Ocean Engng. Vol. 5, pp. 243-267.

~) Pergamon Press Ltd., 1978. Printed in Great Britain. 0029-8018/78/0801-0243 $02.00/0

HIGH SPEED SHIP STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS, PRACTICAL

APPLICATION TO DESIGN

JULIO G. GIANNOFTI
President, Giannotti & Buck Associates, Inc., Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.

1. INTRODUCTION
ONE OF the most important considerations in the development of rational structural design
loads criteria for high speed ships is the availability of techniques for predicting the magni-
tude, spatial distribution, and frequency of occurrence of the seaway induced loads. Equally
important is the need for advanced structural analysis techniques in order to predict the
response of the structure to these loads.
With the increasing demand for faster and lighter ships, such as planing hulls, air
cushion vehicles, hydrofoils, surface effect ships, and recently wing-in-ground effect
machines, the need for these methods has become even more serious. Operation at speeds
in the 50 to 80 knot range in high sea state as in the case of future SES's, ACV's, hydrofoils
and planing hulls represents a formidable challenge to the structural designers of these
craft. Furthermore, it is reported that a wing-in-ground effect machine is being developed
in the USSR for transporting troops at speeds up to 300 mph. The possibility of impacting
a wave at such high speeds emphasizes the need for reliable structural dynamic loads and
response analysis techniques. This paper is an attempt to present as concisely as possible
a methodology for predicting rationally the magnitude of the severe dynamic loads acting
on advanced high speed hulls as a result of wave impacts. Having accomplished this the
next step is to use this information as input to, say, Nastran finite element structural models
to investigate the dynamic response of the overall hull to the transient impact forces as well
as the local response of the hull plating to the corresponding high impact pressures.
In addition to being able to predict the excitations and responses deterministically,
the designer should be able to have some measure of the frequency or probability of
occurrence of these as a function of the craft operational envelope. Included here are the
effects of displacement, speed, heading, operational mode (hullborne or cushionborne as
in the case of SES's and ACV's) and operational environment (wave height and period).
Thus, based on experimental observation adequate statistical distributions such as Rayleigh,
Weibull, Generalized Gamma, etc. are used to describe the statistics of the loads and their
combination so that rational structural design criteria can be developed.
Dynamic hull loads can be of two different natures: steady-state and transient. The
first are the result of phenomena such as propeller-hull interaction, machinery-hull
transmission and seaway component excitation of hull girder response (known as "spring-
ing"). Transient dynamic loads, on the other hand, can result from hydrodynamic impacts
243

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244 Jt~Ho G. GIANN~.)'I I1

on the hard structure due to slamming in waves, green water loading of the superstructure,
emergency impact loads arising from loss of cushion pressure in SES's or ACV's, bo~
seal and skirt induced loads due to slamming in the cushionborne mode of SES's and
ACV's respectively, wave impacts on the bottom of a hydrofoil hull while in the foilborne
mode, etc. This paper is devoted to the problem of high speed hulls subjected t~ transient
dynamic loads, specifically those associated with ship hydrodynamic impact, as these arc
usually the critical seaway induced dynamic loads in the design of high speed ships. Other
dynamic transient loads which may induce severe damage to the hull structure ~tre th~se
associated with air blast Ioadings and underwater explosions.
These loads and the response of the structure to them can be analyzed ustng the same
methodology presented here. In the case of steady-state dynamic loads, the igroblems are
well treated in the technical literature on conventional displacement ships (Kline. 1975:
Noonan, 1975) and therefore, are not included as part of the present discussi,~r~.
The next sections of this paper have been organized in a logical sequence so that tt~e
reader can develop a clear understanding of the procedures involved it~ ti~e d y n a m k
analysis of high speed ship structures and their practical applications to design. Thus, the
representation of the excitation or wave impact loads is discussed first along with a discussion
of the differences between overall and local loading considerations. The next step is to
briefly describe the methods for representing the overall structure and its components by
means of finite element models. Finally, the finite element models are excited by the impact
loads and pressures in order to predict the response of the overall hull and its components to
the impact forces and pressures respectively.

2. THE EXCITATION: WAVE IMPAC'I" FORCES AND PRESSISRES

When studying the problem of ship slamming, there are two problems to consider.
The first is the effect of the slam or impact force on the overall hull. When this force is
superimposed on the quasi-static wave-induced forces their combined effect can be quite
serious and must be carefully included in the structural analysis and design process. In the
second place, at the local level, the impulsive pressures associated with the occurrence
of an impact can induce severe damage to the plating of the structure, thus making it
imperative to perform a dynamic analysis of the local structure in both ti!e elastic and
plastic ranges. In addition to the impact force acting on the overall hull and the localized
action of the impact pressures there is a vibrational effect associated with the slam occurrence.
The latter is known as whipping which is a high frequency load following tile initial impact
causing a shudder throughout the entire hull. Figure 1 shows a simplified representation
of a slam-induced whipping stress superimposed on the quasi-static bending stress. The
impact usually generates the first peak of a compressive (sagging) whipping stress on the
deck of the ship as the wave-induced stress passes from hogging to sagging. In Fig. 1.
%o is the quasi-static wave bending stress, %~ is the slam induced stress (the first two
peaks mentioned previously), or,,,0 is the whipping stress generated by the hull vibration.
cr is the additive portion of ~m above the peak wave stress %0 and ,? is the phase angle
considered to be a random variable. In the specific case of the advanced vehicles supported
by a cushion of air such as an SES or an ACV there is a fourth phenomenoi~ to consider
when a slam occurs in the cushionborne mode. As the wave and the inflated seal (or skirt)
come in contact with a wave the seal (or skirt) will deform and simultaneously the air
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 245

-iv-
.... :Tr-!-

~ho: wave stress

o~so: siam s t r e s s
~ = whipping s t r e s s
8: additive portion of ~ o
~I, : p h a s e a n g l e

Flo. ]. Definitions o f stresses and phase angles i n v o l v e d in slamming.

pressure inside it will build up inducing a high transient load on the hull. If the seal collapses
completely and a hard structure impact does occur it is quite likely that the magnitude of
the resulting load will be attenuated by comparison with the load which would have
resulted if the seal were absent. This attenuation is due to the reduction in the rigid body
motion of the craft associated with the cushioning effect of the seal. There is also the
possibility that air entrapment at the instant prior to seal collapse against the hard structure
may further attenuate the resulting impact pressure.

Hydrodynamic impact simulation

The parameters of interest to the designer of a structure subjected to hydrodynamic
impact are the following:
- - Peak impact pressures
k . Impact pressure distributions
-- Average impact pressures
- - Impact or wetted surface area
- Total impact force
.- Time histories of impact pressure and force
- Accelerations.

All of these parameters can be represented mathematically through the application of

simple principles of hydrodynamics and rigid body dynamics.
The peak impact pressures are a function of the effective angle of impact between the
body and the surface of the water as well as the magnitude of the stagnation line velocity
at each instant of time. Figure 2 illustrates the simple case of a V-wedge as it comes in
contact with a calm water surface with initial velocity V1. The stagnation point p at successive
instants of time moves outwards with a velocity V,2. As the pressure is zero infinitely
246 JULIO G . GIANNOTT[

f~
rt
r~ , rz J" V~ tx : 0
Wt. P~ P, 0

Flo. 2. Hydrodynamicimpact of a V-wedgeagainst a calm water surface.

far from the wedge on the water surface Bernoulli's equation can be applied to obtain the
pressure P,. at p giving

P., = oVa" (I)

where p is the density of the water.

The stagnation velocity Vz is a function of the effective angle of impact and of the
normal velocity at impact, I,~. For the specified case of a ship operating in waves, the
effective angle of impact is obtained at the point of impact in terms of the local angle of
deadrise, the hull trim angle and the local slope of the wave surface. The initial velocity
at impact is the velocity of the impact point normal to the surface of the hull structure.
This velocity is the resultant of the hull velocities in six-degrees-of-freedom and the local
wave orbital velocities. If Equation (1) is applied to the limiting condition of zero impact
angle then the stagnation velocity V,, approaches infinity and so will the values of the peak
pressure Pro. This of course is not realistic, and it turns out that at small impact angles
(under about 10) air entrapment between the structure and the water surface plays a
significant role in reducing the magnitude of P,, below values calculated using Bernoulli's
equation. In these cases Equation (1) must be replaced with empirical relationships obtained
from drop tests using bodies with simple geometries under controlled impact conditions.
Chuang, 1973 conducted a series of drop tests in calm water and waves using three-
dimensional bodies where the angle of impact and the impact velocities were systematically
varied. Based on these results the peak pressure P,, is written as

P,, := Pt + Pv (2a)

where Pt is the pressure contribution due to the velocity of the craft normal to the wave
and is given by

Pi = k p V,,". (2b)

In Equation (2b) p is the density of the water, Vn is the velocity normal to the wave and k
is an empirical constant given by the regression equation
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 247

For 0 < ~ < 2.2:

k = 0.045833 ~ = 0.149167 ~ = 0.32
For 2.2 <_~ < 11:
k = 2.1820894 - - 0.9451815 ~ ---- 0.2035741 ~
- - 0.0233896 ~2 = 0.0013578 ~4
- - 0.00003132 {5
F o r 11 < ~ < 20: (2c)
k = 4.748742 - - 1.3450284 ~ -t- 0.1576516 {2
- - 0.0092976 ~3 -F 0.0002735 ~4
- 0.00000319864 a5
F o r 20 ~ ~:
k = (1 + 2.4674 tan-2{) 0.76856471/288

where ~ is the impact angle.

In Equation (2a), Pp is the planing pressure associated with the velocity component
tangential to the wave surface. Figure 3 shows a comparison between the predictions based
on the stagnation pressures of Equation (1) and the empirical relations given by Equation

I
I
, - - - - Sfognation pressure
4,00C l Chuang empirical
pressure
t
t
t
I
u~ t
n,

I
,E 3,00C
.= I
I
I I
e~ I
"l
l %
I
2,000 I
.E
~ /v~,lsfps
3

\ \
f,ooc \ \

I v,-18,'p'X \.. \,,

Vv'I2fPs ~*

FIo. 3. Initial peak impact pressures vs effective impact angle.

248 JuL10 G. GIANNOrTI

(3) for a two-dimensional model of an inclined plate dropped at several values of vertical
velocity and a forward velocity of 70 ft s ~ at different angles of impact. It is clear that
at angles under 10 Equation (1) departs significantly from the experimental observations
represented by Equation (2). However, at angles of 10 and above the two ~ets of curves
converge and the peak impact pressures can be predicted on the basis of stagnation line
velocity. The peak impact pressures by themselves are of little use for design since they
are felt only by a very small area of the plating. In fact the peak pressures obtained experi-
mentaly are only seen by an area of the size of the diaphragm of a pressure gauge whose
typical diameter is measured in fractions of an inch. However, the peak pressures are used
for estimating the magnitude of the average pressure which is the parameter of interest
for plating design. The average pressure acting on the wetted area of the structure is obtained
from the spatial pressure distribution and can be calculated using the approximate relation-
ship

P,,,, : P,,, ',1 (1 .... 2F~/rO'~', . (3]

where P,, is the peak pressure and ~ is the effective angle of impact. Figure 4 shows the
variation of the ratio P,,,/P,,~ as a function of impact angle for a typical V section. Also shown
in Fig. 4 is the shape of the instantaneous pressure distribution along the surface of the
body. The average pressure given by Equation (3) has been superimposed on that distribu-
tion to show its equivalency to the actual pressure envelope. The point of action of the

,0.8
Stagnation point
Water ~ c
~urfoce , : F~ ~i JH

- i
0.6 ,- p / I
// Approximate !
/ / formula i

2;,2 //zz/''
/ ~ /"

0.1

0 I 1 i

Effecttve impoc ~r angle, degrees

FIG. 4. Pressureratio Pay/P,,, VS effectiveimpact angle.
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 249

resulting force associated with the pressure envelope acting on the wetted area, usually
known as the center of pressure 7, is given by

C
.... I - 0.5 [U0t/2)] 0.~o7 (4}
C

where c is the wetted length.

In order to translate the average impact pressure into an impact load the instantaneous
value of wetted area must be known. This can be accomplied by means of a six-degree-of-
freedom impact simulation computer program developed by Band, 1969. At each instant
of time the dynamic simulation procedure yields the position of the immersed portion of
the structure with respect to the wave surface. To account for the fact that the water level
is disturbed during impact the water surface is assumed to be splashed up along the immersed
portion above the level of the undisturbed wave surface. The amount of this splash up
is shown in Fig. 5 where QaXa is the splash up above the immersion Va measured with
respect to the undisturbed wave surface. The factor Qa is given by

Qa ~- hi2 - 2~.{n/2) - l}/n (5)

which is an expression derived from impact and planing theories.

The product of the average pressure acting on each elemental length (shaded area in
Fig. 5) of the affected portion of the hull times the wetted area of that element, which is
determined as explained above, provides a value for the total force acting on each element.
The vertical, transverse, and longitudinal components of these elemental forces are summed
to provide the total forces acting along the three axes of the ship. Since both pressures and
forces are computed at each increment of time the pressure and force time histories associated
with a given impact can be readily plotted and used in local and overall hull structural
analyses respectively.
In view of the fact that the weight of the ship is assumed to be exactly counterbalanced
by the buoyancy forces and that the drag is assumed to be exactly equal to the thrust of
the propulsion device, the only out of balance forces during ship slamming may be assumed
to be the impact forces determined as described above. By applying the elementary laws
of dynamics, it is therefore a simple matter to determine the accelerations of the ship along
its three axes as well as the angular accelerations about those axes. In the step by step method
used for the calculation the accelerations thus determined are integrated to allow the
velocities at each instant of time to be calculated, and the velocities are in turn integrated
to determine the displacements with respect to time. The geometric orientation of the hull
which results from the calculation is then used at the next instant of time to determine
the wetted area, the stagnation velocity, the peak and average pressures, and these are in
turn integrated to provide new values for the acceleration.

hnpact loads design criteria

With the advent of new and more rational methods of structural design of marine
vehicles the use of probabilistic techniques for predicting the frequency of occurrence of
any type of load of a given severity are becoming quite common. It is the probability
250 JUl_lO G. GIA/fNOTrl

domain (in conjunction with the time domain) which offers a route for combining loads
of different origin for the purpose of developing rational structural loads design criteria.
A complete coverage of this topic is given by Band et al., 1976. With this in mind it is
appropriate to present the results of the impact simulation in a form which can be readily
used as input to these techniques. Thus each of the impact situations is simulated assuming

Stagnation line
/
/' /
W
\

03 X3
3atum
plane
v,
'fective s-tern

V 2 is true velocity of local stagnation ii Pressure disfrubutiOCI

in space
I/I is velocity of "effective stem" relative
to water surface
P,.n " I 1 2 p ( V 2) 2 = stagnation pressure
Pay = P2(I- ( I - 2 . ~ / T r )2)=average pressure
i-o.s(~/~)o.so7
. location of center of pressure \
0 3- splash-up factor= 2 - 2 ~ ( ~ : - I ) / r r

FI6.5. Wetted area and pressure distribution for a typical slam.

that a certain probability distribution describes the occurrence of impacts of a specified

severity. This, of course, is not an arbitrary assumption but, rather, it is based on observa-
tions of experimental results with either test models or full-scale ships. For example, in
the area of catamaran slamming it has been established (Hadler et al., 1974) that the
frequency of occurrence of impact follows a Rayleigh distribution and it is given by

f= ~ e-{(hlahP + (v/~v)'} (6)

In Equation (6) ~v and eh are respectively the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) amplitudes of

the vertical velocity and vertical displacement of a given impact point on the hull with
respect to the wave surface; h is the height of the impact point above the level water surface
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 251

at the normal operating conditions; ~ is an arbitrarily chosen slamming or impact velocity

measured as the relative vertical velocity of the impact point at the instant of first immersion.
Equation (6) really represents the frequency of occurrence of an event where the point
in question makes contact with the water with an initial velocity exceeding v. The frequency
of occurrence of water contact only at that point is given by

f = e- (ia/<~h)= (7)

The inputs of relative displacement and velocity used with these expressions are obtained
from available motions programs (Lavis et al., 1972) or from experimental data. It is
pointed out, however, that the use of the Rayleigh distribution is not necessarily applicable
to all cases. The proper distribution to be adopted can differ from one type of vehicle to
the other and careful consideration must be given to its selection. This is particularly true
of air cushion vehicles and surface effect ships. Once the distribution is chosen and the
magnitude of impact pressures and forces taking place with given frequencies of occurrence
are established for specific displacement, heading and sea state then short and long term
term predictions of these loads can be carried out. The latter requires previous definition
of the operational envelope of the vehicle depending on the geographic region where it is
expected to perform its functions.
With inputs of vehicle geometry, inertia, motions and velocities along with wave
conditions and heading, the impact simulation is used to generate impact pressure and
impact force time-histories. For design criteria development, for example, this information
can be obtained from the vehicle operational envelope. Figure 6 shows the operational
envelope for a typical ACV in the cushionborne mode. All ship headings are considered
equally probable and so are the ship displacements. Each sea state is represented by its
significant wave height, Hlf8, and the ship's speed range includes astern, hover and ahead

-~~-.,=
~-" '-.- :=
~-
~--*
":~

_ l. _ ~ o.o9 .....
.= 0.09

.-o o.?
o .097

"- -1, :-----T .....

o o,3__ __, 2,~____F~_
;, I I I.,,
~05~-- 0.43 0.348 I 0.224 Speed r a n g e
probabilities
l l i 1
20 40 60 80 I O0
C rofl" speed, knots

F~G. 6. AALC mission probabilities envelope on-cushion over water.

252 JULIO G. GIANNOTII

conditions. A plot of probability of frequency of occurrence of vertical impact load for

this ACV with given displacement, heading, speed, sea state and mode of operation is
shown in Fig. 7 as obtained using the impact program described earlier. With the probabi-

a=l
_o 0.4~ ......................................................
g
o
a,- O.3
g

0,2

O.
E
7, o I I_llL I___L I II ~""~,. I 1J_j
10-6 [0--5 10-4 tO--5

Frecluency of occurrence, occurrences/see

Fl{i. 7. Long term vertical slamming load AALC mission.

lity of the vehicle being in a specific condition defined by the operational envelope of Fig. f~
one can enter Fig. 7 and establish the impact force associated with that probability or
frequency of occurrence. If, for example, it is established from the operational envelope
that the design impact load is to be that occurring once in 10 -5 s then the value chosen
from Fig. 7 would be about 150,000 lbf. In addition, the time-history of this load can be
obtained from the impact simulation and is shown in Fig. 8.

25
Actual pulse force
0 values
~Tdeallzed half -s~ne
pulse T:O,09 sec
20

!u tO
'- 15 0 0 0

O 0,02 0.04 0,06 0.00 Oo LO

"Time, sec

Design vertical slamming force pulse applied at bo~.

The impact simulation can also be used to generate parametric design information on
magnitudes and frequency or probability of occurrence of impact loads as a function of
displacement, heading, speed, station at which the impact occurs and sea state. Illustrative
examples for a hypothetical ACV are given in Figs 9 and 10.
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 253

30

25 r(V) - I0 6

2o
_J

u
yr(V)=lO 5

E I0

~yr(V)~ iO-'~
5

0 0.50 0.'10 ,D.15 0.20 0.25 0 30 0.35 0.40

Time in sec
F I G . 9. Force-time-histories for hypothetical ACV; heading : 180 , SS6; V 50 knots;
bow impact; different probabilities of occurrence.

A specific problem of interest to the designer of vehicles supported by a cushion of air

is the effect of the presence of the inflated seals or skirts on the magnitude and frequency
of occurrence of slamming loads. The overall effect is a reduction in the frequency of
occurrence of hard structure impacts and the resulting loads are smaller in comparison to
the case where the seal or skirt is absent. [t is important to realize, however, that the sear

~8

f
\
\
\
\ 4 8o .J
\
\ d
o,, t9

O
\
X
\
\
X E
k\
\
o\
\
\
\
\
0
\ 3 ,E
.-i ---.-..____
. .~ \

r
I

JO~~ IO - 6 I(} ~ IO ; I0 3 [0 2 ]0. [

0
Probabilify of occurrence

Flu. 10. Maximum vertical impact force vs probability of occurrence of impacts at the bo~
of a hypothetical ACV; SS6; V : 50 knots; heading =:: 180 , 90 , 0".
254 JULIO G. GIANNOTTI

or skirt slam induced loads are still considerable and must be accounted for in the estimate
of overall hull loads acting on surface effect vehicles. Having obtained the total impact
loads which are important for overall hull structural loading considerations, the next
step is to analyze the local effects of the impact phenomenon and develop local impact
loads criteria. This requires looking very closely at the impact pressure pulse as it travels
over the surface of the plating as shown by the schematic of Fig. 11. Typically, as the

Successive _~__~.~_ .~ / , ._~

pressure '-~-~ I\ / \ \ ~ : ~"-~>~
distributions /\ / \ /' .~>:f
V3

/ / ~ ""-- -- / woter lines

FIG. 11. Impact pressure distributions as a function of time for local plating.

wetted length increases, the pressure peak decreases and the pressure distribution varies.
Any individual strip of plating will sense an abrupt rise in pressure as the peak approaches
it, followed by a more gradual decay. The impact program is equipped with subroutines
which perform this type of analysis, and Fig. 12 shows predicted impact pressure pulses
for the case of an inclined panel making contact with the water surface at very high speed.
The pulses axe shown in a simplified form which is required in order to use it as input
to a finite element model of the plate. The finite element model gives the stresses and strains
experienced by the plate and allows one to establish equivalent pressures for us in local
plating design as well as the dynamic load factors associated with hydrodynamic impact.

400 _
ooo7 ooo8o?o9 F o.ot

ul ~ o 0
n'

200

t
Q.

I00

i
2 4 (5 8 I0 J2 14 I6 18
Length in in

F]G. 12. Pressure distributions at selected time-uniform over in. strips for a flat test panel
at high impact velocity.
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 255

3. HULL STRUCTURAL MODELS AND RESPONSE

The common practice in the analysis of displacement ships subjected to transient
dynamic loads has been to represent the hull structure as a free-free beam with several
attempts to improve this type of modeling in order to study the vibrational response of
the ship. Appendix A contains a summary of some of the most significant contributions
in this area for the past 15 yr as reported recently by Mansour and d'Oliveira (1975).
Although the approach of representing the hull as a one dimensional vibrating structure
seems to provide reasonably good design numbers for conventional displacement monohulls
the same may not be true of unconventional hulls such as an ACV or an SES. One-
dimensional beam theory does not account for shear lag effects, local vibrations and
coupling between horizontal and torsional vibrations all of which can play important
roles in the structural response of the unconventional hulls. However, a few attempts have
been made to include some of these effects in the analysis of conventional hulls s u bjected to
dynamic loads. Leibowitz and Schwendler (1965) developed a three dimensional beam-
shell-sprung body model of the NS "Savannah" with the propeller and shafting treated as
a sprung body attached to a beam-shell system representing the hull. Kline and Cough
(1957) developed a model of a ship with double-bottom girder capable of independent
local deformations by means of two beams interconnected by rigid links and springs.
In spite of these efforts it is apparent from recent experience with the development of
structural design criteria for surface effect ships that the use of more sophisticated tech-
niques such as finite element structural models is imperative. The advantage of using finite
element techniques is that a much more detailed and realistic two and three dimensional
representations of the hull in question can be achieved. One such computer program has
already been developed for performing dynamic analysis of conventional hulls at the
Netherlands Ship Model Basin (1971). In the case of weight critical high speed hulls, the
use of Nastran finite element models is starting to prove its effectiveness as a very useful
design tool. Thus, one, two and three finite element models of these hulls can be developed.
One dimensional representations are designed to provide a simple model for initial load
analysis and parametric studies where primarily gross ship response is desired. With one
dimensional finite element models the designer can perform normal modes analysis,
impact-induced transient response analysis and wave-induced frequency response analysis.
Longitudinal stations used for defining the model relate directly to the two and three
dimensional stations. All structural elements are bar elements and assume uniform section
properties over their length. The section properties of cross-sectional area, longitudinal
moment of inertia and shear stiffness are based upon full ship calculated properties. The
ship mass is distributed into lumped mass points existing at the grid points of the model.
Two dimensional finite element models are constructed with the goal of providing a
principal loads model with which the majority of the loads analysis may be performed.
They are a very useful tool for generating internal loads and accelerations for subsequent
use in detailed stress analysis. Types of analysis performed here include normal modes
analysis, wave-induced frequency response analysis and impact-induced transient response
analysis. The two dimensional models are designed to approximate the overall structural
behavior of the three dimensional ship as closely as possible. In this case, the design of the
individual model structural elements considers the longitudinal and transverse as well as
torsional stiffness of the full-scale ship. Additionally, vertical shear stiffness in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions is accounted for. Stress recovery coefficients are
256 JULiO G. G I A ~ q o r r t

chosen at each element to represent as closely as possible, longitudinal and transverse

extensional stresses at the desired keel and deck levels due to overall hull bending. The
longitudinal stations are located according to the full-scale ship transverse bulkhead
locations. The ship mass for each of the operating weights is distributed into lumped mass
points existing at each of the grid points of the model.
Three-dimensional finite element representations of a full-scale hull are designed with
the intention of providing a detailed model closely representing the structural behavior
characteristics of the actual ship while maintaining a model size and computer run within
reasonable limits, It is primarily a verification tool to be used after the most critical condi-
tions have been identified by the use of the one and two dimensional analysis. For example,
in the case of a surface effect ship only a three dimensional model is suitable for investigating
sidehull impact conditions and the definitions of frame loadings.
Figures 13 and 14 show examples of such structural element models, l'he shaded area,~
on the skirt structural model of Fig. 13 indicate where compressive loads would occur,
which of course would wrinkle the fabric. A minor adjustment in geometry removed the
wrinkles and the design finalized. Figure 14 is a structural model of the JEFF-A landing
craft.
The finite element models discussed above can be used for different purposes. First it
is possible to obtain the natural frequencies and model shapes of the ship's hull for different
weight conditions for longitudinal bending, transverse bending and torsion, In the case

SES--IOOA BOW SEA~

. . . . . . C(_ . . . . . . . .

CRAFT

~'727,-/7Fo M PR ES S I v Ell
STRESS I
II .... : , 1

FK;. 13. Structural model of the SES-100A bow seal.

 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 257

JEFF (A} S T R U C T U R E

~" x ' ~ i ~ - ~ ~,.c~~ ~ ' - ~ ' ~ -....

- ="-'
~

II
Fx6. 14. Structural model of the JEFF-A landing craft.

- -~o

Is1" mode
846

~
2nd mode
3638

///
3rd mode
5266

v/I r
4tl m o d e
11870

FIcJ. 15. Vibrations of a cantilever plate divided into four triangular elements; modal shapes.
D a t a : E = 3 0 ~ 1061b/in~;t = 0 . 1 i n ; L = 2 i n ; b ~ = l i n ; V = 0 . 3 ; d e n s i t y ~ =:0.2831b/ins.
The numbers listed show frequencies in cycles/s.
258 JULIO G. GIANNO'lq I

of the structure of an SES, for example, a two dimensional flat plate model can be adapted
to predict the natural frequencies and modal shapes of the hull. Figure 15 shows the output
of the finite element model of a cantilever plate illustrating tiffs method.
The second type of information which can be readily obtained from the finite element
model of a high speed ship hull is the overall hull response to dynamic transient loads.
Of primary importance is the need to establish the dynamic load factor (DLF) of the hull.
The DLF is defined as the ratio of the total flexible body load to the total rigid body load.
The impact force time-histories predicted via the impact simulation discussed in the previous
section can be used to excite the finite element model of the hull. In order to determine the
DLF two separate transient response computer runs can be performed. One run would
represent the flexible and rigid body hull structure response to the transient impact force
while the second run would simulate only the flexible body response in which the rigid
body modes are deleted from the analysis. The difference between these two cases is the
rigid body hull response upon which is based the DLF. Thus, in terms of bending moment
the dynamic load factor is defined by

Total flexible body dynamic moment

DLF =
Rigid body moment

At the time of writing of this paper the results of finite element analyses of hull structure
response of high speed ships such as the SES have not been published in the open literature.
However, to illustrate the type of output which is obtained from similar analyses, the
results presented by St. Denis and Fersh for the hull of the "Wolverine State" are quite
useful. St. Denis and Fersh (1968) treated the hull as a Timoshenko beam and the solution
was obtained using a finite-difference technique. Their model was excited with unit impulses
of 0.001, 0.01, 0.1 and 1.0 second applied at 25 jo~ of the ship's length from the bow. Time
increments of 0.0001 to 0.02 s were used. Three sets of values of flexural and shear rigidities
were introduced, namely, normal, 75 ~,i of normal and 50 ~ of normal. The normal set of
values corresponds to the ship as built. Damping was not included in the analysis and their
preliminary results indicated that the influence of structural flexibility is to reduce the
maximum bending moment in the hull structure. This effect is demonstrated in Figs. 16
and 17.
The finite element models discussed above are meant to be used in the analysis of the
overall hull structural response to dynamic loads. However, the structural designer is also
interested in the local plating response and the development of effective local load envelopes
which will result in low structural weight and still keep plate damage at acceptable levels.
The reponse of thelocal plating of a high speed ship subjected to slamming loads is expected
to be nonlinear for two main reasons. First, the deflections arising from the highly impulsive
loads are usually beyond the classical small deflection range. Second, inelastic stress-strain
behavior (yielding) is experienced in local regions of the plating.
In order to design the local structure against dynamic impulsive loads such as those
arising from ship slamming it is necessary to establish equivalent or characteristic impact
pressure distributions which can be used readily to estimate plate dimensions and possible
damage. This can be done using standard finite element or finite difference models. Examples
of these techniques are Mare-CDC and Ansys (nonlinear finite element programs) and
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 259

15

! o.,,- \\

~o \\\ /// ~-/ \ .... I

-'~l~
_~o1~ I L I I r L I
~
0 62 124 186 248 510 372 434 496
X in ft

Flo. 16. Envelope of maximum bending moments along length of ship corresponding to a
unit impulse of 0.1 sec duration applied at the quarter point of the hull~of the "Wolverine State"
as built (normal rigidity) and of derived hulls of 75 and 50~o normal rigidities.

18

16--

14--

.Q

"- 1 2 - -

.-

E to-
o
E

"0 J
(Z3
6--

4--

Z I l I I
0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0,90 hO0
F r a c t i o n of flexural and s h e a r
rigidity

F16. 17. Maximum bending moment at various locations corresponding to a unit impulse
of 0.1 sec duration applied at the forward quarter point of the hull of the "Wolverine State".
260 JuLIO G . GIANNf)TTI

Petros 2 (nonlinear finite-difference method). For illustration purposes, Fig. 18 shows the
shell element as used in the Marc-CDC finite element program. The element shown is an
isoparametric, doubly curved thin shell element which can be degenerated to a flat plate
element. The element employs nine points of integration within the quadrilateral with
stresses calculated at eleven stations through the thickness at each integration point.
Hence, there are 99 points at which stresses may be obtained in each element. This option
is particularly advantageous in an elastic/plastic analysis since plasticity effects can be
observed progressively through the element with increasing load. A coarser mesh may also
be used without significant loss in accuracy.

: "N

K2 e7 "'.~/" "\ ~-

I-qG. 18. Marc-CDCfinite element modal used in plating response analysis.

The digitized impact pressure pulses such as those shown in Fig. 12 can be fed into the
plate Nastran model in order to predict the resulting stresses and strains. In order to
effectively deal with the variety of real loading situations encountered during the service
life of the hull, a characteristic load pattern must be defined for each critical operating
condition. This load pattern referred to as the "standard load" by Freudenthal (1954)
should be defined in the simplest possible terms. In the case of slamming pressures it appears
that it is reasonable to assume a uniformly distributed pressure over the entire panel instead
of the real loading which is a traveling, nonproportional distributed pressure. From
observations of test results it appears that the pressure time history can be approximated
by an equilateral triangle with peak value P,, and pulse duration t~t. These two parameters
must be related to real load variables such as peak pressure, average pressure and stagnation
velocity. The final step in this procedure is to estimate the dynamic load factors of a plate
subjected to hydrodynamic impact. This can be accomplished using the standard methods
of structural dynamics where curves of D L F vs the ratio ta/T (ta pulse duration; T
natural period of the structural element) for a given pulse shape are used to estimate the
extent of dynamic load relief. Thus, Fig. 19 represents the response of a one-degree-of-
freedom undamped elastic system subjected to an equilateral load pulse. It must be realized
that when dealing with a hydrodynamic impact situation the computation of the natural
period T must include the hydrodynamic mass effects. This will result in a larger value of T
compared to that of the structural element alone. Finally, while in the elastic range the
dynamic effects may be insignificant, an analysis in the plastic range may show increased
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 261

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

-J 0.6
a

l i/2f~ f4
0.4

0.~

....... I , . I 1
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
t# / T
Plo. 19. Maximum response of one-degree elastic systems (undamped) subjected to equi-
lateral triangular load pulse.

load carrying capacity of the structural element under consideration. Figure 20 shows a
design chart to be used in estimating dynamic load factors for the case of a blast pressure
with initial peak triangular pulse shape.

- - Volue of I/DLF (30to0.60)

. . . . . Volue of fm/T" (6.0to0.4)

;So / / / / - 7 - - / ' - --. ",, ,, 60

:/

_ 0.8 " ~. 1.0410 ~ ----

- - 0.96

~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ _ __ 0.85

4 ~ ~ ~ 0.8

,r/ / / / _ / / ~ i ~ ' - " ~ ~

O. I 1.0
~_,,___~_-->~_~
50 I0
Ourot ion = f..dd
Period 7"

t~ i~
Fia. 20. Design chart for initial peak triangular force pulse on elasto-plastic system.
262 Jtn.lo G. GtAa~rNoTrl

Estimates of local slamming damage

Analytical expressions for simplified cases can be used directly to estimate the deflections
and the extent of permanent damage induced to the local structure by impulsive slamming
pressures. Jones and Waiters (1971) give an approximate solution of the permanent deflec-
tion of a dynamically loaded rectangular plate under uniform transient load. Thus, the
permanent deflection of a uniformly loaded, fully clamped rectangular plate based on
plasticity theory is given by

-- i 3(3--rlo )

for
1 <---P ~ 2(9 - 70 + 2q0z) (8)
Pc 3(3 -- q0)
and
[P ( P )2 411(2-- rl) {1
f.Oo
m
+ - 3o-no) 3 - - rio . J
h 211 no(2- hal,
t
for
p ~ 2(9 -- 7rh q- 2no~) (9)
Pc 3(3 -- -rio)
where
Pc = static collapse pressure for a clamped perfectly plastic rectangular
plate
12z~h~
(3 - -2n0)ap~
% = yield stress of material in pure tension
h = plate thickness
oo = maximum permanent deflection (damage) at plate center
p = slamming impact pressure
= ap/bp _< 1 = plate aspect ratio
no = ~(~3 + ~ - ~).

The above formulas apply to a plate for which the time duration of impact is much longer
than the natural period of the plate as is the case for ship slamming. Jones (1973) presents
curves of oo/h vs a nondimensional impulse parameter I' for fully clamped rectangular
plates of different aspect ratio subjected to a triangular pressure pulse. Some of these
curves are given in Fig. 21. The impulse parameter I' is defined as

I'-- pT (t0)
(Oh2ec)
where T is the natural period of the fully clamped plate.
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 263

-r/=,oo I0 "q : oo tO

(a) (b)

/3 =0 ,/~= 0.2
3 5 3 r- // / ~.~,~...-----~ 4

-3-- 4
2 2 3
5 2.5
2,5 2
t /2.75 I 1.75
1.5
1.5 1.25
2 4 6 8 IO 1.25 o z 4 6 8 10
I~ I"

~.~ 00 Io "r/--oo IO

(c)

,8:0,75
// 5
(d)

B= I
//
4
ajo / / / ~ 4

-- :5 z 3

i 2.5
275
1.5
I
2.5
12.75
1,5
~ 1 . 2 5 I ,25
0 2 4 ii6 8 I0 0 2 4 6 8 I0
I'

FIG. 21. Maximum permanent lateral deflections of fully clamped rectangular plates subjected
to a triangular pressure pulse.

In the area of damage induced to curved surfaces such as cylindrical and spherical
shells and shell intersections the reader is referred to the work reported in Jones et aL,
1973; Jones et al., 1972. These results could be applied to the prediction of slamming
damage to portions of the hull exhibiting curvature.
Figures 22 and 23 show plots of the ratio o3o/h vs total applied impulse for aluminium
and steel cylindrical shell panels with included angles of 90. Figure 24 shows the same
deflection data of Figs. 22 and 23 plotted vs the nondimensional impulse parameter ~,h/R
where

X --- PVo2R2/Gsh, V o ----Impulsive Velocity.

R is the mean radius of the cylindrical panel, and the other symbols are as previously
defined. Superimposed on these experimental points are deflection predictions made using
264 JUL10 G. GIANNOT'II

~'6-ra h 0,082in,
zx h 0.091 in,
Oh 0 , 1 2 4 in

7
0,8

0,4--

1, I L L
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Total impulse, tb sec

FIo, 22. ~%/h vs total impulse for aluminum 6061 T6 cylindrical shell panels with 2a ~- 90L

o h -~ 0 , 0 7 6 in.
2.0 A h = 0 , 1 0 8 in.
o h - ' 0 , 1 2 0 In.

1.6

1,2
wo
h

0.8

0.4

i. [ I .......... I
0.8 i.6 2.4 3.t
Impulse, tb see

FIo. 23. oo/h vs total impulse for hot rolled mild steel cylindrical shell panels with 2ct ~ 90 .

a finite difference technique. Points 1 and 2 are predictions for the a l u m i n i u m specimens
while 3 and 4 correspond to the steel specimens. Reasonably g o o d agreement with the
measured data was achieved.
 High speed ship structural dynamics, practical application to design 265

1.8 I [] h 0 . 0 8 2 in.
Ah 0.091 in AL 6061 T6
1.6 o h 0.124 in.
h 0.076 in.
1.4 h 0.108 in. M i l d s f e e l ~3
oh 0.120 in.
1.2 [2

I.o O0
5 4
(a
"T"o o.e

0.6 vl

0.4
A
0.2 o A

0 I 2 5 4 5 6
h H/R

V and 0 ore finite -difference results

FIG. 24. o~o/h vs the nondimensional impulse parameter 2h/R for all aluminum 6061 T6
and hot rolled mild steel panels (2~z = 90).

4. CONCLUSIONS
The procedures for conducting dynamic analyses of overall and local hull structures
presented here for the case of impact loads due to slamming can be used with dynamic
loads of different origin. The need for these advanced techniques for predicting loads
coupled with the use of finite element structural response models and the use of plasticity
theory is the result of the increasingly stringent strength/weight ratios imposed on modern
high speed marine vehicles.

APPENDIX A
S U M M A R Y OF ANALYSES OF H U L L S T R U C T U R A L RESPONSE TO T R A N S I E N T D Y N A M I C
LOADS BASED ON A RECENT SURVEY BY M A N S O U R A N D d'OLIVEIRA, 1973

Author Analysis and Results

ANDREWS A method for determining the elastic body response of a ship to a seaway was
developed. The ship was divided into equal sections, and for each one a
forcing function and mass-elastic parameters representing the hull were
computed. The forcing function was considered to include an unsteady hydro-
dynamic component, obtained from the measured rigid-body motions, and a
hydrostatic component. The ship was essentially treated as a free-free beam
and the waves were assumed to be trochoidal. The damping coefficient was
given a zero value throughout the computations.
ANTONIDES Developed a computer program to evaluate hull responses to a traveling
slamming force by the normal mode method. The ship hull is considered as a
nonuniform beam divided into twenty sections. The virtual mass is lumped
and connected with weightless rigid rods hinged at the masses and impact
forces are considered as discrete forces acting vertically on each mass.
CHURCH Developed a model to study the elastic motions and hull girder stresses of a
ship with appreciable bow flare in heavy seas. Church concluded that the
bending moment for a given ship design can be expressed as a function of
the peak bow immersion, which is linearly dependent on the wave crest height.
HELLER AND JASPER Developed a semi-empirical design procedure for predicting the response of
planing craft hulls subjected to dynamic impact loads.
266 JULIO G. GIANNOTTI

HYLARIDES Suggests the finite-element method as an effective means of taking into account
the spatial composition of the hull, providing a much more realistic three
dimensional representation of a ship structure. As a result the imperfections
of the beam method essentially caused by considering the hull as a one
dimensional vibrating structure are eliminated.
KAPLAN The work evaluates and contributes to the mathematical models of describing
ship-wave interaction, and it is mostly concerned with the computer simulati on
of wave-induced structural loadings, including not only bottom impact
slamming but also bow flare slamming and springing, or wave-excited main
hull vibration. The structural model adopted is the free-free beam, and a
definition of the bottom impact forcing function si~mlar to the one given by
Andrews and Leibowitz is followed. Kaplan concludes that it is not con-
venient in practice to represent the bending moment due to slamming in a
spectral form, and suggests as a more effective way the time-history representa-
tion which can be combined directly with the time-history output due to the
slowly varying wave-induced bending moment. The random wave input is
obtained through a white-noise generator adequately filtered to produce a
desired spectral form.
KL~NE AND CLOUGH Attempted the use of an improved model to study the dynamic response of the
hull, including slamming. The influence of bulkhead spacing, machinery and
cargo location, hull girder and double-bottom stiffnesses were analyzed by
these authors. Their model included a main elastic axis, representing the
primary flexural behavior of the hull girder, and an additional axis accounting
for the double bottom, which is in fact capable of independent local deforma-
tions. At intervals, the two axes were coupled either by rigid connections
representing the bulkheads or by springs allowing a certain degree of relative
movement of the two girders. Finally, buoyancy springs provided it support
to the model. The slamming load or forcing function was assumed to be a half
sine wave impulse applied to the flexible bottom structure at a particular
station near the bow.
LEIBOWITZ The work represents a refined extension of Andrews' report with more precise
treatment of certain parameters such as added mass, description of the waves,
and damping. The computations were based on an experimental knowledge
of the ship's rigid-body motions relative to the waves, which were taken from
graphical records of periods of time when slamming was actually known to
have occurred.
MAN,SOURand d'OLIVEIRA A mathematical formulation of the vibratory bending moment due to bottom
impact slamming in regular waves was developed. The hydrodynamic problem
concerning the definition of the loads is first discussed and a particular physical
model is adopted for determining the hull vibratory behavior. Based on this
formulation, a general computerized procedure leading to the time-history
representation of the midship bending moment is developed. Finally, an
illustrative example of application to a Mariner ship is described and the
results are related to some available data.
ST. DENIS and FEaSH Investigated the effect of ship stiffness on the hull structural response. They
treated the ship as Timoshenko beam and the solution was obtained using a
finite-difference technique. Damping was not included in the analysis. Their
preliminary results indicated that the influence of structural flexibility is to
reduce the maximum bending moment in the hull structure.

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