Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PRACTICE
LAB MANUAL
Dr.K.VIJAYAKUMAR
Professor and Head
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SRM University
Kattankulathur Chennai
Tamilnadu 603 203
India
Dr.C.SUBRAMANI
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SRM University
Kattankulathur Chennai
Tamilnadu 603 203
India
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Safety Precautions ix
Electrical Symbols xi
Meter
Graph Sheets
About the Authors
Dr.Subharansu Sekhar Dash is Presently working as Professor in the Department of Electrical
and Electronics Engineering, SRM University, Chennai. He has completed his under graduation
in Electrical Engineering and M.E in Power Systems Engineering from University of College of
Engineering, Burla, Orissa. He obtained his Ph.D degree from College of Engineering, Guindy
Anna University. He is a visiting research scholar at University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, USA
and has worked as visiting professor at Polytech University, Tours, France. He has visited many
foreign countries like Singapore, Spain, USA, France Hong Kong, etc. His research interests
include FACTS, Power Quality, Power System Stability and Computational Intelligence
Techniques. He has more than sixteen years of research and teaching experience and has
published more than 150 papers in reputed international journals and conferences.
Fuse
Power Supply
(Usually identified by voltage & type)
Polarity would indicate DC Power Supply-
Voltage Source
Capacitor
Inductor
Meter
The letter in the center identifies the type
V = Voltmeter, A = Ammeter
= Ohmmeter, MA = Milliameter
W = Wattmeter, G = Galvanometer
Resistor or Resistance (Fixed value)
Transformer
Relay Contacts
Normally Closed(NC)
Evaluation Sheet
1. Define: Energy?
4. I Unit = . kWhr
Aim:
To implement residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy meter,
Apparatus Required:
Precautions:
1. The metal covering of all appliances are to be properly earthed in order to avoid electrical
shock due to leakage or failure of insulation.
2. Every line has to be protected by a fuse of suitable rating as per the requirement.
3. Handle with care while giving connections and doing experiments.
Circuit Diagram
Theory:
Conductors, switches and other accessories should be of proper capable of carrying the
maximum current which will flow through them. Conductors should be of copper or aluminum.
In power circuit, wiring should be designed for the load which it is supposed to carry current.
Power sub circuits should be kept separate from lighting and fan sub-circuits. Wiring should be
done on the distribution system with main branch distribution boards at convenient centers.
Wring should be neat, with good appearance. Wire should pass through a pipe or box, and
should not twist or cross. The conductor is carried in a rigid steel conduit conforming to
standards or in a porcelain tube.
A switch is used to make or break the electric circuit. It must make the contact finely.
Under some abnormal conditions it must retain its rigidity and keep its alignment between switch
contacts. The fuse arrangement is made to break the circuit in the fault or overloaded conditions.
The energy meter is used to measure the units (kWh) consumed by the load should not twist or
cross. The conductor is carried in a rigid steel conduit conforming to standards or in a porcelain
tube.
Procedure:
Result:
Thus the simple house wiring by using switches, fuse, indicator, filament lamps and
energy meter was studied.
Exercises:
1. For the circuit diagram given below draw the electrical layout using the required
components.
The layout diagram of the circuit given is shown below
2. Draw the electrical plan for a sample residential building
3. Draw the connection diagram from the service main to the distribution of loads.
Result:
Thus the single-phase wiring diagram has been constructed, tested and the results are verified.
POSTLAB QUESTIONS
8. What type of meter is energy meter?
SRM UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
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PRELAB QUESTIONS
7. Explain the function of staircase with truth table
Date : Experiment : 2
TYPES OF WIRING
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
S. Tools
No. Fluorescent Staircase Wiring Corridor Wiring required
Lamp Wiring
1 Fluorescent lamp with Two way switches Switches Screw driver
fitting
2 Joint clips Bulb, Bulb holder Bulb, Bulb holder Hammer
3 Wires Clamps Clamps Cutting pliers
4 Screws Screws Screws Line tester
5 Switch board Ceiling rose Ceiling rose
6 Choke Switch board Switch board
7 Switches Connecting wires Connecting wires
Types of Wiring
There are various types of wiring used in the residential and commercial buildings. They are
1. Cleat Wring
2. Batten Wiring
(a) PVC Batten Wiring
(b) TRS/CTS Wiring
(c) Lead Sheath Wiring
3. Casing Capping Wiring
(a) Wood Casing Capping Wiring
(b) PVC Casing Capping Wiring
4. Conduit Wiring
(a) Surface Conduit Wiring
Metal Conduit Wiring
PVC Conduit Wiring
(b) Concealed Conduit Wiring
1. Cleat Wiring:
Cleat wiring is recommended only for temporary installations. The cleats are made in pain
having bottom and top halves. The bottom half is grooved to receive the wire and the top half is
for cable grip. Initially the bottom and top cleats are fixed on the wall loosely according to the
layout. Then the cable is drawn, tensioned and the cleats are tightened by the screw. Cleats are
of three types, having one, two or three grooves, so as to receive one, two or three wires. This
system uses insulated Cables sub protected in porcelain cleats. This is of wiring suitable only for
temporary wiring purpose. In lamp or wet location the wire used should be moisture proof and a
weathering proof.
2. Batten Wiring
Tough rubber-Sheathed (T.R.S) or PVC Sheathed cables are suitable to run on teak wood
battens. Varnishing of teak wood batten Method of securing the battens Suitability of tough
rubber-sheathed cable Suitability of PVC sheathed cable.
Wood casing wiring system shall not be used in damp places or in ill-ventilated places, unless
suitable precautions are taken. This system of wiring is suitable for low voltage installation, I
this wiring, cables like vulcanized rubber, insulated cables or plastic insulated cables are use and
carried within the wood casing enclosures. The wood casing wiring system shall not be use in
damp places and in ill-ventilated places, unless suitable precautions are taken.
All casing shall be of first class, seasoned teak wood or any other approved hardwood
free from knots, shakes, saps or other defects, with all the sides planed to a smooth finish, and all
sides well varnished, both inside and out side with pure shellac varnish. The casing shall have a
grooved body with a beaded or plain-molded cover as desired.
4. Tough rubber-Sheathed or PVC Sheathed Wiring System
Wiring with tough rubber sheathed cables is suitable for low voltage installations and shall not
be used in places exposed to sun and rain nor in damp places, unless wires are sheathed in
protective covering against atmosphere and well protected to withstand dampness.
Metal-sheathed wiring system is suitable for 1GW voltage installations, and shall not be used in
situations where acids and alkalis are likely to be present. Metal-sheathed wiring may be used in
places exposed to sun and rain provided no joint of any description is exposed.
This uses a conduit pipe for the mechanical protection of wire. In this system of wiring, wires
are carried through P.V.C conduit pipe for giving converging to pipes conduit pipe has certain
advantages like it is moisture proof and durable.
STAIRCASE WIRING
Aim:
Apparatus Required:
Direct Connection
Circuit Diagram
Tabulation
Circuit Diagram
Tabulation
Theory
1. A two way switch is installed near the first step of the stairs. The other two way switch is
installed at the upper part where the stair ends.
2. The light point is provided between first and last stair at an adequate location and height
if the light is switched on by the lower switch. It can be switched off by the switch at the
top or vice versa.
3. The circuit can be used at the places like bed room where the person may not have to
travel for switching off the light to the place from where the light is switched on.
4. Two numbers of two-way switches are used for the purpose. The supply is given to the
switch at the short circuited terminals.
5. The connection to the light point is taken from the similar short circuited terminal of the
second switch. Order two independent terminals of each circuit are connected through
cables.
Procedure:
Result:
Thus the circuit to control the single lamp from two different places is studied and verified.
EXERCISE
To make connections of a fluorescent lamp wiring and to study the accessories of the same.
Apparatus Required:
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
1. The electrode of the starter which is enclosed in a gas bulb filled with argon gas, cause
discharge in the argon gas with consequent heating.
2. Due to heating, the bimetallic strip bends and causes in the starter to close. After this, the
choke, the filaments (tube ends) to tube and starter becomes connected in series.
3. When the current flows through the tube end filaments the heat is produced. During the
process the discharge in the starter tube disappears and the contacts in the starter move
apart.
4. When sudden break in the circuit occur due to moving apart of starter terminals, this
causes a high value of e.m.f to be induced in the choke.
5. According to Lenzs, the direction of induced e.m.f in the choke will try to opposes the
fall of current in the circuit.
6. The voltage thus acting across the tube ends will be high enough to cause a discharge to
occur in the gas inside the tube. Thus the starts giving light.
7. The fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury lamp and is a long evacuated tube. It
contains a small amount of mercury and argon gas at 2.5 mm pressure. At the time of
switching in the tube mercury is in the form of small drops. Therefore, to start the tube,
filling up of argon gas is necessary. So, in the beginning, argon gas starts burning at the
ends of the tube; the mercury is heated and controls the current and the tube starts giving
light. At each end of the tube, there is a tungsten electrode which is coated with fast
electron emitting material. Inside of the tube is coated with phosphor according to the
type of light.
8. A starter helps to start the start the tube and break the circuit. The choke coil is also
called blast. It has a laminated core over which enameled wire is wound. The function
of the choke is to increase the voltage to almost 1000V at the time of switching on the
tube and when the tube starts working, it reduces the voltage across the tube and keeps
the currents constant.
Procedure:
Result:
Theory
Corridor wiring is meant for switching on the lamp one by one while going forward into the go
down or the corridor and switch off the lamp one by one while returning back.
Circuit Diagram
S1 S2 S3 L1 L2 L3
OFF X X OFF OFF OFF
ON 1-3 1-3 ON OFF OFF
ON 1-2 1-3- OFF ON OFF
OFF 1-2 1-2 OFF OFF ON
Procedure:
Result:
2. Choke is made up of
5. What is the usual power factor of Fluorescent lamp and incandescence lamp?
7. Mention the types of switches
SRM UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
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PRELAB QUESTIONS
1. Define charge
2. Define voltage
3. Define current
4. Define resistance
5. Define power
7. What is meant by potential and potential difference?
Date: Experiment : 3
To measure the electrical quantities voltage, current, power and to calculate power factor for
RLC circuit.
Apparatus Required:
Theory:
Power in an electric circuit can be measured using a wattmeter. A wattmeter consists of two
coils, namely current coil and pressure coil or potential coil. The current coil is marked as ML
and pressure coil is marked as CV. The current coil measures the quantity that is proportional to
the current in the circuit and the pressure measures quantity that is proportional to voltage in the
circuit. An ammeter is connected in series to the wattmeter to measure the current. A voltmeter
is connected in parallel to wattmeter to measure voltage. The power factor of the circuit is
calculated using the relation given below:
Formulae:
Circuit Diagram
Procedure:
Tabulation
Circuit Diagram
Procedure
Tabulation
Circuit Diagram
Procedure:
Tabulation
Thus the electrical quantities voltage, current and power are measured for RLC load and
corresponding power factor is calculated.
POSTLAB QUESTIONS
8. Name the device used to measure voltage current power factor and resistance.
SRM UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
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PRELAB QUESTIONS
1. Define energy
Date: Experiment : 4
Aim:
To measure the energy consumed in a single phase circuit and 3 phase circuit
Apparatus Required:
Energy meters are interesting instruments and are used for measurements of energy in a circuit
over a given period of time. Since the working principle of such instrument is based on
electromagnetic induction, these are known as induction type energy meters. As shown in fig.1,
there are two coils in an induction type energy meter namely current coil (CC) and voltage coil
(VC), the current coil is connected in series with the load while the voltage coil is connected
across the load. The aluminum disc experiences deflecting torque due to eddy current induced in
it and its rotation are counted by a gear train mechanism (not shown in figure).
Procedure:
5. What may be the reason for the energy meter to rotate too fast or too slow?
SRM UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
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PRELAB QUESTIONS
5. What is megger?
Date: Experiment : 5
Aim:
I. Earthing / Grounding
Earthing or grounding is the term used for electrical connection to the general mass of earth.
Equipment or a system is said to be earthed when it is effectively connected to the ground with
a conducting object. Earthing provides protection to personal and equipment by ensuring
operation of the protective gear and isolation of faulty circuit during-
Insulation failure
Accidental contact
Lightning strike
Earthing is necessary for proper functioning of certain equipments. Earthing is done also for
preventing the operating personal from hazardous shocks caused by the damage of the heating
appliances. Consider an electric heater connected to the supply using two-pin plug and socket.
If by some chance the heating element comes in contact with the metallic body of the heater, the
body of the heater being a conducting material will be at the same potential as the heating coil.
If a person comes and touches the body of the heater, current will flow through his body, which
will result in an electric shock.
1. To save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a fuse i.e. to
provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the
user.
2. To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under fault conditions i.e. To ensure that
all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
3. To provide safe path to dissipate lighting and short circuit currents.
4. To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipments i.e. to
maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a know value so as to prevent
over current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.
5. To provide protection against static electricity from friction.
1. Provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the
user.
2. Ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
3. Maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to prevent
over current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.
IV. Some Definitions
Earthing: A tower / equipments connecting to the general mass of earth by mans of an electrical
conductor.
Earth Electrode: Connection to earth in achieved by electrically connecting a metal plate, rod
or other conductors or an array of conductors to the general mass of earth. This metal plate or
rod or conductor is called as Earth electrode.
Earth Loop Impedance: The total resistance of earth path including that of conductors, earth
wire, earth leads and earth electrodes at consumer end and substation end.
V. Types of Earting:
1. Conventional Earthing
Pipe Earthing
GI Plat Earthing
Cast Iron plat Earthing
Copper plat Earthing
2. Maintenance Free Earthing
1. Conventional Earhing:
The Conventional system of earthing calls for digging of a large pit into which a GI pipe
or a copper plate is positioned amidst layers of carcoal and salt. It is cumbersome to install only
one or two pits in a day.
It is a new type of earthing system which is ready made, standardized, and scientifically
developed.
Electrode material
Electrode size
Material and size of earth wire
Moisture content of soil
Depth of electrode of underground
Quantity of dust and charcoal in earth pit
As water pipes exist extensively and these are most of the time embedded in earth, they can
make a good earth electrode. Such earthing is not objectionable with alternating currents. But
with direct currents, the flow of fault currents in pipes produces electrolysis and results in heavy
corrosion of pipes. This electrolysis process makes the water also harmful to certain extent. If
water pipes are proposed to be used as earth electrode, then only main water supply pipe should
be used as an electrode. The water supply main pipe should have metal-to-metal joints between
its segments. A perfect electrical connection should be made between water pipe & earth
conductor. Pipe should be cleaned thoroughly with emery paper. Earth conductor also should be
cleaned thoroughly. The cleaned conductor should be wrapped 4 to 5 times and ends clamped by
nuts & bolts. The earth resistance achieved by such an arrangement is usually a fraction of an
ohm. Low resistance of such system is due to long length of water pipe and the fact that it
mostly embedded below earth. This method is mostly used for grounding in telephone services.
Electrodes should be made of a metal, which has a high conductivity. Normally copper is used.
The size of the electrode should be such, that it is able to conduct the expected value of stray
equipments. For example a 3 phase star wound generator must have its neutral point at earth
potential.
Sodium Chloride
Calcium Chloride
Sodium Nitrate
Magnesium Sulphate
1. Temperature of soil: the resistivity increases when temperature falls below the freezing
point. If the temperature falls from 20 degrees C to O degree C, soil resistivity goes up
from 700-ohm cm to 400-ohm cm.
2. Moisture content of Soil: small changes in moisture content seriously affect the
resistivity. For example if the moisture content changes from 25% to 30%, soil resistivity
drops from 250000-ohm cms to 6400-ohm cm. It is important that earth electrodes
should be in contact with moist soil. It should be ensured that the electrodes are deep in
soil and if possible below the permanent water level.
3. Mechanical Composition of soil: finer the grading, lower the resistance.
1. Pipe Earthing
Pipe earthing is done by permanently placing a pipe in wet ground. The pipe can be made of
steel, galvanized iron or cast iron. Usually GI pipes having a length of 2.5m and an internal
diameter of 38mm are used. The pipe should into be painted or coated with any non-conducting
material.
The figure shows an illustration of a typical pipe electrode. The pipe should be placed
atleast 1.25m below the ground level and it should be surrounded by alternate layers of charcoal
and salt for a distance of around 15cm. This is to maintain the moisture level and to obtain
electrode and it should be carried in a GI pipe at a depth of 60cm below the ground level. A
funnel with a wire mech should be provided to pour water into the sump. Three or four bucket of
water should be poured in a few days particularly during summer season. This is to keep the
surroundings of the electrode permanently moist.
2. Plate earthing
A typical illustration of plate earthing is shown in figure. The plate electrode should have
a minimum dimension of 600 x 600 x 3.15mm for copper plate or 600 x 600 x 6.3mm for GI
plates. The plate electrode should be placed atleast. 1.5m below the ground level. Bolts and
nuts should be of the same material as that of the plate by means of bolts and nuts. The bolts and
nuts should be of the same material as that of the plate. The earth conductor should be carried in
a GI pipe buried 60 cm below the ground level. The plate electrode should be surrounded by a
layer of charcoal to reduce the earth resistance. A separate GI pipe with funnel and wire mesh
attached is provided to pour water into the sump.
Aim
Apparatus Required:
Depth of insertion of electrode into the soil = (Distance between two electrode / 20) in feet.
Theory:
The megger is a portable instrument used to measure insulation resistance. The megger consists
of a hand-driven DC generator and a direct reading ohm meter.
The moving element of the ohm meter consists of two coils, A and B, which are rigidly
mounted to a pivoted central shaft and are free to rotate over a C-shaped core. These coils are
connected by means of flexible leads. The moving element may point in any meter position
when the generator is not in operation.
As current provided by the hand-driven generator flows through Coil B, the coil will tend
to set itself at right angles to the field of the permanent magnet. With the test terminals open,
giving an infinite resistance, no current flows in Coil A. Thereby, Coil B will govern the motion
of the rotating element, causing it to move to the extreme counter-clockwise position, which is
marked as infinite resistance.
Coil A is wound in a manner to produce a clockwise torque on the moving element. With
the terminal marked line and earth shorted, giving a zero resistance, the current flow through
the Coil A is sufficient to produce enough torque to overcome the torque of Coil B. The pointer
then protect Coil A from excessive current flow in this condition.
When an unknown resistance is connected across the test terminals, line and earth, the
opposing torques of Coils A and B balance each other so that the instrument pointer comes to
rest at some point on the scale. The scale is calibrated such that the pointer directly indicates the
value of resistance being measured.
Procedure:
Tabulation:
Result:
Thus the resistance of the test electrode was found using megger.
POSTLAB QUESTIONS
7. How can we minimize the earth resistance?
SRM UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
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PRELAB QUESTIONS
Date: Experiment : 5
STUDY OF TROUBLESHOOTING OF
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
Aim:
To study about the trouble shooting of electrical equipments like fan, iron box, mmixer-grinder
etc.
(iii) Mixer
Fault Possible reason Remedy
Motor is not running No voltage or low voltage Check the supply voltage with
multimeter
Either motor field or armature coil Do the continuity test. If there is
may get open circuited an open circuit fault, do the service
Supply voltage is correct. But Overload in the jar and hence Press the overload relief button and
motor is not running overload protector may get tripped remove some materials in the jar.
Now restart.
Motor rotates at same speed in all May be any short circuit in Do the continuity test. If there is
speed settings armature or field coils an short circuit fault, do the
service.
There may be wear and tear in the Check and put lubricating oil at
bearings bearings. If beat persists, replace
it.
1. IRON BOX
2. FAN
3. MIXIE
Result:
Thus the troubleshooting of electrical equipments is studied.
POSTLAB QUESTIONS
Evaluation Sheet
Staff Signature
PRELAB QUESTIONS
7. What is LED?
8. How does an LED work?
Date: Experiment : 7
The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a
p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-site, or
cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers-electrons and holes-flow into the
junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a
lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap energy of
the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are
indirect band gap materials. The materials used fro the LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths,
emitting light in a variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type
layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many
commercial LEDS especially GaN.InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means
that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus,
light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and
development.
Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made up of at least 2 semi-conductor layers. One layer containing a
positive charge, the other a negative charge.
Sunlight consists of little particles of solar energy called photons. As a PV cell is
exposed to this sunlight, many of the photons are reflected, pass right through, or absorbed by
the solar cell.
When enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell,
electrons are freed from the negative semiconductor material. Due to the manufacturing process
of the positive layer, these freed electrons naturally migrate to the positive layer creating a
voltage differential, similar to a household battery.
When the 2 layer are connected to an external load, the electrons flow through the circuit
creating electricity. Each individual solar energy cell produces only 1-2 watts. To increase
power output, cells are combined in a weather-tight package called a solar module.
A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric
cell (in that its electrical characteristics-e.g. current, voltage, or resistance-varu when light is
incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and support an electric current
without being attached to any external voltage source.
The term photovoltaic comes from the Greek )) meaning light, and from
Volt, the unit of electro-motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of the
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term
photo-voltaic has been in use in English since 1849.(1)
Photovoltaics is the field technology and research related to the practical application of
photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer
to the generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells can be described as photovoltaic even when
the light source is not necessarily sunlight (lamplight artificial light, etc.) In such cases the cell
is sometimes used as a photo detector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other
electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
1. The absorption or light, generating either electro-hole pairs or exactions.
2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
In contrast, a solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of
either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation. Photo electrolytic cell (photo
electrochemical), on the other hand, refers either a type of photovoltaic cell )like that
developed by A.E. Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells) or a device that splits
water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.
Photovoltaic Cell
Induction Motor
An induction or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in
the rotor needed to produce torque is induced by electromagnetic induction from the
magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor therefore does not require
mechanical commutation, separate-excitation or self-excitation for all or part of the energy
transferred from stator to rotor, as in universal, DC and synchronous motors. An induction
motors rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because
they are rugged reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively
for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in
fixed speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency
drives (VFDs) in variable speed service.
Transformer
Where:
Vp - is the Primary Voltage
Vs - is the Secondary Voltage
Np - is the Number of Primary Windings
Ns - is the Number of Secondary Windings
(phi) - is the Flux Linkage
Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked
magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the
voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to increase the voltage
on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up transformer.
When it is used to decrease the voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the
primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
However a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on its
secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its output is identical with
respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This type of transformer is called an
Impedance Transformer and is mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation of
adjoining electrical circuits.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by
changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding (Np) compared to the number of
coil turns on the secondary winding (Ns). As the transformer is a linear device, a ratio now
exists between the number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a
transformers turns ratio, (TR). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the
transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding
compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two
windings in order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3 to 1). This means in this
example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the secondary
winding, 3 to 1. Then we can see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the
resulting voltage must also change by the same ratio, and this is true.
A transformer is all about :ratios, and the turns ratio of a given transformer will be the
same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: turns ratio = voltage ratio. The
actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not important, just the turns ratio
and this relationship is given as:
A Transformers Turns Ratio
= = = Turns Ratio
Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns ratio value is
very important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship and
output voltage than one in which the turns ratio is given as: 1:3
Example No.1
A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for in
secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.
. 1500 3
. . = = = = = 3.1
. 500 1
Ans:
This ratio of 3:1 (3to1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every one
secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger number on the left to a smaller number on
the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down in value as shown.
Example No.2
If 240 volts are applied to the primary winding of the same transformer, what will be the
resulting secondary no load voltage.
. 240
. . = 3: 1 = =
.
240
. , = = = 80
3 3
Again confirming that the transformer is a step-down transformer as the primary voltage
is 240 volts and the corresponding secondary voltage is lower at 80 volts. Then the main
purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages and we can see that the primary winding has a
set amount or number of windings (coils of wire) on it to suit the input voltage. If the secondary
output voltage is to be the same value as the input voltage on the primary winding, then the same
number of coil turns must be wound onto the secondary core as there are on the primary core
giving an even turns ratio of 1:1 (1to1). In other words, one coil turn on the secondary to one
coil turn on the primary.
If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input voltage, (step-up
transformer) then there must be more turns on the secondary giving a turns ratio of 1:N (1toN),
where N represents the turns ratio number. Likewise, if it is required that the secondary voltage
windings much be less giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N to 1)
Transformer Action
We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared to the primary
winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage available from the secondary coil. But if
the two windings are electrically isolated from each other, how is this secondary voltage
produced?
We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound around
a common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage (Vp) is applied to the primary coil, current
flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself, called mutual
inductance, by this current flow according to Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction. The
strength of the magnetic field builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value
which is given as .
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil
the soft iron core forms a path for an concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links
the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite directions under the influence
of the AC supply.
However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends upon
the amount of current and the number of turns in the winding. When current is reduced, the
magnetic field strength reduces.
When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the
secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil. The amount of
voltage induced will be determined by: N. (Faradays Law), where N is the number of coil
turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the primary winding voltage.
Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both windings
because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings together. As a result, the
total induced voltage in each winding is directly proportional to the number of turns in that
winding.
However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on the secondary winding
will be reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.
If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the cores
magnetic losses, we can either send a larger current through the coil, or keep the same current
flowing, and instead increase the number of coil turns (Np) of the winding. The product of
amperes times turns is called the ampere-turns, which determines the magnetizing force of the
coil.
So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only one turn in
the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary coil, assuming no losses,
enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux generated to induce on voltage in the single
turn of the secondary. That is, each winding supports the same number of volts per turn.
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, = max sint, then the basic relationship
between induced emf, (E) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:
emf = turns x rate of change
=
= cos
()
=
2
= =
2 2
= 4.44
Where:
is the flux frequency in Hertz, = 2
This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation: For the primary winding emf, N will
be the number of primary turns, (Np) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the number of
secondary turns, (Ns)
Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate
correctly, transformers cannot therefore be used to transform DC voltages or currents, since the
magnetic field must be changing to induce a voltage in the secondary winding. In other words,
Transformers DO NOT Operate on DC Voltages.
In fluorescent tubes, a very small amount of mercury mixes with inert gases to conduct electrical
current. This allows the phosphor coating on the glass tube to emit light. Fluorescent tube
lamps-the second most popular type of lamps-are more energy efficient than the more popular A-
type standard incandescent lamps.
The traditional tube-type fluorescent lamps are usually identified as T12 or T8 (twelve-
eighths or eight-eighths of an inch tube diameter, respectively). They are installed in a dedicated
fixture with a built-in ballast. The two most common types are 40-watt, 4-foot (1.2-meter) lamps
and 75-watt, 8-foot (2.4-meter) lamps. Tubular Fluorescent fixtures and lamps are preferred for
ambient lighting in large indoor areas. In these areas, their low brightness creates less direct
glare than incandescent bulbs. Circular tube-type fluorescent lamps are called circline lamps.
They are commonly used for portable task lighting.
POSTLAB QUESTIONS
Evaluation Sheet
Staff Signature
PRELAB QUESTIONS
1. What is a choke?
Related Information
A transformer is a static device which transforms power from one circuit to another circuit at the
same frequency. It consists of two coil windings on a core made of magnetic material. AC
voltage is applied to one of the coils is called the primary coil. The other coil, from which output
is taken, is known as the secondary coil.
The relation between primary and secondary voltage (V1,V2); currents (I1,I2), number of
turns (N1,N2) respectively, is given by,
2 1 2
= =
1 2 1
The ratio of 2 is known as transformation ratio K. If the secondary voltage (V2), is more
1
than the primary voltage (V1), then it is know as a step-up transformer. If the secondary voltage
is less than the primary voltage, then it is called a step-down transformer.
Core
AC supply voltage is applied to the primary winding; therefore, the flux flowing through the core
is alternating. To reduce the eddy current loss, the core is made of lamination. The thickness of
laminations or stamping varies from 0.35mm. To 0.55 mm. The laminations are insulated from
each other by the thin coat of insulating varnish. For good magnetic characteristics, cold rolled
silicon steel is used. Silicon content may be of the order of 3 or 4%.
There are two types of transformer, from the construction point of view.
Shell Type
In this type, the iron core surrounds the winding, as shown in fig.1.3 of (a) and (b) various types
of laminations and stampings are shown in figs.1.4 and 1.6. In figs. 1.4(a) and (b) two L-shaped
laminations are shown, indicating their mode of placement in the alternate layers. They are
placed together to give the rectangular lamination of core. The complete laminated core consists
of rectangular laminations placed alternately, one over the other as shown in fig.1.4(c), so that
the joints are staggered. The joints are staggered to avoid a continuous air gap which increases
the magnetizing current. Further, if the joints are not staggered, the core will have less
mechanical strength and there would be an undue humming noise during operation.
The core could also be assembled out of U and T types of laminations as shown in fig.1.5
(a) and (b). The L and U-T laminations are generally used for the core type transformer. For
making the shell type transformer, generally the combination of U and T laminations is used, as
shown in figs.1.6(a) and (b).
Windings
In the case of small transformers, coils are usually would with round wire in the form of a
bobbin, in the same ways as cotton thread wound on a spool.
For small transformers of low voltage such as 230V, about 5 to 8 turns per volt may be
taken for primary winding, depending on the size of the transformer. Secondary number of turns
can be obtained by the relationship.
2
2 = 1
1
The primary current can be calculated with the help of the given volt-ampere rating of the
transformer.
Primary current I1 = Volt-ampere rating / V1
Secondary current I2 can be calculated from the relation:
2
2 = 1
1
The area of the cross-section of the winding conductor depends upon the current.
Normally, the size of the primary and secondary conductors will be different. Top select the
cross sectional size of the winding, conductor tables of the manufactures may be consulted.
Normally, the current density of 3 amperes per sq.mm. may be assumed for determining the size
of the conductor.
Calculations
For Primary Winding
No. of turns per volt = 6 turns
No. of turns per 230V = 230 x 6
= 1380 turns
Conductors Size
Amps per sq.mm = 3 Amps/sq.mm
As per the table shown in text book
The size of the conductor = 18 SWG is preferable.
Conductor Size
Secondary current 2 = 2 1
1
72
= 1380 3 = 0.15652
0.1562
= 1 = 0.0.152 = 32
3
Procedure
1. Select the size of the core and the type of the stamping (i.e.) for the shell type
transformer, the combination of E and I
2. Select the suitable size of the conductor for windings, as explained above.
3. Select / make a transformer of suitable size.
4. Wrap the transformer with malinex insulation sheet.
5. Wind the primary winding or the transformer preferably with the help of winding
machine.
6. After every 2 or 3 layers of primary winding, use a layer of thin insulating paper.
7. After completing the primary winding, warp with malinex sheet.
8. Wind the secondary turns.
9. Bring out taps at suitable number of turns for 12-0-12 volts.
10. Wrap with empire or cotton tape for insulation and mechanical protection.
11. Assemble the core with winding as shown in the figures
12. Clamp / bolt the core.
Precaution
While winding, the enamel wire should not come into contact with sharp metallic edges.
Voltages (Volts) No. of Current Size of
Winding Designed value Actual measured turns (Amps) wire (mm)
value
Primary
Secondary
Result:
Thus the construction of transformer was completed and tested.
POSTLAB QUESTIONS