded in time magmatism, especially gra-
nitic, in a greater degree emphasizes the structural
mosaicity, considerable duration of the consolidated
crust formation, complex processes of accretion and
often differently directed collision.
Pacific style of evolution when the new su-
percontinents emerged (such as Northern Eurasia
after closure of the Paleoasian Ocean in the Late
Paleozoic) was changed by Indo-Atlantic style. Pro-
cesses of non-linear geodynamics were superseded
by linear processes which are the constituent parts
of standard Wilsons Cycle. Cycle includes the
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 21

Fig. 14. Map of tectonic zoning of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia (inset map to the Tectonic map of Northern-Central-
Eastern Asia and adjacent areas, 1: 2.5M)
22
following successive evolutional stages: continen-
tal rifting; spreading increase of neogenic ocean;
its reduction with formation of ensimatic volcanic
arc and marginal sea (or of the Andean-type active
continental margin with volcanic belt); continental
collision with a widespread formation of collision
granite intrusions and batholiths. One of the most
important features of the Indo-Atlantic structures is
the presence of narrow and lengthy ophiolite zones
and sutures. They include, as a rule, metamorphosed
paleooceanic and intra-oceanic (island arc and mar-
ginal sea) complexes, supra-subduction ophiolites
and ophiolitic mlanges.
Linear structures (and sutures) are typical, first of
all, for the Tethyan domain of the Central Asia, i.e.
from the Paleotethys ophiolite zone of the Northern
Pamirs Kunlun Qinling Dabeishan in the north
and southward in the Pamirs Tibetan Himalayan
part of the Tectonic map. These narrow and lengthy
(on tectonic map more than 3000 km) zones are
controlled by outcrops of ophiolitic (serpentinite)
mlange and neighboring belts of supra-subduction
and collision granitoid intrusions. The seismo-active
strike-slips are situated in the recent structures along
zones and sutures, as the most rheologically un-
stable structures.
Mongol-Okhotsk linear belt is one of the best
representatives of changing of the Pacific accre-
tionary style of crustal tectonic evolution by the
Indo-Atlantic collision one. It seems to us that this
tendency is the general regularity of the Earths evo-
lution when supercontinents combined due to accre-
tion processes start to break-up with formation of
paleooceans of the Atlantic type. Origination of the
Mongol-Okhotsk paleoocean (the same of the South
Anyui Paleoocean) took place as the result of rifting
of heterogeneous consolidated crust including both
the ancient blocks with thick continental crust and
relatively thin and weakly consolidated accretionary
systems of paleooceanic complexes. This rifting and
later collision in conditions of heterogeneous crust
determined the peculiarity of collision and post-
collision magmatism of the Mongol-Okhotsk belt,
specificity of geochemistry and, as consequence,
variety of different ore deposits.
Carrying out analysis of the tectonic composition
of the Central Asian fold belt we separate in the
map the following main structures:
cratons,
fold belts,
sedimentary basins.
Cratons in the Russian part of the map are
represented by the largest continental blocks: East
European and Siberian platforms. The most ancient
continental crust has a more widespread distribution
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
than their shield and platform parts. For example,
the largest part of Siberian craton is covered by
complexes of peri-continental marginal basins (in
Mesozoides of Northeast Russia) or by the Meso-
zoic volcanogenic rocks of the Pacific (Okhotsk-
Chukotka) volcanic belt.
Formation of the continental crust in both cra-
tons had finished at the end of the Paleoprotero-
zoic and, since the Riphean (Mesoproterozoic) the
platform regime was settled. Siberian Craton in
the Riphean (since Mesoproterozoic) was a very
stable structure and the Riphean (Mesoproterozoic)
sediments are distributed practically on the whole
territory of the platform. In the East European Plat-
form, the Riphean (beginning from the Mesopro-
terozoic) is represented by aulacogens piftogeneous
facies; cover sediments, beginning from the Vendian
(Ediacaran), are widespread everywhere. We regard
both platforms as structures with consolidated crust
formed to the beginning of the Mesoproterozoic.
Fold belts of different age in Northern, Central
and Eastern Asia include in their structures both
neogenic consolidated crust which was formed in
the process of evolution of paleooceanic structures
and blocks with ancient continental crust, which were
involved during the process of new consolidated
crust formation. These blocks underwent younger
granitic magmatism and metamorphism practically
synchronous with the accretion-collision processes
in the fold belt. Therefore, we do not show them
in the scheme of tectonic zoning but describe in
the chapters of Explanatory Note devoted to the
separated tectonic structures (fold belts and areas) or
regional territories. For neogenic consolidated crust
the most important complexes-indicators reflected in
the map are: a) paleooceanic crust with different parts
of ophiolite succession or mlange; b) sedimentary-
volcanogenic and magmatic assemblages of transi-
tional (island arc) stage and c) complexes-indicators
of final formation of the consolidated crust (granitic
intrusions and batholiths) and molasses. Exactly the
latter distributes all fold structures of Northern, Cen-
tral and Eastern Asia by the age of consolidated crust.
Summing all geological data which are available to
the present time, we determine the following struc-
tures with consolidated crust among fold belts in the
Russian and adjacent parts of the Tectonic map of
Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas,
which formed:
to the end of the Neoproterozoic (Timan and
Yenisei ridge);
to the middle of the Devonian (Altay-Say-
an and Sayan-Baikal mountain areas, Kazakhstan,
Northern Tien Shan, Altun Qilian Northern
Qinling and others);
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
to the end of the Carboniferous Early Perm-
ian (East Urals, Ob-Zaisan fold area, Southern Tien
Shan, Central Kazakhstan and Junggar-Balkhash
fold area, western part of the Mongol-Okhotsk fold
belt and others);
to the Middle Late Triassic (Northern Pamirs,
Kunlun ophiolite zones, Beishan Solonker belt
and others);
to the beginning of the Cretacous (Oloy fold
zone and South Anyui ophiolite zone, Sikhote-Alin);
to the end of the Late Cretaceous (Koryak
fold-thrust belt);
in the Cenozoic (Kamchatka and Sakhalin).
We excellently understand that consolidated
crust of the most above mentioned fold structures
formed during enough long time and went through
several phases. The best indicator showing the fi-
nal formation of consolidated crust is the time of
sedimentation starting and formation of sedimentary
covers of young platforms and sedimentary basins.
Sedimentary basins principally distinguish form
the sedimentary covers of platforms by their struc-
ture and evolution style. If in the history of plat-
form evolution their cover in lateral direction was
changed by shelf and slope facies of the surround-
ing paleooceans, then the sedimentary basin, as a
rule, originated in the interior of fold or orogenic
structures framing. This determined the properties
of internal structure and sedimentation in basins.
For the sedimentary basin the following features
are predominant: heterogeneous and different-aged
separated blocks of the basement, its relative tec-
tonic instability; considerable and huge thicknesses
in the central part of the basin; mainly terrigenous
character of sediments; sometimes internal tectonic
reconstruction in the sedimentary basin.
23
Thus, in the West Siberian Basin, since the
Late Triassic, the sedimentary successions formed,
the thickness of which exceeded the long-time ac-
cumulated cover of the adjacent East European and
Siberian platforms. Heterogeneous basement of the
West Siberian Basin (see Chapter 5) includes the
pre-Riphean (i.e. pre-Mesoproterozoic) continental
crust of the Siberian Craton, Caledonian consoli-
dated crust of Northern Kazakhstan, Variscan accre-
tionary consolidated crust of the East Uralian zone
and Ob-Zaisan fold area. This does not rule out
that such heterogeneity and tectonic activity along
boundaries of rheologically different blocks deter-
mined the conditions of sedimentation in the basins.
Considerable internal reorganization of the ba-
sin in the process of its evolution is peculiar only
of the Mesozoic basins in the northeast and east of
China: Songliao (at the Early and Late Cretaceous
boundary) and Huabei (at the Paleogene and Neo-
gene boundary). It was connected with the Yansha-
nian movements in the limits of North China (Sino-
Korean) Platform and continuing collision between
North China (Sino-Korean) and Yangtze platforms.
Turan Basin (or plate) represents an exception
from the above mentioned examples, and it is the
epi-Variscan young platform. Deformations in its
basement and cover are caused by continuing col-
lision of the Arabian Plate with the south of Eur-
asia and connected with simultaneous origination
of tectonic structure and growth of the Kopet Dagh
Mountain Ridge.
In the Russian part of the map, the main basins
are West Siberian and Amur-Zeya ones, and in
Chinese part Songliao, Huabei, Sichuan, Junggar,
Hami-Turpan and Qaidam basins.
24 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

2.3. Metallogenic map of Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia in scale 1: 2.5M

Editors-in-Chief: O. V. Petrov, A. F. Morozov, E. A. Kiselev, S. P. Shokalsky (Russia),

Dong Shuwen (China), O. Chuluun, O. Tomurtogoo (Mongolia), B. Uzhkenov,
M. Sayduakasov (Kazakhstan), Hwang Jae Hae, Kim Bok Chul (Republic of Korea).
Authors: G. A. Shatkov, E. M. Pinsky, N. S. Solovyev, V. P. Feoktistov, V. V. Shatov,
L. D. Rucheikova, V. A. Guschina, Yu. B. Mironov, . V. Molchanov, V. L. Masaytis,
V. V. Puring, L. I. Krasny, . S. Volsky, B. A. Blyuman, . E. Sobolev, N. I. Gusev,
V. A. Shamakhov, V. A. Stromov, V. F. Proskurnin, V. I. Shpikerman, V. V. Firsov,
S. I. Strelnikov (Russia), Chen Tingyu, Geng Shufang, Dong Shuwen, hen inwei,
Hao Meiying, Huang Dianhao, Song Tianrui, Sheng Jifu, Zhu Guanxiang, Yan Keming,
Min Longrui, Jin Ruogu, Liu Ping, Fan Benxian, Ju Yuanjing, Wang Zhenyang,
Han Kunying, Wang Liya (China), G. Dedjidmaa, . Tomurtogoo, . Delgertsogt,
Ts. Enkhbat (Mongolia), Kim Bok Chul, Hwang Jae Ha (Republic of Korea);
A. L. Kiselev, . A. Fedorenko, L. A. Miroshnichenko, D. V. Gurevich (Kazakhstan)

Metallogenic map of Northern-Central-Eastern agricultural materials, mining chemical and indus-

Asia in scale 1:2.5M (fig. 15) compiled under the
international project of five countries (Russia, Chi-
na, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan)
is tectonic and geological maps of the Atlas at 1:2.5
scale.
Geological base of the map enables objective
imaging of genetic and paragenetic associations of
mineralization with geological structural-material
complexes, such as the areas of small granite in-
trusions, dyke and volcanic pipe belts, including
kimberlites. Paleovolcanic structures controlling the
placement of uranium, tin, gold etc. deposits are
shown where necessary. Special attention is given
to the analysis of specific mineralization epochs.
We analyze the geodynamic settings associated with
different deposit types. These and other factors of
metallogenic analysis are reflected in the legend
to the Metallogenic map and in the diagrams in its
marginal parts.
Database (catalogue) of mineral deposits
Each deposit has up to 23 characteristics (fig. 16).
Major among them: name of the deposit, country,
administrative reference, geographic coordinates,
referencing to sheets at 1:1M scale, group of mi-
nerals, main and accompanying minerals, genetic
and geological commercial type, field size (large,
medium, small), ore quality (rich, ordinary, poor),
age of deposit, referencing to metallogenic zoning
targets. A total of 7081 deposits are characterized.
These include 88 kinds of minerals. They are as-
signed to 11 groups of fields with a different colour
in the map. These are ferrous, non-ferrous and rare
metals, rare and rare-earth elements, uranium, noble
metals, diamonds, precious and ornamental stones,
trial raw materials, optical materials, salts. Deposits
are referred to 23 formation-genetic groups, which
have a certain character shape in the map. Genetic
characterization is complemented by information on
the target relationship with one of the 223 geologi-
cal and commercial types of deposits, which are in
the form of tables. Deposit margins were agreed.
They enable clear attribution to the categories of
large, medium and small, often without giving exact
figures of reserves. The analysis of this information
allows metallogenic potential assessment of both
metallogenic zoning targets and certain minerals.
Except for clear typification of field sizes, special
attention was given to analysis of the mineral raw
material quality. This is reflected in the database
and in the map.
It should be noted that 7081 mineral deposits
shown in the map (fig. 17) are owned by ten states.
We emphasize that 2966 fields, including 569 large
ones are in Russia; 1782 fields, of which 362 are
large, are shown in China.
The following metallogenic units are distin-
guished.
Planetary metallogenic belt is a global zoning
unit corresponding to planetary mobile belts over 5
million km2 in area.
Metallogenic superprovince is a group of geo-
dynamically and metallogenically interconnected
provinces characterized by conjugation of the ma-
jor mineralization epochs. These are the Ural-Tien
Shan, Mongol-Okhotsk and other superprovinces,
27 in all (fig. 1). Area of superprovinces is 0.51.5
million km2.
Metallogenic provinces are the main targets
in the regional metallogenic analysis. They cover
large, geodynamically isolated parts of superprov-
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 25

Fig. 15. Metallogenic map of the Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia in scale 1: 2.5M (avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcoop-
eration/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

Fig. 16. Structure of metallogenic zoning

INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
Fig. 17. Map accounted for 7081 mineral deposits in different countries
inces. As a rule, they are limited by large boundary
faults. Area of provinces is 25105 km2. A total of
90 provinces are in the map.
Metallogenic areas or metallogenic zones are
large parts of provinces. They are allocated based
on significant structural and material heterogene-
ities in composition and differences in metallo-
genic specialization. Area of metallogenic zones is
510104 km2. 231 units of this rank are allocated.
Ore region or ore zone is a local productive
part of metallogenic area. Major geological prereq-
uisites for the allocation of ore regions are struc-
turally linked ore knot associations. Area of ore
27
regions and zones is 13103 km2 (linear zones up
to 100 km). A total of 650 ore regions and ore zones
are shown in the map.
Ore knot is a site concentrating ore deposits both
within ore regions and outside of them. It is assumed
that ore knot is a unitary (elementary) ore-forming
system. It contains in its depths one or more com-
mercial fields. Ore knot area is 28102 km2. 1200
ore knots are shown in the map.
All metallogenic zoning targets contain informa-
tion on the composition (specialization), age (metal-
logenic epoch), and extent of mineralization (metal-
logenic potential).
28
Scheme of metallogenic province and region
specialization shows that the majority of provin-
ces are heterogeneous in composition of minerals.
Continental margin of the Pacific is characterized
by province specialization for tin, tungsten (SC),
tin and base metals (SA), gold, non-ferrous and
rare metals (OKH). Mongol-Okhotsk superprovince
(MO) is specialized for gold, uranium, rare and non-
ferrous metals. Relatively common are the com-
bination of ferrous metal with non-ferrous metal
deposits (Ural-U, North China YWQ, GH etc.).
An important result of the work on the me-
tallogenic map and its explanatory note are age
determination of deposits and analysis of 11 mi-
neralization epochs and their manifestation in the
map area. Analysis of the available data shows that
many metallogenic provinces are polychronous, i.e.
mineralization took place in them in several stages.
Permian-Triassic age of deposits in Central Kaza-
khstan, Middle and South Tien Shan, Rudny Altai,
iron skarn deposits in South Siberian Platform is
clearly manifested. To the east of Baikal, the pro-
portion of deposits related to the Late Mesozoic
mineralization increases dramatically.
Various mineralization epochs are manifested dif-
ferently on platforms and mobile belts. In the North
China paraplatform, YWQ and JL-NK provinces are
characterized by polichronous iron, copper, nickel
and gold deposits, and by diversity of their genetic
types. For example, iron deposits are metamorpho-
genic ferruginous quartzite (AR), skarnified ferrugi-
nous quartzite (PP1), and magnetite skarn (NP, PZ23,
J3K1). In general, polichronous mineral deposits are
typical of all the ancient platforms.
A different pattern is observed in fold-and-thrust
systems of the Mongol-Okhotsk superprovince. It
is dominated by deposits related to J23 and J3K1.
Ore knots belonging to earlier mineralization epochs
are preserved in the form of small islands (i.e.
Ozerny ore knot with polymetallic mineralization
PZ1PZ2). In general, eastern margin of the map is
characterized by the Mesozoic mineralization.
Metallogenic potential evaluation
Metallogenic provinces vary widely in deposit
distribution density, and, respectively, ore regions
and ore knots. This makes it possible to classify 90
metallogenic provinces shown in the map according
to the metallogenic potential features (fig. 18, 19).
Based on the parameters of each province area,
total number of fields, quantity of large deposits and
presence of unique high-value objects four groups
of provinces are identified: unique, large, ordinary,
and poor, including poorly studied.
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
Unique metallogenic provinces include the
Uralian, Yanshan-Wutai-Lesser-Qin Ling (North
China), South China, Kerulen-Argun, Liaodong-
North Korea, Aldan-East Stanovoy, Baikal and
others. Unique deposits are located in these pro-
vinces: Almaz-Zhemchuzhina (Cr), Bazenovskoe
(asb), Berezovskoe (Au), Bayan Obo (TR), Dailin
(W), Sihuashan (W), Xian Hualien (Sn), Strelt-
sovskaya group (U), Udokan (Cu), Katuginskoe
(Ta, Nb), Elkon group (U), Komdok (Zn), Anshan
(Fe), Kholodninskoe (Zn, Pb), Sukhoi Log (Au),
and many others. These provinces are character-
ized by a wide ore-geochemical spectrum of min-
eral deposits: siderophilic-chalcophilic in the Urals,
lithophilic-chalco-siderophilic in North China, es-
sentially lithophilic in South China, Transbaikalia,
and East Mongolia.
This category includes provinces and areas with
large reserves of valuable minerals (Au, U, dia-
monds, Cu, Ni, Pt, W, Sn, Hg etc.). For example,
Chu-Syrdarya (U), Kyzylkum (Au Muruntau, U
Uchkuduk), Alakit-Olenek (diamonds Aikhal, Zar-
nitsa), Norilsk (Ni, Cu, Pt Talnakh), and South
Gobi (Au-Cu-porphyry Oyu-Tolgoi) etc.
The second group comprises 24 metallogenic
provinces with fewer large deposits, compared
with the first group. On the number of large fields,
Mongol-Transbaikalia, Selenga-Oldoy, Bureya-Jia-
musi-Khanka, and Sikhote-Alin provinces are dis-
tinguished here. A set of minerals in this group of
provinces is also quite large, but still in some cases
inferior to the first group. These provinces also
possess unique deposits: Kalmakyr (Cu, Mo) in the
Middle Tien Shan province, Dzhezkazgan (Cu) in
the Kokshetau-Ulutau province, Olimpiada (Au) in
the Yenisei Ridge province, Zamarskoe (Au) in the
Mongol-Okhotsk province, Dalnegorskoe (B) in the
Sikhote-Alin province etc.
The third group, numbering 26 metallogenic
provinces and noticeably inferior in ore and espe-
cially in the number of large and unique fields to
the first two groups, also has a significant metal-
logenic potential. It contains large copper porphyry
and tungsten deposits in the Balkhash area, Carlin
type gold deposits in the Sunpan-Hansa province,
a unique copper-nickel deposit Jinchuan in Ordos-
Alashan province, as well as abundant metallogenic
potential in South Korea (LUMC) and other mine-
rals, particularly salts in West China and the Rus-
sian Fore-Urals provinces.
The fourth group (24 sites) mostly contains
closed relatively poorly studied metallogenic
provinces of Western and Eastern Siberia (Taimyr-
Severnaya Zemlya, Yenisei-Khatanga, etc.), Tarim
and Turan platforms, Tibet, Himalayas, etc.
 INTERNATIONAL PROJECT

Fig. 18. Map of metallogenic specialization of provinces and areas

30 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

Fig. 19. Metallogenic provinces and regions in terms of metallogenic potential

1 unique, 2 highly, 3 medium, 4 poor and poorly studied
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
Comprehensive metallogenic analysis of the area
outlined new patterns in the ore deposit distribution
in the border areas of Russia and China, Mongolia,
Kazakhstan. Extensive cross-border ore concentra-
ting metallogenic zones, longitudinal and transverse
with respect to the Mongol-Okhotsk suture tectonic
zone are revealed; they concentrate almost all major
commercial meso- and epithermal mainly Mesozoic
deposits of gold, molybdenum, uranium, fluorite
(Genhe-Anikino, Darasun-Streltsovo, Onon-Choy-
balsan). These zones, along with well-known large
deposits, accommodate a number of prospects in the
light of the revealed laws requiring further study.
Some specific areas can be recommended for
prediction based on the research. Junction (interfe-
rence) zones of the Mongol-Okhotsk and Central
Asian mobile belts with the Pacific planetary belt
can be very promising for investigations within
the Sikhote-Alin metallogenic province. This con-
cerns identified in our map two continent-ocean
transition zones. It highlights a series of subparallel
metallogenic zones with characteristic large depo-
sits: Bhajal-Yam-Alin (tin Pravourmiyskoe, Fes-
tivalnoe, etc.), Central Sikhote-Alin (W Vostok 2,
Lermontovskoe), Primorskaya (tin Arsenyevoe,
Furmanovskoe etc.), Pribrezhnaya (gold Mnogo-
vershinnoe, boron Dalnegorskoe, lead-zinc
Nikolaevskoe (Tetyuhe). However, the origin of
31
these zones is insufficiently studied, and their metal-
logenic potential is probably not yet exhausted.
Recommendations by the Mongolian geologists
on individual parts of the Mongol-Okhotsk super-
province are noteworthy. In the Khentei-Dauria
area, these are Au in Zamarsky ore region, W in
Ikh-Khairkhan ore cluster. In the Central Mongolia
province, Cu-Mo (Erdenet geological and commer-
cial type); in Kerulen area, U (Streltsovo type
Gurvan Bulag, Dornot), Pb-Zn (Ulanskoe type
Ulanskoe, Tzav), fluorite (Borunder, Khara-Airag),
REE (Mushugay-Khuduk); in South Gobi province,
Au-Cu (Oyu Tolgoi), Cu-Mo (Tsagaan-Suburga),
U (Nars, etc., Dzunbain group), fluorite (Orgon),
REE (Khan-Bogdo).
Resulting information can be considered a jus-
tification for further comprehensive geological and
forecasting studies. The authors believe that it is
possible to develop and prove the preconditions
necessary for prediction of unique ore deposits. This
requires geological and geochemical solutions for
ore source issues and substantiation of formation
models of unique ore knots (for the predetermined
geological and commercial types of deposits). Mo-
dern analysis and isotope-geochronological research
methods can significantly clarify ore genesis, iden-
tify groups of minerals directly involved in the ore-
forming processes.
32 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

2.4. Minerogenic map of energy resources in Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia (oil, gas and
coal) in scale 1:2.5M

Authors: Geng Shufang, Yi Ronglong, Chen Bingwei Chen Tingyu,

Liu Ping, You Guoqing, Fan Benxian, Ju Yuanjing, Han Kunying,
Wang Zhenyang, Wang Liya (China), B. S. Uzhkenov, V. F. Saidukasov,
A. I. Kiselev, O. A. Fedorenko, V. A. Bykadorov, V. A. Popov, E.S. Votsalevsky,
N. V. Mavlyutdinova (Kazakhstan), W. S. Kee, B.C. Kim, J. H. Hwang (R. O. Korea),
T. Enkhbat, L. Altangerel, T. Minjinsor (Mongolia), A. I. Larichev, V. I. Vyalov,
V. N. Melnikov, E. V. Olennikova, S. V. Shcherbakova, G. N. Vasileva,
G. V. Sokolova (Russia)

Minerogenic map of energy resources of Nor-
thern-Central-Eastern Asia at 1:2.5M scale (hydro-
carbon and coal layers) (fig. 20) has been prepared
as a separate map of the Atlas of geological maps
of the Northern, Central, Eastern Asia at 1:2.5M
scale under the project 3D Geological Structures
and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern
Asia. Its predecessor is the map of energy resour-
ces from the Atlas of geological maps of Central
Asia and adjacent areas at 1: 2.5M scale (2008), as
the final result of joint work by experts from China
(map curator), Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and
the Republic of Korea.
The map was published in 2014 by Beijing Car-
tographic Publishing House. Chinese Academy of
Geological Sciences and its institutions were coor-
dinator and collective editor in its preparation for
publication. The map fully covers the Asian part of
Russia (without water area), the entire territory of
China, Mongolia, the Central Asian republics and
the Korean Peninsula.
Map incorporates major petroleum provinces in
this part of Asia, such as ancient Siberian, Tarim,
North China, Yangtze platforms, young West Sibe-
rian, Turan, Junggar, Songliao platforms, individual
promising basins (including inter-mountain) with-
in the Altai-Sayan-Mongolian folded area. Some
promising basins of the south of Western Siberia
and the Far East expand in Kazakhstan and Chi-
na. All these oil-and-gas provinces and basins are
shown in the map.
Hydrocarbon map layer reflects the state of oil-
and-gas geological knowledge of huge Asian areas,
modern views on the formational structure, tecto-
nics, geodynamics, development and placement of
hydrocarbon deposits in oil-and-gas basins, further
prospects for increasing oil and gas resources.
Map database includes a huge amount of quan-
titative and qualitative characteristics of oil-and-gas
provinces, regions, individual districts and oil-and-
gas fields. This enables to express in the map new
patterns of ontogeny and spatial distribution of hy-
drocarbons in various types of sedimentary basins.
Method for compiling fuel and energy resour-
ces maps of the Atlas takes into account both the
methodological developments of Russian geological
and petroleum institutes, as well as the principles
of drawing up such maps in the Chinese petroleum
geology research institutions. These differences are
recorded in synthetic Sino-Russian legend to the
Minerogenic map of energy resources and in the
map itself, which first combined data for both hy-
drocarbon and coal resources, as well as respective
basins bearing them.
Combination in a single map of visual informa-
tion on the hydrocarbon material and coal required
generalization, synthesis, and analysis of a huge
amount of information on geology, petroleum and
coal potential of sedimentary basins using a single
technology developed by the Chinese and Russian
experts and agreed with other participating coun-
tries.
In the compiled Minerogenic map of energy re-
sources of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia oil-and-
gas resources have a natural priority in structural-
tectonic and petroleum zoning, oil-and-gas pro-
vinces and basins, structure and age of the sedimen-
tary cover, oil-and-gas fields, petroleum generating
and thermal characteristics of the major oil-and-gas
provinces in China, Siberia, and Kazakhstan. There-
fore, the basis (substrate) for this map was informa-
tion from the Geological map of the Atlas and inset
map for the Tectonic map of the Atlas.
Extra-basin folded areas are classified by the age
of folding (Baikalian, Caledonian, Variscan, Cim-
merian, Laramian, Alpine-Himalayan).
Map legend includes, above all, a number of
structural symbols, somehow characterizing the
structure of sedimentary basins, their position
among fold-thrust belts and systems. According
to the legend, the map shows sedimentary basins
of different ages (from Meso-, Neoproterozoic to
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 33

Fig. 20. Minerogenic map of energy resources of Northern-Centrl-Eastern Asia at 1: 2.5M scale (avalible on http://www.vsegei.
ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)
34
Cenozoic), regardless of their filling with petro-
leum raw material. However, the energy potential
of these basins is shown by a special series of signs
Oil-gas field and Type of trap. This takes into
account almost all possible basins: from proper oil-
bearing to substantially gas-bearing, and naturally
all possible intermediate options. The legend also
refers to the association of oil and gas deposits to
certain elements of basins (structural trap, lithologic
trap, stratigraphic trap, and bedrock trap of oil-
and-gas fields). Essential addition to characteristic
of petroleum basins and provinces is a group of
signs Boundary and thermal system of basin with
gradation from hot to cool basins. From these
characteristics one can estimate the physical and
chemical state of hydrocarbons in reservoirs.
Coal basins, in addition to their structural cha-
racteristics, contain the genetic types of coals and
their rank (Genetic type of low rank coal: peat,
brown, flame, soft; Genetic type of medium rank
coal: gas, rich, coking; Genetic type of high rank
coal: hard, lean, anthracite). Coal fields are ranked
in the map by size of their possible open pit deve-
lopment and depending on their reflection in 1:1M
map (from large to small).
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
Since petroleum and coal basins and fields are
almost always confined to the same tectonic struc-
tures (sedimentary covers of cratons, sedimenta-
ry basins on basement of various age, rift-related
structures, intermountain and piedmont troughs,
molasse basins), the so-called Petroleum & Coal
Provinces received the highest ranked in the map.
Map of Russia highlights such major provinces
as: Volga-Uralian, West Siberian, Lena-Tunguska,
Yenisei-Khatanga, Khatanga-Vilyui. Chinas largest
provinces are Songliao, Dahing Gan (on the adja-
cent territory of Northeast China to East Mongolia),
Hua Bei and South Xinjiang (including Tarim, Jung-
gar and Turpan-Hami basins). In Central Asia, the
map shows: Karakum-Afghan-Tajik (Turkmenistan,
South Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), Syrdarya-Fergana
(border areas of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan) petro-
leum and gas provinces.
Province in which petroleum potential does not
really matter, or these kinds of fuel and energy
raw materials are not available are distinguished in
the map separately. They are united in the group
Coal-bearing Provinces. They are most prevalent
in Russia (world famous Kuznetsk, Kansk-Achinsk,
Pechora and Southeast Baikal with border Mon-
golia), in Mongolia Central Mongolian, and in
China Ordos (Qingshui Basin) and others.
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 35

3. DEEP PROCESSES AND METALLOGENY

OF NORTHERN-CENTRAL-EASTERN ASIA

The third phase of the project launched at the
10th Workshop in Irkutsk (Russia) in September
2013 received its own name Deep processes and
metallogeny of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia.
Project area was significantly expanded and covered
a large part of the Eurasian continent, including the
shelf seas of the Arctic and Pacific basins. One of
the main tasks was the generalization of the set of
compiled maps from 1: 2.5M to 1: 5M scale than
was concerned to four maps: geological, tectonic,
metalligenic and map of energy resources.
The use of 3D geological mapping methods has
been considerably extended. The compilation of
a set of geophysical maps at 1: 5M scale and ge-
otransects across major tectonic structure of North-
ern, Central, and Eastern Asia was proposed. Ge-
otransects of all countries-participant of the Project
provide a sound basis for imaging Earths crust of

Fig. 21. Proposed super-extended Geotransect including Synoprobe profile 4 (yellow line)
36
Fig. 22. The draft of magnetic anomaly map
tectonic structures Russian net of Geotransects
have a total length more than 16 000 km (fig. 21,
red lines). The first geotransect (yellow line), in-
cluding Russian and Chines deep profiles crosses
the Ural Foldbelt, West Siberian Depression, Al-
tai-Sayan Region, Tibet Plateau and Himalayas. It
shows the Earth crust architecture along N-S cross-
section more than 7000 km.
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
We are going to create a super-extended Geo-
transect sometime in the future. This transect is based
on the Russian deep line 1-SB, currently in progress
and shot in recent years Synoprobe profile 4. In this
regard, deep profile is expected to be connected with
the Synoprobe profile 4 (fig. 21). Chinese experts
use the data collected under the governmentally sup-
ported scientific program SinoProbe, performed to
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
Fig. 23. The draft of gravity anomaly map
investigate the composition, structure, and evolution
of the continental lithosphere of China and the proc-
esses affecting the formation of natural resources and
occurrence of geological hazards.
The extended set of geophysical maps at scale
of 1:5M including magnetic and gravity anomaly
map (fig. 22, 23) will be the base of new addition-
al maps, schemes and sections covering the deep
structure of the territory:
1) The Moho topography (fig. 24);
2) Thickness of the sedimentary cover (fig. 25);
3) Thickness of the Earth crust (fig. 26);
37
4) Maps of accretion-collisional tectonics and re-
lated metallogeny, maps of large igneous provinces,
rifts and related metallogeny, maps of earthquake
epicenters (fig. 27);
5) Sketch map of the Earths crustal types
(fig. 28, 29).
When carrying out works, Russian experts use
data obtained by reference geological-geophysical
lines, parametric and superdeep wells under the
state programs on studying the geological structure
of the territory of the Russian Federation and its
continental shelf.
38 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

Fig. 24. The draft of the Moho surface map

INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 39

Fig. 25. The first draft of the map of sedimentary cover thickness
40 ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

Fig. 26. The draft of consolidated crust thickness

 A B
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT

Fig. 27. A draft of the map of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs), rifts and associated deposits at scale 1:5M (2015), B draft of the map of accretion-collision tectonics and associated
mineral deposits at scale 1:5M (2015)
42
Crustal types in Northern, Central, Eastern
Asia and the Far Eastern region of the
continent-ocean transition
Modern ideas about the crustal types are based
on numerous deep seismic studies carried out in
different parts of the world, and attempts to sys-
tematize them in connection with the peculiarities
of geological structure and tectonic history in the
regions [Deep Structure..., 1991; Seismic models...,
1980; Structure and dynamics..., 2006; Continen-
tal Lithosphere..., 1991; Meissner, 1986; Mooney,
2007; McNutt, Caress, 2007, etc.].
It is generally accepted differences in the struc-
ture and composition of the oceanic and continental
crust underlying the majority of published crust typ-
ifications from seismic data [Belousov, Pavlenkova,
1989; Mooney, 2007; Kashubin et al., 2013 etc.].
Tab. 1. provides a summary of the structural
models and velocity parameters of major layers in
the oceanic and continental crust, which, along with
data on thickness of different layers and crust in
general, serve as a basis for crust typification.
Eurasian continent and its Far Eastern region
of the continent-ocean transition have been suffi-
ciently studied by deep seismic surveys. Significant
amounts of research are performed in the conti-
nental part of Russia, Kazakhstan, and China; the
continent-ocean transition area has been investi-
gated by researchers from Japan, Russia, China,
and Korea. Compiled on this basis maps of crustal
thickness [Milshtein et al., 2012], sedimentary cover
Generalized structural models and velocity parameters of oceanic and continental crust [Kashubin et al., 2013]
Oceanic crust
Vp, km/s
Major layers Vp/Vs
Water 1.451.50
Sediments 2.12.5 2.04.5
2nd layer
1.82.2 4.26.0
of the oceanic crust
5.86.4
6.36.7
3rd layer
1.811.87 6.67.2
of the oceanic crust
Crust-mantle layer 1.781.84 7.27.6
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
thickness and zoning scheme on the potential field
nature compiled using the magnetic anomaly and
gravity fields, enabled to compile a sketch map of
crustal types in Northern, Central and Eastern Asia
and the Far Eastern region of the continent-ocean
transition, shown in fig. 29.
Above the columns, main types of the earths
crust, shown in fig. are given. Under the columns,
main tectonic structures of Northern, Central and
Eastern Asia, corresponding to a given type are
listed, and references to key publications are cited.
Crust of the region is very diverse. There are
blocks both with thin (less than 5 to 6 km) essen-
tially 2-layer oceanic crust and with very thick (over
70 km) crust in the Tibet and the 4-layer consoli-
dated crust of the Urals. Three main crustal types
are identified in the scheme: oceanic, transitional,
and continental, each being subdivided into several
subtypes (see tab. 2).
Two subtypes of the oceanic crust (subtypes
1 and 2 in fig. 28) differ, first of all, in the crust
thickness. Thin crust (less than 56 km) is common
in the deep-water part of the Pacific Ocean and in
the Eurasian basin of the Arctic Ocean. It consists
of two oceanic layers (2nd and 3rd layers of the
oceanic crust in tab. 1) overlain by thin sediment
[Iwasaki et al., 2013] (fig. 29). In the area of the
Bonin Rise in the Pacific Ocean, there is a thicker
oceanic crust (20 km). The increase in the thickness
is due to the thrusting of one oceanic plate onto the
other and the appearance in the lower crust of the
Ta b l e 1
Continental crust
Vp/Vs Major layers
Water
2.12.5 Sediments
Basalts interbedded with
1.82.2
sediments
1.691.73 Upper crust
1.731.75 Middle crust
1.751.77 Lower crust
1.781.84 Crust-mantle layer
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT 43

Fig. 28. Crustal types in Northern, Central, Eastern Asia and the Far Eastern region of the continent-ocean transition
12 oceanic crust: 1 normal crust of deep-water basins, 2 thickened crust of oceanic uplifts (sub-continental crust); 34
transitional crust: 3 crust of subduction zone, 4 crust of back-arc basins (sub-oceanic crust); 511 continental crust: 5
reduced 2-layer crust of deep sedimentary basins (sub-oceanic crust), 6 reduced 3-layer crust deep of sedimentary basins, 7
crust of submerged ridges and rises, 8 normal crust of platforms, fold systems, and shelf seas mostly with 2-layer consolidated
crust, 9 normal crust of platforms, fold systems, and shelf seas mostly with 3-layer consolidated crust, 10 thickened crust of
collision areas and inland border zones mostly with 3-layer consolidated crust, 11 thickened crust of collision areas and inland
border zones mostly with 4-layer consolidated crust. Gray lines indicate refraction, DSS lines; standard crustal cores on the DSS
are the same as in fig. 29
Fig. 29. Typical column of the Earths crust in Northern, Central, Eastern Asia, and the Far Eastern continent-ocean transition area from DSS data, compiled in accordance with
generalized velocity parameters given in table
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
crust-mantle complex with wave velocities of 7.4 to
7.6 km/s. In spite of considerable thickness and its
similarity to the continental crust, the nature of the
Earths crust of this rise is oceanic, so, sometimes
this crust is considered as subcontinental (oceanic
crust of continental appearance).
The crust of the East Far transitional continent-
ocean area is distinguished in the map as a par-
ticular, transitional type. It consists of an extended
linear subduction zone (Subtype 3 in fig. 29) where
the Pacific crust is submerged under the Eurasia
continental margin. [Nakanishi et al., 2009]. An-
other subtype of the transitional crust in this area
(Subtype 4 in fig. 29) is the back-arc basin crust,
which is characterized by reduced thickness of the
crystalline crust and increased thickness of sedi-
ments. In spite of the reduced thickness of the
consolidated part, the crust of this subtype retains
thin upper crust (at least along the profile 2DV-M in
the Sea of Okhotsk [Kashubin et al., 2011]), which
is close in its parameters to the upper continental
crust. Since in the thickness and velocity param-
eters of the lower crust the back-arc basins crust
resembles the oceanic type, it can be considered
as suboceanic crust (continental crust of oceanic
appearance).
The continental crust, covering a large area of
the study territory, includes the remaining subtypes
(subtypes from 5 to 11 at fig. 29) grouped into four
main groups.
First group includes the reduced crust of deep
sedimentary basins (subtypes 5 and 6 in fig. 29).
The subtypes differ in the number of layers in the
crystalline crust underlying thick sedimentary strata
of these basins. Subtype 5 (Caspian Lowland) is a
typical example of graniteless (or suboceanic)
crust [Volvovsky et al., 1988]. Other deep sedimen-
tary basins shown in the map (Barents Sea, North
Chukchi and Vilyui basins) are underlain by 2-layer
crystalline crust [Seismic models, 1980; Roslov
et al., 2009; Pavlenkova et al., 2014].
Second group in this area includes only one
subtype (Subtype 7 in fig. 29), which corresponds
to the crust of submerged ridges and rises and is
represented by the Lomonosov Ridge crust. The
continental nature of the underwater Lomonosov
Ridge crust is now recognized by most researchers
in the Arctic [Jackson et al, 2010; Poselov et al.,
2014 et al.] and is generally regarded as an exten-
sion of the Eurasian continent to the deep part of
the Arctic Ocean.
45
Third group, which includes normal crust plat-
forms, fold systems, and shelf seas, occupies most
of the territory of Northern, Central, and Eastern
Asia and is divided into two subtypes (subtypes 8
and 9 in fig. 29). The subtypes differ in the number
of layers of the crystalline crust. Subtype 8 in fig. 29
includes the Verkhoyansk-Chukotka and Amur fold-
ed areas and the East Arctic and Far Eastern shelf.
The crust thickness of this subtype is usually less
than 3035 km, and in the crystalline crust, as rule,
there are two layers upper and lower crystalline
crust [Sakulina et al., 2011]. Subtype 9 in fig. 29
covers the West Siberian Plate, Siberian craton,
Omolon Massif, Kazakhstan folded area, and other
parts of Central Asia, which crust is characterized
by total thickness of about 40 km, and, as a rule,
3-layer structure of the crystalline part [Egorkin et
al., 2002].
Forth group, which includes the thickened crust
of collision areas and inland boundary zones, is also
subdivided into two subtypes (subtypes 10 and 11
in fig. 29). As in the previous group, the subtypes
differ in number of layers in the crystalline crust.
Subtype 10 in fig. includes the Tibetan (with the
crust of more than 70 km thick [Li et al., 2006])
and Tien Shan collisional areas, the Yenisei and Pre-
Verkhoyansk boundary areas, and the Novaya Zem-
lya- Pai-Khoi folded area, characterized by mainly
3-layer crystalline crust structure of 45 to 50 km
thick. Subtype 11 in fig. 29 covers the Ural folded
area of total crust thickness of about 55 km, within
which a crust-mantle layer is fixed under the 3-layer
crystalline crust [Druzhinin et al, 1997; Druzhinin
et al., 2000; Geotraverse GRANITE ..., 2002, and
others].
Thus, seismic surveys in Northern, Central, East-
ern Asia and the Far Eastern transition continent-
ocean area revealed significant heterogeneity of the
crust structure and the existence of a large number
of its types and subtypes. Performed constructions
(fig. 28, 29) showed regular decrease in the total
thickness of the crustal type from the central part
of Eurasia to its Far Eastern margins and further to
the Pacific Ocean. The decrease in the consolidated
crust thickness is associated with the transition from
a predominantly 3-layer crystalline crust in the cen-
ter of the continent to the 2-layer consolidated crust
in the continent margin and within shelf seas. Per-
haps, the established patterns and identified types
and subtypes of the crust will allow more grounded
global models of Eurasia formation and its interac-
tion with the Pacific Ocean.
46
CONCLUSION
Currently, work on the Atlas of geological maps
of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia has been go-
ing on for 13 years. Significant progress has been
achieved; the compiled maps are a qualitatively
new innovative cartographic product of 3-D geo-
logical mapping, which is based not only on the
results of litho-geodynamic, formational and basin
analysis, but also on a vast body of geophysical
data, including deep seismic data, results of drilling
of superdeep parametric wells.
The project will be dynamically developed and
continued despite natural change of generations of
geologists. Work on 1:5M Geochemical maps of
Northern, Central and Eastern Asia has begun;
the Chinese side volunteered to be the coordina-
tor of these maps. Within this part of the project,
monoelemental maps for metallogenic provinces
and regions will be compiled. On their basis, maps
of integral geochemical field are being compiled,
which allow the assessment of geochemical orienta-
tion of geological complexes and metallogenic taxa.
The set of complied geochemical maps will be used
in assessing the metallogenic potential of the project
area during predictive metallogenic studies.
It is planned to transform the Atlas of geologi-
cal maps from the scale of 1:2.5M to the scale of
1:5M. The project materials will show Arctic and
Pacific continent-ocean transition zones. Studying
the interaction of structures of the Eurasian conti-
nent with the planets oldest and youngest ocean is
of fundamental scientific importance.
We are going to create a super-extended geotran-
sect sometime in the future. In this regard, deep pro-
file is expected to be connected with the SinoProbe
Profile 4. Chinese experts use the data collected
under the governmentally supported scientific pro-
gram SinoProbe, performed to investigate the com-
ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS
position, structure, and evolution of the continental
lithosphere of China and the processes affecting the
formation of natural resources and occurrence of
geological hazards.
International project Atlas of geological maps of
Northern, Central and Eastern Asia is of great im-
portance not only for reflecting the new level of our
knowledge of the geological structure of the region
and assessing the mineral potential of this vast and
complexly constructed territory.
In the course of its realization the sharing of
information and technologies by geologists from
different countries take place. Evaluation of metal-
logenic and energy potential of the regions carried
out by geological surveys, rather than individual
experts, is more objective and grounded. Close co-
operation between the geological surveys in the
implementation of international projects is of great
geopolitical importance, for example, in the de-
velopment of coherent national positions of states
concerning issues of delimitation of the outer limits
of the continental shelf in the Arctic, Antarctica and
other complex regions.
There is no doubt that the future belongs to joint
geological mapping projects as an important form
for contacting geological surveys of different coun-
tries and continents.
Acknowledgments
This booklet was compiled by the following au-
thors: O. V. Petrov, I. I. Pospelov, S. P. Shokalsky,
T. Yu. Tolmacheva, S. N. Kashubin. Work com-
pleted on the subject of the Federal Agency of Sci-
entific Organizations of the Ministry of Education
and Science of the Russian Federation (registration
No 115042370035), with the support from the Rus-
sian Science Foundation (grant 16-17-10251).
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
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International project

ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

. . 41636000.