International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 207212

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International Journal of Mining Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmst

Land deformation monitoring in mining area with PPP-AR

Hu Hong, Gao Jingxiang , Yao Yifei
School of Environmental Science & Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information Engineering, Xuzhou 221116, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The mining area deformation monitoring theory and method using precise point positioning (PPP) ambi-
Received 17 September 2013 guity resolution (AR) were studied, and an ambiguity xing model with satellite and receiver combina-
Received in revised form 16 October 2013 tion phase delay (CPD) was proposed for zero-differenced PPP ambiguity xing and its corresponding
Accepted 17 November 2013
formula derivation was given. The data processing results for 1 h at six IGS stations in China show that
Available online 13 February 2014
93% of ambiguities can be xed within 10 min and all ambiguities can be xed within 15 min. After ambi-
guity xing, the positioning accuracy is improved by more than 85% in the E and N directions, with abso-
Keywords:
lute positioning accuracy reaching millimeter level, and it was improved by 70% in the U direction,
Deformation monitoring precise point
positioning
reaching centimeter level; the proposed zero-differenced ambiguity xing model can effectively improve
Ambiguity the convergence rate and positioning accuracy in PPP. Data monitoring continuously conducted for half a
Combination phase delay (CPD) year at four CORS stations of Shanxi China Coal Pingshuo Group validated the feasibility of using PPP in
Ionosphere-free combination mining area deformation monitoring.
2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.

1. Introduction
Land subsidence and sinking deformation occurring in under-
ground mining may inuence an area of tens to hundreds of kilo-
meters, the exploitation-caused sinking may reach more than ten
meters, and the topographical and hydrological variations arising
therefrom ruin cultivated land, buildings and other infrastructure
to a considerable extent and destroy the space reference in a
mining area seriously, so deformation disaster is an important
disaster source affecting production safety in a mine. With the
emergence of various new surveying techniques, such as GPS and
InSAR, new methods are provided for mining area deformation
monitoring [12]. And precise point positioning (PPP), as a hot spot
in current geodetic surveying researches, has also been applied in
mining area deformation monitoring [3].
Traditional PPP uses the combination of pseudo-range and car-
rier observations to form ionosphere-free observations and then to
obtain a oat solution and it can reach a positioning accuracy at
centimeter to millimeter level through long-time observation.
However, the noise level of pseudo-range observations restricts
the PPP accuracy, so enough long observation time must be en-
sured in order to obtain a centimeter-level positioning accuracy
[4]. For this reason, many scholars have studied carrier PPP;
however, after ionosphere-free combination of the observations,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 516 83885785.
E-mail address: jxgao@cumt.edu.cn (J. Gao).
the phase delay error makes the ambiguities lose their integer
characteristic, resulting in relative difculty in ambiguity resolution
[56]. Ge et al. analyzed this problem and proposed a PPP ambigu-
ity resolution strategy, in which regional or global reference
stations are used to calculate inter-satellite single-differenced
wide-lane and narrow-lane phase delays and the obtained
information is broadcast to the user via network so that the user
end can x the ambiguities to get a PPP xed solution, and the
experiment demonstrated that, after ambiguity xing, the PPP
accuracy can be signicantly improved [5]. To solve such problems
as some requirement of spatial distribution of reference stations by
inter-satellite single difference, Zhang et al. put forward a zero-
differenced phase delay resolution algorithm, with which a good
positioning accuracy was obtained in an example case [78].
With the existing methods being considered, it can be known
that, to obtain a PPP xed solution, wide-lane and narrow-lane
ambiguity phase delays or clock-bias information shall be resolved
using reference stations rst, and then issued to the user via a
given form to realize PPP user end integer ambiguity xing [511].
However, the PPP ambiguity resolution is still at theoretical
validation and testing stage at present; therefore, to get a PPP xed
solution, regional or global reference stations need to be used
autonomously to resolve relevant information, which restricts
the application and development of PPP to a certain extent. We
theoretically analyzed relevant characteristics of PPP ambiguity,
and proposed a zero-differenced PPP ambiguity xing algorithm
with combination phase delay using static observation data, and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2014.01.011
2095-2686/ 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.
208 H. Hu et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 207212

validated the algorithm using six International GNSS Service (IGS) 3. Combination phase delay model
stations in China; afterwards, we analyzed the mining area defor-
mation status using four continuous operation reference station 3.1. Wide-lane ambiguity and phase delay
(CORS) stations in the mining area, and validated the feasibility
of using PPP in mining area deformation monitoring. Wide-lane ambiguity xing employs the classical Melbourne
Wbbena combination (MW combination), which eliminates
the inuence of ionosphere and thus is an ideal wide-lane ambigu-
2. PPP ambiguity
ity resolution combination [17]. After the combination, the wide-
lane ambiguity can be expressed as:
Precise point positioning uses the orbit and clock bias products
provided by a single GPS receiver and IGS stations to obtain i i
high-accuracy positioning results under the international terres- ~ i Li  Li  P1 f1 P2 f2
N 4
w 1 2
trial reference Frame (ITRF) coordinate frame; as PPP has a high kw f1 f2
data utilization rate and exible operations and can realize accurate where N ~ i and kw are the oat solution and wavelength of wide-lane
w
positioning throughout the world without high density reference carrier. The most probable value Niw and the root-mean-square
stations, it has attracted wide attention and has been successfully deviation (RMSD) rNi of wide-lane combination are respectively
w
applied in such elds as tsunami early warning and precise orbit as follows:
determination since it was proposed [45,1116]. Precise point
positioning uses dual-frequency code pseudo-range P and carrier _ N
Niw Fh ~i i 5
w
phase L to constitute ionosphere-free combination observations,
s
and its basic mathematic model was proposed by Zumberge et al. ~ i  Ni 2
N w w
in 1997; as the model basically eliminates the inuence of rNiw 6
ionospheric delay, it is a mathematic model most widely used in n
current precise point positioning, and it can be specically _ denotes the function of mean value and n is the number
where Fhi
expressed as [12]: of epochs.
For wide-lane ambiguity xing, the probability statistical test
f12 f2 i i method is used to obtain [5,18]:
Piif P i  2 2 2 Pi2 qi c  dtr  dts dtrop M iP eiP
2 1
f12  f2 f1  f2 " ! !#
X1 bi j
t  jNiw  N bi j
t jNiw  N
1 Q0 erfc p w
 erfc p w
a 7
t1 2rNi 2rNi
w w

Uiif qi c  dtr  dtis where N b i is the integer to which N i is closest; and a the condence
w w
 
f12 f22 level, generally taken as 0.1%; if Q0 passes the test, it indicates that
dtrop  k1 Ni1  k2 Ni2 MiU eiU 2 b i is the xed solution of wide-lane combination. It should be
N
f12  f22 f12  f22 w
noted that the wide-lane ambiguity here is resolved and xed using
where Piif and Uiif are the ionosphere-free combination pseudo- MW combination and its result is affected by the pseudo-range
range and carrier phase observations of satellite i, respectively; f1 observation accuracy and noise, etc.; however, there is no problem
and f2 the carrier frequencies of L1 and L2, respectively; Pi1 and P i2 in xing of wide-lane ambiguity due to its long wavelength. Never-
the pseudo-range observations; k1 and k2 the wavelengths of L1 theless, it can be seen through comparison with Eq. (3) that Eqs.
and L2, respectively; Ni1 and N i2 their corresponding integer ambigu- (4)(7) can only give the xed value of wide-lane ambiguity but
ities; qi the geometric distance between the satellite and the recei- not phase delay part; to obtain wide-lane and L1 phase delay parts
i and x the ionosphere-free combination ambiguity, the phase delay
ver; c the velocity of light; dtr the clock bias of the receiver; dts the
clock bias of the satellite; dtrop the tropospheric delay; MP and MU in Eq. (3) needs further combination:
the sums of the correction terms for correction of the displacement  
f1 i f1 f2
of monitoring station, the phase wind-up, the earth rotation, the ef- F iif k1 Ni pdc 2 Ni 8
f1 f2 1 f1  f22 w
fect of relativity, and the phase centers of satellite and receiver
i
antennas, etc., of pseudo-range and of carrier phase, respectively; where pdc is the combination phase delay; from Eq. (3), the follow-
and eiP and eiU the noises of pseudo-range and phase observations, ing can be derived:
respectively.
i f1 f2
In Eq. (2), with the phase delay errors being considered, the pdc Dui1  Dui2 9
ambiguity part F iif can be expressed as: f1  f2 f1  f2
where Dui2 is the L2 carrier phase delay. In other words, the pro-
f2 f2 posed algorithm is in fact to decompose the zero-differenced iono-
F iif 2 1 2 k1 Ni1  2 2 2 k2 N i2
f1  f2 f1  f2 sphere-free combination into two parts, i.e., ambiguity and phase
 
f1  i  f1 f2 delay, and to resolve them respectively, and then to get a single-sta-
k1 N1 Dui1 2 2
Niw Duiw 3 tion PPP ambiguity xed solution, so it is crucial to obtain the phase
f1 f2 f1  f2
delay after combination, which needs to be accurately estimated.
where N iw is the integer ambiguity of wide-lane combination, and
Dui1 and Duiw the corresponding phase delays of L1 carrier and 3.2. L1 ambiguity and combination phase delay resolution
wide-lane combination. It can be seen that, after ionosphere-free
combination, the integer part of ambiguity loses its integer charac- From Eqs. (3) and (9), we can get that N i1 after combination has
teristic due to the nonseparability of phase delay so that there is a wavelength of only 0.106 m and it has some difference from but
some difculty in xing the wide-lane combination and L1 carrier is equal in value to the traditional L1 carrier ambiguity, so it is still
ambiguities. We will conduct corresponding transform of wide-lane referred to as L1 carrier ambiguity hereinafter. After the wide-lane
and L1 ambiguities and their phase delays, respectively, to solve the ambiguity is accurately xed as N b i , we can obtain from Eqs. (8)
w
ambiguity xing problem below. and (9) that the oat solution of L1 ambiguity can be expressed as:
 H. Hu et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 207212 209

b i pdi f1 f2 F i  f2 N
~ i N
N bi 10
Substituting it into Eq. (7), we can get the L1 carrier xed solu-
1 1 c
f1 if
f1  f2 w b i . Thus, we can obtain the estimate pdi of combination phase
tion N 1 c

b i is the xed solution of L1 ambiguity. It can be gotten from delay and its RMSD rpdi as follows respectively:
where N 1
c

the wavelength of N ~ i after combination that the critical value of i

pdc _ N
Fh bi i
~i  N 12
1 1 1
ambiguity convergence is that the RMSD of the ambiguities shall
v
be less than 0.1 m. When the oat ambiguities converge, the integer u  2
u ~i b i  pdi
of their mean value shall be taken as the most probable value, and t N1  N 1 c
then we can obtain: rpdic 13
n
_ N
Ni1 roundFh ~ i i 11 After getting the combination phase delay, we can obtain the
1
ambiguity xed solution b
F iif of ionosphere-free combination [19]:

0.8 PRN 2 PRN 4 PRN 5 0.8

0.6 PRN 10 PRN 12 PRN 13 0.6
0.4 0.4
CPDs (cycles)

0.2 0.2

CPDs (cycles)
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
-1.0 -1.0
-1.2 -1.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Epoch Epoch
(a) Phase delays in 15 minutes (b) Phase delays in 0.5 hours

1.0 1.2
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.4 0.4
CPDs (cycles)

0.2
CPDs (cycles)

0 0
-0.2 -0.4
-0.4
-0.6 -0.8
-0.8
-1.2
-1.0
-1.2 -1.6
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 50 100 150 200 250
Epoch Epoch

(c) Phase delays in 1 hour (d) Phase delays in 2 hours

Fig. 1. CPDs of different satellites.

SP 3
Float
solution CPDs Fixed
position
Clock
file Float L 1 fixed
ambiguities ambiguities
Fixed
Clock
Ambig -
Other bias
uities
products

Wide -lane Troposph -

Observa - M-W
fixed eric delay
tion data combination
solution

Fig. 2. Flow chart of PPP integer ambiguity resolution with CPD model.
210 H. Hu et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 207212

70 80 90 100 110 120 130 normal distribution, so they can be accurately estimated using
55
Eqs. (11)(13). Comparison of combination phase delays resolved
within different time lengths shows that most combination phase
50
delays of satellite have obvious uctuation as a whole but their
mean values are basically kept unchanged, so it is feasible to
45 CHAN
predict phase delay. However, it can be found from Fig. 1bd that
40 BJFS the phase delay estimated from the 2-h continuous data of satellite
No. 2 (PRN 2) has a deviation of about one cycle, which will directly
35 XIAN
inuence the overall positioning result and accuracy. It is obviously
WUHN that there is instability with the time, so the resolution needs to be
30 SHAO

KUMN
conducted once every a specied time interval. Moreover, if the
25 time interval for phase delay resolution is relatively short, it
20 certainly will cause increase in data operation load; comparison
of the results resolved in 1 h, 0.5 h and 15 min shows that the value
15
is basically unchanged, so it is appropriate to estimate phase delay
Fig. 3. Distribution of reference stations. and conduct prediction once every half an hour in order to ensure
the statistical characteristic of combination phase delay.

11 Float E 3.3. PPP xed solution

10 Fixed E
9 Float N After accurately resolving the ionosphere-free combination
Fixed N
8 ambiguity and phase delay, we can use carrier phase observations
Accuracy (cm)

7 to realize precise point positioning; for the satellite clock bias

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
SHAO BJFS CHAN KUMN WUHN
Station
Fig. 4. Accuracy comparison between oat and xed solutions at different stations.
 
b f1 b i pdi f1 f2 N bi
F iif k1 N 14
f1 f2 1 c
f12  f22 w
As can be seen from Fig. 1, the maximum oat of combination
phase delay amplitude is close to one cycle, so this is an important
correction to PPP ambiguity. For the initial epoch, the positioning
result is mainly affected by pseudo-range observations, the posi-
tioning accuracy is not high and the convergence rate is too small.
After the ambiguities are resolved, the CPDs in the initial epoch can
be predicted to resolve the ambiguity xed solution; in dynamic
subsequent epochs, the resolved combination phase delay can be
used for prediction to realize high accuracy positioning. Neverthe-
less, the phase delay after combination has a short wavelength, and
its stability and its inuence on positioning results need to be ana-
lyzed in detail to ensure the accuracy of positioning results. Fig. 1
shows the combination phase delays of the observed six satellites,
which are resolved in 15 min, 0.5 h, 1 h and 2 h.
It can be seen from Fig. 1 that the phase delays after
combination have obvious uctuation but their values are main-
tained within a certain range for a given satellite (with satellite
No.4, i.e., PRN 4, as an example) and basically conform to the
parameter in Eq. (2), we used the clock bias products provided
by the IGS stations, believed that they were known, and neglected
the inuence of their residual errors. However, different from the
inter-satellite single difference employed, the receiver clock bias
parameter cannot be eliminated, so the position parameters shall
include the receiver clock bias, in addition to receiver position
XIAN parameter and tropospheric delay. With the Kalman ltering, we
can realize nding a PPP xed solution, and the specic ow chart
is shown in Fig. 2 [20].
In summary, nding a PPP xed solution using zero-differenced
data at a single station can be roughly divided into three steps:
1) Calculate a oat solution of PPP ambiguity using the tradi-
tional ionospheric-free model and the dual-frequency carrier
and pseudo-range observations; due to the accuracy of
ambiguity and pseudo-range observations, the oat solution
generally cannot reach a high accuracy and the convergence
time is relatively long;
2) Fix the wide-lane ambiguity through MW combination
using some epochs and resolve the phase delay of wide-lane
combination; substitute the xed ambiguity into Eq. (10) to
calculate the xed solution of L1 ambiguity and resolve the
combination phase delay; and then conduct prediction for
the subsequent epochs. In general, the combination phase
delay is resolved once every half an hour.
3) Substitute the resolved phase delay and ambiguity xed
value into the carrier phase observation equation using
Eqs. (11) and (14), and obtain a PPP xed solution using
the Kalman ltering.
4. Experiments and validation

4.1. Validation
Table 1
Float and xed positioning accuracies in E, N and U directions. To validate the proposed algorithm, we employed the products
Station Float E Fixed E Float N Fixed N Float U Fixed U and observations provided by IGS, and selected the data acquired
SHAO 7.5 0.4 3.6 0.3 21.2 2.2
at six IGS tracing stations (Fig. 3) in China at a sampling rate of
BJFS 5.8 0.9 5.9 0.2 19.8 12.1 1 time per 30 s in one hour on August 29, 2010. We carried out sta-
CHAN 2.4 0.4 1.5 0.4 8.5 3.7 tic data processing and analysis using the PPP software indepen-
KUMN 5.4 0.9 4.7 0.2 15.6 3.9 dently developed by our research team, and deleted the data
WUHN 10.6 0.8 6.9 0.6 40.2 5.7
from the satellites with observation time less than 20 min in the
XIAN 4.1 0.3 3.0 0.2 11.2 3.6
experiment to increase the result reliability.
 H. Hu et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 207212 211

In the experiment, based on Eqs. (4)(7), the wide-lane ambigu-
ity could generally be xed in ve epochs, the MW combination
wavelength was 0.8 m, and the wide-lane combination phase delay
was easy to be resolved and was relatively stable. The wavelength
of L1 ambiguity after combination is relatively short, the carrier
observation ambiguity is unknown in the initial epoch and the car-
rier phase observation accounts for a relatively small weight in
data processing, so the positioning accuracy is mainly dependent
on the pseudo-range observations; with the inuence of the pseu-
do-range observation accuracy and noise on the state matrix, the L1
ambiguity and combination phase delay can generally converge in
more epochs. As shown in Fig. 4, with Shanghai station as an exam-
ple, the precise convergence time is about half an hour. With the
ambiguity oat solution after convergence taken for calculation,
93% of ambiguities can be xed within 10 epochs, and all ambigu-
ities can be xed within 15 epochs. After the combination phase
delay is estimated and the ionosphere-free combination ambiguity
xed value is obtained, prediction is conducted for the initial epoch
and corresponding ambiguity xed value is resolved.
From Fig. 4 and Table 1, it can be seen that, after convergence,
the accuracy is 2.410.6 cm in the E direction, 1.56.9 cm in the
N direction and 8.540.2 cm in the U direction. After ambiguity x-
ing, the accuracy is 0.30.9 cm in the E direction, 0.20.6 cm in the
N direction and 2.212.1 cm in the U direction. Statistical analysis
of the six stations shows that, after ambiguity xing, the accuracy
is improved by 89.7% in the E direction, 92.6% in the N direction
and 70% in the U direction, and that the accuracy improvement
in the E and N directions reaches an order of magnitude, so the
positioning accuracies at millimeter level in horizontal direction
and at centimeter level in elevation direction can be realized to
meet the accuracy requirements for mining area deformation
monitoring.
4.2. A case study
In the experiment, we employed the data acquired within con-
tinuous half a year from December 2012 to June 2013 at four CORS
stations established by Shanxi China Coal Pingshuo Group to con-
duct test and analysis of deformation sinking, and four instruments
had a model number of TRIMBLE(R10) and were distributed on the
boundary of the mining area.
Fig. 5 shows the spatial variations at four stations within half a
year, respectively; in the gure, the spheres represent station posi-
tions, and the arrows denote tted variation trends. It can be seen
from the gure that station AJL3 is the farthest from the mining
area, so it is the most stable, with horizontal position basically un-
changed and minor subsidence occurring in the elevation direction.
Deformation occurs in both of the horizontal and elevation direc-
tions at stations DLT2, MGJ1 and ZHL4. The sinking at station
DLT2 is the most serious with more than 3 dm of total sinking
occurring in half a year and obvious movement occurs in the hor-
izontal direction at the station. Station MGJ1 is mainly affected by
sinking and the point position at station ZHL4 is lifted due to min-
ing in the mining area. It can be seen from the above two experi-
ments that, after ambiguity xing, the PPP positioning accuracy
is high, and the positioning result is reliable, so when used in min-
ing area deformation monitoring, the PPP can well reveal the
ground movement rules to provide data assurance and support
for production safety in mining areas.

400
20 300
200
10 100
U (mm)

0
U (mm)

0 -100
- 200
- 10
-300
-400
-20 10 60
-10 5 -400 40
-5 -200 20
0 0 0 )
0 ) -20
E( -5 mm E ( m 200 mm
mm 5 N( m ) 400 -40 N(
) 600 -60
10 -10
(a) AJL3 (b) DLT2

400
200
300

100 200

100
U ( m m)
U (mm)

0 0
100
-100 200
300
-200
80 400 40
- 300
-200 40 -80 20
0
-100 0 -40
0 ) - 20
E( -40 mm E( 0 -40 m)
m m 100 N( mm 40 (m
) 200 ) -60 N
-80 80
(c) MGJ1 (d) ZHL4

Fig. 5. 3D deformation diagrams at CORS stations in mining area.

212 H. Hu et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 207212
5. Conclusions
(1) When the oat ambiguities converge to a certain range and
then a single station is used to resolve phase delays and x
ambiguities, the algorithm can x 93% of ambiguities within
10 epochs and x all ambiguities within 15 epochs for the
selected station, so estimating the combination phase delay
once every half an hour can realize PPP carrier positioning
and improve the short-time PPP positioning accuracy.
(2) Comparison of the positioning accuracies before and after
ambiguity xing shows that, after xing, the accuracy is
improved by 89.7% in the E direction, 92.6% in the N direc-
tion and 70% in the U direction, so the positioning at milli-
meter level in the horizontal direction and at centimeter
level in the elevation direction within one hour can be
realized.
(3) Partial displacement occurs at all the four CORS stations in
the mining area due to mining, and the PPP technique can
well reveal the ground deformation status caused by mining.
Acknowledgments
Financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 41074010), the Jiangsu Innovation Works Fund of
Postgraduate (No. CXZZ11-0299), and the Project Funded by the
Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Educa-
tion Institutions (PAPD) are gratefully appreciated. Also, the
authors would like to thank the Shanxi China Coal Pingshuo Group
for providing the data in this research.
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