MANUFACTURING SCIENCE’ A. GHOSH, 8 Eng, M Eng, PhD. Professor of Mechanical Engineering and A. K, MALLIK, B Eng, M Eng , PhD. Professor of Mechanical Engineering both of Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur ELLIS HORWOOD LIMITED Publishers - Chichester Halsted Press: a division of JOHN WILEY & SONS [New York Chichester Brisbane - TorontoFirst published in India by Affilated East-West Press Private Limited ‘This Edition published in 1986 by ELLIS HORWOOD LIMITED Market Cross House, Cooper Street, Chichester, West Sussex, POI9 1EB, England The publishe'scolophon is reproduced from James Gillson’s drawing ofthe ancient Market Bee hithenee Phen & Product I Distributors: Australia and New Zealand: Tacaranda-Wiley Ltd. Jacaranda Press, JOHN WILEY & SONS INC ‘GPO Box 859, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia Canada. JOHN WILEY & SONS CANADA LIMITED 22 Worcester Road, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada Europe and Africa: JOHN WILEY & SONS LIMITED Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex, England North and South America and the rest of the world (except in India) Halsted Press: a division of JOHN WILEY & SONS 60 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158, USA. © samated Fast-West Pres Private Limited 1986 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Ghosh, A. “Manufacturing scence. — (Elis Horwood series in mechanical engineering) 1. Production engineering Ete Malle, AK 67042 T3176 ISBN 0-7458-0059-9 (Elis Horwood Limited — Library Edn ) ISBN 0-7456-0075-4 (Elis Horwood Limited — Student Edn) ISBN 0-470-20312-9 (Halsted Press) Printed in Great Britain by Butler & Tanner, Frome Somerset ‘COPYRIGHT NOTICE AA Riahis Reserved. No pat ofthis publication may be reproduced, stoted in a tettieval SYstem, of trnsmited, in Sny orm or by any means, eleetonte, mechanical, ng, teeording or otherwise, without the petmiion of Elis Horwood Limited, Market Cross House, Cooper Steet, Chichester, West Sussex, England4 Machining Processes 4,1 INTRODUCTION In Chapters 2 and 3, we discussed two methods, viz., casting and forming, for obtaining the desired shape, size, and finish. Both these methods require a suitable movement of the material particles either in the liquid or in the solid state, However, both the methods have limitations and, in a very large number of situations, neither is suitable. Casting imposes severe problems from the point of view of material properties and accuracy, whereas forming becomes impractical when the job is either very large (requiring very large forming forces and huge machines) or the material is not suitable for the forming operation, Apart from these, the geometric complexity of the final job may be such that these methods, again, are of no use. ‘The foregoing problems can be overcome if the method used is such that the desired shape, size, and finish are obtained through the removal of excess material (From the original workpiece of a suitable size and shape) in the form of small chips. In most cases, a large scale removal is not possible either for geometric reasons or for the size involved. This process is termed as machining, and is perhaps the most versatile manufacturing process. The body which removes the excess material through a direct mechanical contact is called the cutting tool and the machine which provides the necessary relative motions between the work and the tool is commonly known as the machine tool. ‘Since the removal of material takes place only in the form of small chips, the machining of a finite area requires a continuous feeding of the uncut portion at a suitable rate, The relative motion (between the tool and the work) responsible for the cutting action is known as the primary or cutting motion, and that responsible for gradually feeding the uncut portion is termed as the secondary or feed motion. Depending on the nature of the two relative motions, various types of surfaces can be produced. To explain this in more detail, let us consider a point P (Fig. 41) where the material is being cut at a particular instant. Now, if the cutting motion is rectilinear and the feed (provided after the comple- tion of each cutting stroke) is also rectilinear (Fig. 4.1a), the machined surface will be plain (Fig. 4.1). The line generated by the cutting motion js called the generatrix and the line from the feed motion is termed as the directrix (Fig. 4.1e). So, various geometries can be obtained depending on the shapes of the generatrix and the directrix and their relative directions. To understand why the relative directions are important, let us considerMACHINING PROCESSES 187 Cutting jeneratcin ‘motion Z > Feed Direetrix (a) Motions of (b) Production of (6) Generatrix and cutting point surface directrix Fig. 4.1 Concept of generatrix and directrix. the two situations in Fig. 4.2. Figure 4.2a shows a case with the generatrix as acircle and the directrix as a straight line perpendicular to the plane of the generatrix. It is seen that the surface obtained is cylindrical, If the same circular generatrix and the rectilinear directrix lie in the same plane, two straight lines are generated, as explained in Fig, 4.2b. So, a series of such generatrix-directrix combinations, placed side by ‘direction per- pendicular to the plane of the generatrix, result in a plain surface. In Fig. 4.2a, the surface is generated by a direct tracing of the generatrix, and Generatrix Cylindrical surface Directrin produced L (a) Directrix perpendicular to plane of generatrix Lines &) @y~ Generatrix (b) Directrix in the plane of generattix Fig. 42 Cases with circular generatrix and straight directrix, in Fig. 4.2b, the final surface geometry is given by the envelope of the generatrices, and the process is known as generation, Table 4.1. gives ‘common examples of surface generation. In practice, cutting is really never done at a point but along a cutting edge. Thus, several generatrices and directrices are involved end generation yields not a line but a surface.188 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE Table 4.1 Generation of various surfaces Number Generatrix _Directrix. © Process-—Surface obtained 1 Straight ine Straight line Tracing Plain 2 Cirewlar Straight line Tracing Cylindrical 3 Plaincurve Circular Tracing Surface of revolution 4 Cireutar Straight line Generation Straight line (plain surface in practice) We shall now give brief descriptions of the common machining processes. i) Shaping and planing In shaping and planing, the surface obtained is plain (Number 1 in Table 4.1). In shaping, the cutting tool is given a reciprocating motion, and after every cutting stroke, the work is fed (Fig. 43) perpendicularly (during the return stroke, the work is advanced by a small distance) in order to provide a layer of the uncut material to the tool. Since here the cutting is not continuous, the machining is known as an intermittent cutting operatio For a long job, it becomes inconvenient to provide long cutting strokes with the mechanism used in a shaping machine. In such a case, the work is provided with the cutting motion, whereas the feed is given to the tool; this operation is known as planing. The basic geometry of the machining operation is the same as that of shaping. ee Teal surtice Cutting pay produced — motion. Surface generated Surface fencrated Gaal Feea(stoke Work Feed motion Fig. 4.3 Shaping operation. Fig.44 Turning operation. (i) Turning This is 2 very basic operation and produces a cylindrical surface. Of course, by face turning, a flat surface can also be obtained. The machine tool used for this type of an operation is known as a lathe. Figure 4.4 shows a typical turning operation where a workpiece in the formMACHINING PROCESSES 189 of @ cylindrical bar is rotated about the axis of symmetry, The tool is provided with a feed motion parallel to the work axis. Thus, itis easy to see that with respect to the work the tool has a helical motion and always ‘encounters an uncut layer of the workpiece. Here, the machining operation is continuous. This operation results in a reduced work diameter and a new cylindrical surface. When the tool is fed in the radial direction along the face (Fig. 4.4), a flat surface is produced and the length of the workpiece gets reduced. Gii) Drilling This is used for making a hole in a solid body. Figure 4.5 shows the operation schematically. The cutting motion is provided to the Feed motion Cutting motion Fig. 4.5 Drilling operation, two cutting edges (lips) by rotating the drill, and the feeding is done by siving a rectilinear motion to the drill in the axial direction. The final surface obtained is an internal cylindrical surface. (iv) Milling A versatile machining operation, it can produce various types of surfaces. A plain slab milling operation is shown in Fig, 4.6a. The tool, normally known as a milling cutter, possesses a number of cutting ‘edges. It is provided with a rotary motion and the work is gradually fed Cutting motion Cuter Cutting Abrasive Mi motion ‘Chip—> oe " ‘Brains Work Work Feed motion Feed motion (@) Scheme of miling operation Cee Fig. 4.6 Machining with multipoint tools,190 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE ‘Small chips ate removed by each cutting edge during revolution, and finally a flat surface is produced. (v) Grinding In grinding, the cutting tools are the sharp edges of the abrasive grains of the grinding wheel. These grains are very Jarge in number and have a random orientation and distribution. However, if a particular grain is observed, its action would be as shown in Fig. 4.6. OF course, the size of the chips removed by a grain is exceedingly small. 4.2 MECHANICS OF BASIC MACHINING OPERATION Before we start our discussion on the mechanics of the machining opera~ tion, it is advisable that we study the basic similarity in the nature of ‘material removal during the different types of machining operations (Fig. 4.7). The sectional view XX of the actual cutting zone in Figs. 4.7a, (a) Shaping (©) Drilling (@) Milling Fig. 4.7 Simulation of actual machining processes. 4.7b, and 4,7e and an enlarged view of the cutting zone in Fig. 4.74 show that ‘the basie nature of material removal in each of these operations is similar and can be represented as in Fig. 4.8. The important parameters involved are (i) the thickness of the uncut layer (1), (ii) the thickness of the chips produced (2), (if) the inclination of the chip-tool interface withMACHINING PROCESSES 191 Ss GBT 26.57 — 105 N = 508 N. Fe = 508X605 (26.57° — 10°) N = 486.9 N, Fy = 508 x sin (26.57° ~ 10°) N = 144.9 N. Now, using Lee's and Shaffer's relation, we obtain = 45° — 26.57° + 10° = 28.43% Repeating the calculations for Fe and Fy, we find the final results become Fe = 508 x cos (28.43° — 10°) N = 481.9 N, Fy = 508 x sin (28.43° — 10°) N = 160.6 N. Itis found that the results obtained by Merchant's second solution and Lee’s and Shaffer's method do not differ much. If Fe is the cutting force when a machining is done at a velocity v, the power consumption is given by Wa Fo (4.20) At the same time, if r; and w are the uncut thickness and the width of cut, respectively, the volume of material removed per unit time is then, ob- viously, given by w1,v. The energy consumption per unit volume of material removal, commonly known as specific energy, is given by Fe wae (4.2lay W= VQ, @21b) where Q is the volume rate of material removal. This specific energy is a very convenient basis for judging the power required for a given process. An examination of the various published data shows that U, fits the power law U. = Use, (4.22) where 7; is the magnitude of the uncut thickness when measured in mm.204 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE ‘The value of Up depends on the material; some typical values are given in Table 4.4. Substituting U. from equation (4.22) in equation (4.21), we get Fe where f, and w are in mm, Us is in J/mm®, and 7; is the magnitude of uncut 1000 x tw Weir Ny (4.23) Table 4.4 Values of Uy for various materials Hardness Material = = Steel 14 35-40 16 40-50 19 50-5 24 35-58 4.0 Stainless stee! 135-275 4 30-45 16 Cast iron 110-190 08 190-320 1.6 Al alloys 30-150 0.35 (Copper 80Rs 12 Copper alloys 10-80Ry os 80-100Ry 12 thickness in mm. Using equation (4.23), we can directly obtain the cutting component of force, and with the speed given, the required power can falso be estimated. Of course, the results are approximate and their depen- ‘dence on parameters such as « and y. cannot be observed. EXAMPLE 4.5 Find out the order of magnitude of the cutting compo- nent of the machining force during orthogonal machining of mild steel ‘with an uncut thickness of 0.25 mm, the width of cut being 2.5 mm. SOLUTION To start with, we assume a suitable value of Uy. As nothing Special has been mentioned, Uo for the mild steel workpiece is assumed to be 1.4 J/mm? (from Table 4.4). Then, from equation (4.23),MACHINING PROCESSES 205 Fe = 1000 x 0,25 x 2.5 x 1.4 x (0.25) N 500 x (0.25) Nx 1517 N. To compare the order of this value with the result obtained by the previous method, let us assume « = 0°, = 0.5, and Lee's and Shaffer's shear angle relationship. Thus, BaF tea tan! p= 45° — 26.57° ‘Then, from equation (4.13) with x, = 400 Nimm?, _ 25 x 0.25 > 300 cos 26.57" Fe Sin 1843 cos 45° N For 1000 N. 42.3. HEAT GENERATION AND CUTTING TOOL ‘TEMPERATURE When a material is deformed elastically, some energy is spent to increase its strain energy which is returned during unloading. But in plastic defor- ‘mation, most of the energy thus spent is converted into heat. During machining, the plastic deformation is large and takes place at a very high rate, and under such conditions, almost 99% of the energy is converted into heat, For cutting a low strength material, heat generation and the consequent increase in temperature of the tool at the cutting zone is not @ big problem. However, when ferrous and other high strength materials are ‘machined, the temperature rises with the speed and the tool strength decreases, leading to a faster wear and failure. So, though machining at a high speed is desirable, for higher productivity, the faster tool wear due to the high temperature puts a limit to the cutting speed. Thus, an under- standing of the phenomena of heat generation and temperature rise during machining is very important. ‘The sources of heat generation during machining are as shown in Fig. 4.16. Fig. 4.16 Generation and distribution of heat during machining.206 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE ‘The major plastic deformation takes place in the shear zone and this heat source is the primary heat source. A large fraction of this heat goes to the chip. The sliding motion of the chip on the rake surface of the tool also generates heat, and this is the secondary heat source. From this source also, the chip takes away the major portion of the heat. There is another source of heat where the job rubs against the flank surface of the tool. But with sharp tools, the contribution of this source to the heating phenomenon is insignificant. ‘Now, the total power consumption (= total rate of heat generation) during machining is W = Fev. If the rates of heat generation in the primary and the secondary deformation zones are Wp and Ws, respectively, then We Wet We (4.24) Again, We = Fee = Fro, (4.25) where ©. is the chip velocity, From relations (4.24) and (4.25), we can write Wy = Few — Fro. (426) ‘Thus, when enough information is available, the cate of heat generation in the primary deformation zone (ie., the shear plane) and the secondary deformation zone (ie., the rake face) can be found out. ‘When a material particle moves across the primary deformation zone, the temperature rise is given by! 2n where ‘A= fraction of primary heat which goes to the workpiece, p= density of the material, specific heat of the material, fy, w= uncut thickness, width of cut, respectively. Since the computation of needs an elaborate analysis, we will give here only the result which agrees well with the experimental results. It has been found that 4 is a function of the shear angle # and a nondimensional quantity, namely, pots 0 = (4.28) ik being the thermal conductivity of the material. For a wide range of work *Bootbrovd, G, Temperatures in orthogonal metal cutting, Proc. IME, 177, 789, 1963.MACHINING PROCESSES 207 materials and machining conditions, 205 A= 015 In gee (4.29) Hence, if ¢ is known or determined, 4 can be calculated using equation (4.29), and so 8» can be estimated with the help of equation (4.27). The maximum temperature rise #5 when the material particle passes through the secondary deformation zone along the rake face of the tool can be approximately expressed ast (4.30a) where / is the length of contact between the tool and chip. The correspond- ing average temperature rise is obtained from the equation (430 It has been found? that fat + tan 9, ‘Using this relation in equation (4.30a), we obtain ~ T Ws =f greiegom (30) ‘The final temperature is given as 0+ Op + Os, (4.304) where is the initial temperature of the workpiece, This maximum tem- perature is along the rake face of the tool. EXAMPLE 4.6 Determine the maximum temperature along the rake face of the tool when machining mild steel (ms), given work material (ms) shear stress = 400 x 10° Nim?, an0, v= 2mfsec, = 0.25 mm, w=2mm, ~=05, p= 7200 kg/m’, k= 43.6 WimC, c= 502 J/ke°C, 6 = 40°C. Use Lee's and Shaffer's shear angle relationship. ‘Rapier, A.C., A theoretical investigation of the temperature distribution in the metal > my Flank wear Ay (mm) Fig. 4.22218 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE speeds. Using hr = 0.3 mm as the tool life criterion, we note that the too! lives are Ti, Ts, and T;, as shown in the figure. Also, itis obvious that a higher speed of cutting leads to a lower too! life: It has been experimentally established! that the tool life equation is r=6, 43 where C and n are constants depending on the tool and work material, tool geometry, and cutting conditions (except speed). Figure 4.23 shows the typical variation of tool life with speed for HSS, WC, and ceramic tools, keeping the other conditions the same. It is clear that the tool life for a sae 3 Cutting speed » (m/min) ost 310 30100 Tool lie 7 (min) Work material: AISI 1045; hardness, 170 BHN; tool geometry, —10°, —10°, 10°, 10°,15°, 15°, 1,5 mm; uncut thickness, 0.25 mm; width’of cut, 1,6 mm} (ool life based on 0.4 mm flank wear Fig. 4.23 Cutting speed-tool life relation for various tool materials. given speed is normally much higher with WC than that with HSS. A ceramic tool performs better at a high cutting speed. Though cutting speed is the most dominant variable, the other cutting parameters, e.g., the uncut thickness and width of cut, also affect the tool life. When machining is through the production of continuous chips without a built-up edge, the generalized Taylor equation can be written as c a (4.38) ‘The typical values of C” and the exponents n, p, and q for a few common combinations of the workpiece and tool material are given in Table 4.10. “Taylor, FLW. On the art of cutting metals, Trans. ASME, 28, 31, 1906MACHINING PROCESSES 219 Table 4.10 Constants and exponents of generalized Taylor's equation (after Sen, G.C. and Bhattacharyya, A., Principles of Metal Cutting, New Central Book Agency, Calcutta, 1969) Work Tool oe ts CG Restriction 273 02 1<03 WTIC 227 02035 OS 03 <1<0.75 10% Co 221 0.45, 1>075 Steel WTic 292 , 4 O18 03 Ol 6%Co 292 Cast iron = WC 34028 04 02 e fr Toe units of v7, fy and w are m/min, ming mm) and mm, respectively. Te is obuerved that'qis smaller than p, and this faicates thatthe tool life is more sensitive to the uncut thickness than to the width of cut. ‘The two most important geometric parameters of a tool, viz., the rake and the clearance angles, also affect the tool life and the typical character- istics are indicated in Fig. 4.24. When the rake angle increases, the tool oo) - 8 g =~ 6 i° fa £ 2 a a . timed g é 7 e o oF Rake angle (degrees) ‘Clearance angle (degrees) (eto ake anal (Ee of caress angle ‘Work material: mild steel; tool material, cemented carbide; cutting speed, 100 m/min; uncut thickness, 0.13 mm; width of cut, 8 mm Fig. 4.24 Dependence of tool life on tool geometry. life starts improving because the cutting force reduces. A further increase jin the rake angle results in a larger temperature since the tool becomes thinner and the area available (Fig. 4.25a) for heat conduction reduces.