BIOL2021 Zoology

Terminology

Term Definition
Radiation Diversification of organisms into a multitude of new forms
Megascleres Macroscopic spicules
MIcroscleres Microscopic spicules
Spicules Small needle-like skeletal elements of sea sponges
Deutrostomes During development, blastopore becomes the anus
Protostomes During development, the mouth forms on/near the blastopore
Mandible Jaw-like arthropod mouth part, capable of chewing
Cherlicerae Pincer-like arthropod mouth part, incapable of chewing
Biramous Limb that branches into two, consisting of a series of segments attached end-to-end
Uniramous Limb comprises of a single series of segments attached end-to-end
Aposematic Denoting coloration or markings serving to warn or repel predators
Cursorial Having limbs adapted for running

Evolutionary history:

Era Period Date Major events

Paleozoic Cambrian 541-485mya Most major animal groups appear
Evolution of respiratory system
Jawless fish developed; ancestors of modern had fish (lack vertebrae,
undeveloped cranium) + lampreys (skull and vertebrae)
Ordovician 488-444mya Fish radiation + first land plants
Silurian- 444-419mya O2 coincides with land populations .i.e. terrestrial tetrapods
Devonian Development of true-jaw fish
Devonian 419-359mya
Permian 299-252mya
Mesozoic Permian- 252mya 50% marine taxa
Triassic 5 great extinctions reduction of current diversity (driving 6th extinction)
Extinction 140MY cycle of diversity .i.e. climate change + cosmic flux (meteorites)
Triassic 252-201mya First dinosaurs + flowering plants + mammals .i.e. cynodont
Jurassic 201-145mya Dinosaur diversification + birds
Very warm climate
Cretaceous 145-66mya
Cretaceous- 66mya Massive extinction event dinosaurs disappear (meteorite)
Paleogene (K-T)
boundary
Cenozoic Tertiary 65-2.6mya Radiation of birds + mammals; continental drift separates fauna;
evolution of modern biodiversity
Cool climate

Biodiversity:

15% plants
75% animals
o 73% insects arthropods are most diverse
o 4% vertebrates

General properties of living systems:

 Chemical uniqueness biological molecules
Complexity and hierarchal organisation
Reproduction (heredity and variation)
Possession of genetic program
Metabolism
Development
Environmental interaction

Common animal phyla:

Phylum Classes Order Characteristics Examples

Porifera (pore- 15 000 species (mostly marine) pre-Cambrian
bearing Sac-like bodies perforated by more pores pore-breathing
Cellular specialisation (but no true tissues)
sponges)
Lack respiratory, circulatory, nervous + digestive systems
Choanocytes flagellated collar cells (surrounding microvilli)
create water flow
o Radially symmetrical or irregular in shape (branched
or encrusting)
Embryos are free-swimming / adults are always attached
Skeletal structure fibrous + rigid
Rigid skeleton of calcareous or siliceous spicules composition
/ shape of spicules for sponge classification

Homoscelo
morpha
Calcarea Marine calcareous sponges skeleton of separate calcareous
spicules
Monaxonid, triaxonid, tetraxonid spicules
Spicules not divisible into megasceleres and microscleres
Asconoid, syconoid, leuconoid construction
Demospon Mostly marine (some freshwater) sponges
giae Skeleton of monazonid or tetraxonid siliceous spicules and/or
spongin fibre
Spicules (when present) usually differentiated into megasceleres
and microscleres
Leuconoid construction, with many small, flagellated chambers
Hexactinelli Marine, deep water sponges
da Skeleton of a network of six-ray siliceous spicules
Megasceleres and microscleres are always present
Leuconoid construction
Cnidaria 9 000+ species 700+ MYA Corals,
Radially symmetrical advanced specimens show jellyfish, sea
degree of bilateral symmetry
Nerve net / network developed respond in external anemones
stimuli .i.e. prey, predator
 Diploblastic ectoderm + endoderm (no mesoderm)
Specialised cells .i.e. nematocyst in cnidocytes inject
venom at 2m/sec
Incomplete gut (gastrovascular cavity):
Extracellular digestion in gastrovascular cavity
Intracellular digestion in gastrodermal cells
Mouth + anus in same position
Colonial cnidarians specialisation of polyps / feeding
or reproduction
Diploblastic two main layers of tissue: ectoderm +
endoderm
Triploblastic (complexification) three main layer of
tissue: ectoderm + mesoderm + endoderm
Coelom fluid filed body cavity containing organs,
located between endoderm and ectoderm
Acoelomate no coelom
Pseudocoelomate body cavity present, completely
lined with peritoneum

Sedentary; tubular; mouth Bell-shaped; mouth

upwards; reproduce asexually downwards; reproduce
= budding + fission sexually (dioecious); sensory
organs = statocysts
(equilibrium) + ocelli (light)
Hydrozoa Hydras polyp stage usually dominant
Anthozoa Sea anemones and corals polyp; no medusa stage
Scyphozoa Jellyfish medusa stage dominant
Platyhelminthe 350 species
s (flat worm) Triploblastic
Bilateral symmetry
Acoelomate
Cephalization ganglia + nerve chord (concentration of
nerve cells at the head)
Incomplete gut
Excretory system with flame cells
Mostly parasitic

Turbellar Free-living
Sexual reproduction monoecious
ia
Asexual reproduction fission (with regeneration abilities)
Tremato Parasitic flukes damage to liver, lung, intestine, blood
Complex life cycles at least two stages (each parasite has
da
different host) .i.e. Leucochloridium variae (snail) ingests
parasites, ingestion chance
Monogen Mostly ectoparasitic fish
Posterior hooked attachment organ .i.e. sucker, hooks, anchors
ea
Direct life-cycles, with one (fish) host
Cestoda Tape forms; found in cattle, pigs, fish (4-10m long)
Lack of digestive system
Reproductive with a complex life-cycle
Have scolex
Capacity for reproduction
Mollusca Lophotrochozoans
(Scolex hooks + suckers attaches to host digestive system;
ingestion of hosts partially digested good
Radula calcium based, scraping mouthpart)
 90 000 species
Diverse forms
Marine, freshwater, terrestrial
Free-living (few are parasitic)
Triploblastic
Coelomate region for organs to start developing /
existing
Mantle: dorsal body walls encloses body cavity;
modified gills or lungs; secretes shell
Foot: ventral body wall
Complex digestive system with radula
Gills or lungs
Heart and open circulatory system
Kidney(s)
Nervous system organised into ganglia (collection /
concentration of nerves) at the head
Polyplac Chitons; 940 species (marine)
ophora Dorsal shell composed of 8 articulated plates; shell plates
surrounded by girdle
Gastropo Snails, limpets, slugs, whelks, sea slugs; 70 000 species
da Shell (if present) is coiled or uncoiled
Univalve (single shelled)
Live + feed in a wide variety of habitats
Anus rotates from posterior to anterior (due to shell)
Variety of complex mating strategies .i.e. leopard snail (each
fertilised)
Cephalo Octopus, squid
poda Modified foot (funnel + tentacles)
Active predators
Flat, segmented bodies
Complex nervous system largest invertebrate brains
Complex eyes cornea, lens, chambers, retina
Chromatophores crypsis, communication
Bivalvia Mussels, clams, scallops
Two shells
Filter feeders
Gill lamellae for respiration + feeding
Echinodermata Ophiuroi Brittle stars + basket stars; 2 000+ species
dea Browse or suspension feed
Regeneration + autonomy more pronounced than in sea starts
Lack pedicellariae or papulae
Tube feet lack suckers and ampullae (different to normal sea
stars)
No anus, all excretion is through the mouth
Echinodi Sea urchins; 950 species
ea Most have hemispherical shape; radial symmetry; long spines;
move with tube feet
Sand dollars + heart urchins (irregular echinoids) have become
bilateral with short spine; move on spines
Crinoide Sea lilies + feather stars; 625 species
a Most 15-30cm (fossils to 40m)
Flower-shaped body at tip of a stalk
Filter feeders
Holothur Sea cucumbers; 1 150 species
odiea Greatly elongated oral-aboral axis
Self defence mechanism self-evisceration (lose gut + sticky
Curverian tubicles)
Annelida Lophotrochozoans
(segmented (Scolex hooks + suckers attaches to host digestive system;
ingestion of hosts partially digested good
worms) Radula calcium based, scraping mouthpart)
Metameric (segmented) bodies
 Triploblastic
Coelomate
Circulatory, respiratory, nervous, excretory systems
Setae bristles (lost in leeches) burrowing annelids;
help anchor to substrate (stop backsliding) + locomotion
+ potentially venomous
Hydrostatic skeleton

Polychae 10 000 species (mostly marine)

Head well-defined
ta
Parapodia (appendages)
Sedentary or free-living
Filter feed
Oligocha Earthworm; 3 000 species
Smaller and fewer setae
eta
Hermaphroditic
Hirudine Leeches
Anterior and posterior suckers
a
Lack coelomic compartments
Hermaphroditic
Carnivores or parasites
Ecdysozoa Cuticle (rigid, non-living outer covering) that is moulted
by ecdysis
Moulting regulated by hormone ecdysone
Nematoda 25 000 species names; > 500 000 species
(roundworms) Live in all habitats
Pseudocoelomate (fluid filled body cavity not lined with
mesoderm tissue); bilaterally symmetric; protostomes
(mouth develops from the blastopore first)
Only longitudinal muscles beneath cuticle (limits
movement capacity)
Non-living cuticle secreted by epidermis high pressure
provides hydrostatic skeleton
Complete digestive system
Ganglia + nerve cords (dorsal + ventral)
Most dioecious; females > males
Nematomorpha 320 species
(horse worms) Adults free-living
Juveniles parasites of arthropods
Parasitic manipulation:
o Adult hairworm lives in water / juvenile in non-
aquatic arthropods
o Juvenile manipulates host secrete protein to
manipulate nervous system and induce water
seeking behaviour and suicide
Onychophora 70 species
(velvet worms) 1.4 15cm
Terrestrial, moist, leafy rainforests
Mostly predaceous
Tardigrade <1 mm; extreme survival; vacuum exposure, 10 yrs starvation,
(water bears) absolute zero, 100C+, extreme pressures, lethal radiation doses
(survived all 5 mass extinction events)
Arthropoda Anthro jointed; poda = foot
Abundant and widespread
Nearly all habitats
Jointed appendages
Bilaterally symmetric
Exoskeletons (made of cuticle)
Successful traits:
o Versatile exoskeleton protects from predators
+ environment; with muscle attachment
o Segmentation specialisation segments
organised into specialised body regions
Head
Pro-thorax, meso-thorax, meta-thorax
Abdomen (segmentation)
 o Efficient respiration tracheal system delivers
oxygen to cells / gills in aquatic species
o Well-developed sensory organs complex eye
systems
o Complex behaviours .i.e. honey bee waggle
dance is the only form of symbolic
communication outside humans; wasps can
recognise individual wasp faces
o Metamorphosis allows for specialised +
avoids competition
Trilobite Extinct
Chelicer Sea spiders, horseshoe crabs, arachnids
ata Two tagmata: cephalothorax and abdomen
Subphylu Six pairs of cephalothoracic appendages (chelicerae, pedipalps,
m four pairs of legs)
Lack mandibles and antennae
Merostro Horseshoe crabs; 5 species
mata Haemolymph for biomedical products (blood gels in bacteria /
endotoxins)
Arachnid Spiders, scorpions, pseudoscorpions, ticks and mites
a Pair of pedipalps (sensory / manipulation + sperm transfer)
4 walking legs
Majority are predators venom + extraoral digestion
Myriapo Centipedes + millipedes; 13 000 species
da Tagmata heat + trunk
Subphylu 1 pair of antennae
m
Chilopod Centipedes
a Terrestrial; flattened bodies; up to 177 segments
Predators
Most segments have 1 pair of jointed legs
Last pair has sensory function; 1st pair form poison claws
Diplopod Millipedes
a Cylindrical bodies with 25 100+ segments
Short thorax of 4 segments (with 1 pair of legs); other segments
have 2 pairs of legs
Scavengers / herbivores
Decapod
a
Subphylu
m
Crustace Tagmata usually head, thorax and abdomen
a Cephalothorax (fused head / thoracic segment)
Subphylu Distinguished by two antennae pairs
m Head has pair of mandibles + 2 pairs of maxillae (sensory +
feeding apparatus)
One pair of appendages on most segments
Most appendages are biramous (divide into two sections)
Small crustaceans exchange gases across thinner areas of
cuticle
Larger crustaceans featherlike gills
Open circulatory system haemolymph exists heart through
arteries / returns via sinuses (blood containing haemocyanin +
haemoglobin)
Reproduction brood eggs tucked under abdomen
Larva undergo metamorphosis
Maxillop Ostracods, barnacles, copeopods
oda Different larval stages before rock colonisation
Malacros 20 000 species; 3 subclasses
traca
Isopo Isopods, slaters
da Marine, freshwater, terrestrial (only truly terrestrial crustaceans)
Amp Resemble isopods; lack carapace
hipo Laterally compressed
da
Deca Crabs, crayfish, yabbies
poda Decapods: 10 legs
Chordata Animals possessing a notochord
Hollow dorsal nerve chord
 Endostlye (for suspension feeding)
Post-anal tail
Pharyngeal pouches
Duetrostomes
Coelomates
Bilaterally symmetrical
Urochord Tunicates; sea squirts
ata Mostly sessile adults
Subphylu
m
Cephaloc Lancelets, including amphioxus
hordata Closed circulatory system (no heart)
Subphylu Notochord persists throughout life
m
Vertebra More complex organisms; birds, mammals
ta
Subphylu
m

Impediments to invertebrate conservation:

Lack of public knowledge

Stakeholders / politicians are unaware of invertebrate conservation issues
Lack of basic invertebrate research into:
o Discovering all species
o Species distribution in space and time
o Sensitivity to habitat loss and environmental change
Lack of public will due to dissimilarity to humans

Amphibians

Phylum: chordata, subphylum: vertebrata, class: amphibia

Ancestors:

1. Icthyostogea (360mya)
2. Triadobatrachus (200mya)
3. Beelzebufo (80mya)

Land colonisation: by Labyrinth fish due to O2 availability due to

Changing environment
o Increased plant radiation -> warming environment
o Plants growing nearer to water bodies facilitating limb movement
Food availability - prey resources

Physiology:

Gas exchange
o In water gills and through skin
o On land lungs
Water and nitrogenous waste removal
o In water gills and through skin
o On land kidneys
Water uptake through skin, esp. pelvic patch which is highly vascularised (subcutaneous lymph sacs)
Lymph drainage high number of lymph vessels with 2 dorsal lymph hearts used to pump back into
circulation + SQ lymph sacs
Thermoregulation ectotherms, so tolerate high fluctuation of T in terrestrial environments
o Behavioural avoid hot conditions
Burrow
Seek water
Aestivate (dormancy state)
Huddling together at night
Nocturnal
o Evaporative cooling
o Prevent crystallisation during freezing temperatures
o Able to reabsorb water from bladder for thermal stability
o Waterproof skin
Respiration - either
 o Early amphibians: buccal + cutaneous prevent lung inflation no diaphragm, buccal pumping of
throat
o Modern amphibians: skin + poorly-developed lungs + respiratory surface on mouth lining
o Lungless amphibians (e.g. axototl) retention of gills into adulthood + cutaneous
Restricted in habitat and size due to O2 requirements
SA:V -> O2 uptake
Circulation 3-chambered heart (single ventricle) incomplete separation of deoxygenation and
oxygenated blood
Reproduction relies on water
o Buoyant eggs
o Egg + larval skin with thin shells for gas/water exchange
o Types of reproduction
Gastric brooding grogs eggs laid in terrestrial environment, tadoples swallowed by male
and develop in stomach
Hip-pocket frog hatched tadpoles exist within pockets around male hips
Brood frogs nests in wet creek beds, rain moves them into water
Defence coloured to look toxic (aposematic)
Locomotion by hopping
Skeleton
o Frogs
skeletal density + complexity
skull bones
carpal bones
Fused radius + ulna, tibia + fibula
Extensive cartilage
Fused vertebrae
o Anura short body (<9 vertebrae) and short, rigid back (withstand forces) depends on
locomotion type
Swim
Walk independence of limbs
Jump (single hops with hind limbs thrust together, eyes closed, landing on front feet)
Flight webbing of feet (directs falling angle)

Orders:

Order Characteristics Examples

Cauda 4 legs Salamanders, newts
ta Tails similar to 1st amphibians
Fully terrestrial (moist environments) to fully
aquatic
Apoda No limbs or limb girdles Caecilians
Short or no tail
Massive bony skull, reduced eyes
Scales -> can tolerate v. dry environments
Offspring will eat mothers skin (maternal
provisioning)
Anura No tails Frogs, toads
Hylidae tree frogs; climbing
Myobatrahidae (terrestrial nest; burrowing /
ground-dwelling) + Limnodynastidae Australia,
New Guinea
Microhyliade small tree frogs; terrestrial laying
species; ground-dwelling
Raniddae true frogs
->The penis frog (Ascaphus truei) lives in fast-flowing streams, which helps with fertilisation

Reptiles

Phylum: chordata, subphylum: vertebrata, class: amphibia

Steps in transition from aquatic to terrestrial life:

Pectoral girdle if free promoting terrestrial locomotion

Development of lungs from gills CO2 excretion
Development of kidneys from gills nitrogenous waste

Characteristics:

Stronger skeleton than amphibians

 Pelvic girdle attached to 2+ sacral vertebrae
Skull deeper and narrower
Hard outer skin conserves water; gas + water balanced not regulated through skin (greater gas
exchange surfaces within lungs; increased compartmentalisation / folds with secondary bronchus +
faveolar sac)
o Horny scales with keratin
o Impervious
o Thick stratum corneum
Amniote egg
No body insulation (ectoderms) back; high temp metabolic rate (some heat exchange control)
Colour change controlled by hormones + nerves
o Camouflage; change in shade + colour
o Thermoregulation (more radiation heat absorbed on dark skin)
o Sexual signalling
Dispersion of aggregation of black pigment cells in skin (melanophores)
Water conservation:
o Lungs only ventilated when necessary
o Kidney reabsorb water from tubule
o Uric acid (substance excreted as solid nitrogenous waste)
o Urine isosmotic with blood
o Water absorption in cloaca
o Salt glands remove salt from the system
Reproduction move towards internal fertilisation; protects embryo from desiccation (lack of moisture);
soft shells (nesting area typically close to water)
o Intromittent organ (except tuatara) penis (turtle, crocs); Hemipenes (Squamata)
o Ovarity ancestral
o Viviparity 20% of Squamata
o Parthenogenesis reproduction withouot provision of male gametes
o Little parental care (except crocodiles)
o Temperature-dependant sex determination .i.e. global warming sex biased population
Ammonite egg: embryonic membranes:
o Absorption of nutrients (yolk-sac membrane)
o Nitrogen excretion (allantois outgrowth of hindgut)
o Respiration (chorion)
o Protection (amnion)
o Chorion + allantois chorioallantoic membrane: Ca2+ uptake + nitrogenous waste
o Extra-embryonic membranes placenta

Reptile orders:

Order Characteristics Examples

Chelonia or Testudines or Carapace (shell) + plastron (pad Turtles, tortoises
Testudinata on chest)

Crocodylia Crocodiles, alligators, caiman,

gavial
Sphenodontida 1 family, 1 order, 1 species (NZ Tuatara
island)
Squamata 3 suborders;
Sauria or Lactertilia (lizard)
Serpents or Ophidia
Amphisbaenia
Aves

Suborders: and typical families found in Australia

Lacertilia (lizards)
o Gekkonidae (geckoes)
o Pygopodidae (legless lizards)
o Scincidae (skinks)
o Agamidae (dragons)
o Varanidae (goannas)
Serpentes (snakes)
o Typhloipidae (blind snakes)
o Boidae (pythons)
o Colubridae (harmless snakes)
o Achrochordidae (file snakes)
o Elapidae + Laticaudidae + hydrophiidae (cobras + sea snakes)
Birds

Kingdom: animalia, phylum: chordata, class: aves

Physiology:

Feathers .i.e. feathered dinosaurs

o Complete array of types; downy; analogues of diving birds; hydrophilic feathers; coloured feathers
o Made of keratin, types down feather (juvenile insulation) + contour feather (flight)
o Functions camouflage, display, thermoregulation, flight, repel water
o Two main pelvic structures Saurischian pelvis, Ornithischian pelvis
o not bird dinosaurs also developed feathers
Beak; without teeth
Wishbone (furcular) and keeled sternum attachment of flight muscles
Specialised digestive system:
o Crop outgrowth of alimentary tract used for food storage
o Gizzard muscular, thick-walled region of stomach for grinding food (with grit)
High metabolic rate
Hard-shelled eggs (more calcified than reptilian)
Hollow bones for flight

Evolution:

Archaeopteryix transitional species between early and feathered dinosaurs, in China

Development of flight
o From the ground-up initially cursorial (fast-running)
o From the trees/cliffs down initially arboreal
Convergent evolution of pterosaurs (flying reptiles), bats and birds

Sub-groups:

Ratite (Palaeognathae) infraclass -

Passerines (Passeriformes) order -

Sub-group Hierarchy Characteristics

Ratite (Palaeognathae) Infraclass Running birds
Raptor (Accipitridae, Group of families and Predators
Pandionidae, Sagittariidae, orders Strong, power flight
Falconidae, Cathartidae) Long claws and powerful
thumbs
Passerines (Passeriformes) Order Songbirds
Origin: Gondwana
Perching feet
More than half the worlds
species
Penguins (Spheniscidae) Family Loss of flight
Glands secrete oils

Mammals

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Mammalia

Characteristics:

Fur
Sweat glands (including mammary)
2 occipital condyles articulation with cranial / anterior of atlas vertebra
70% mammal diversity is Rodentia (rats), Chiroptera (bats), Soricomorphia (moles, shrews)
Australias mammal fauna predominantly Gondwanan; marsupials dominate (bats, rats + dingoes later
introduction)

Sub-groups:

Sub- Hierar Characteristics Examples

groups chy
Monotrem Order Egg laying mammals Echidna (2 Aus species, 3rd
es Single opening (cloaca) excretion of waste; in New Guinea) + Platypus
reproduction
Egg-laying
 Milk glands
Marsupial Infracla Young carried in pouch (marsupium) Kangaroos, bandicoots,
s ss Born at early developmental stage .i.e. jelly-bean wombats, koalas
Distinctive reproductive systems female
marsupials have 2 vaginas; dont form placentas as
normal mammals do (sack), pause development of
offspring; produce milk for offspring at different
developmental stages
South American origin (Gondwana)
Major radiation in Australo-papuan region
Adaptions to unpredictable environment .i.e.
kangaroos gestational diapause; bandicoots
short gestation
Eutherian Clade All indigenous to Europe, Africa, North America
s (north of Mexico)
Placental
Lack epipubic bones
Skeletal characteristics distinguish from other
mammalian clades
Most complex placentation (placenta / umbilical cord
in uterus)

Importance of locomotor performance:

Migration
Foraging
Predation
Escape
Interaction with other members of their species
Status

Determinants of movement:

Fitness (sexual activity)

Motion capacity -> physiology + anatomy (ability + inability for locomotion)
Internal state -> motivation
Navigation capacity
Restricted dispersal more sensitive to habitat loss (movement capacity influences populations)

->Sooty shearwater travel up to 910km/day

-> Migrating birds are declining rapidly
->Birds that disperse widely during non-breeding season are less vulnerable

Motion capacity depends on:

Muscle function contraction and relaxation

Energy metabolism oxidative metabolism (mitochondria) + anaerobic (glycolysis)
Cardiovascular system cardiac function + blood flow

Muscle function:

Connective tissue sheaths:

o Epimysium surrounds muscle belly
o Perimysium surrounds fasciculi (fibre groups)
o Endomysium surrounds individual fibre
Muscle fibre fusion of many cells (myoblasts) = numerous nuclei + myofibrils
Myofibrils contain myofilaments:
o Actin thin, appears light (I band), two strands of twisted actin, with tropomyosin + troponin
o Myosin thick, appears dark (H band), myosin with tail and double head
Myosin + overlapping actin (A band)
o Z line in middle of I band sarcomere between Z lines
AP moves down motor neuron, through neuromuscular junction, spreads out through the motor end-plate
and the sarcolemma (cell membrane of muscle cells) Transverse (T) tubes release Ca2+
o AP stimulates receptor DHPR (dihydropiridine receptor) to interactor with RyR (ryanodine
receptor), releasing Ca2+

Muscle physiology:

1. Cross bridge myosin heads attach to actin filaments; requires ATP

a. Ca2+ binds to troponin, opening tropomyosin-blocking binding site
2. Myosin heads tilt toward the sarcomere centre, pulling actin with them (sarcomere shortens)
3. In relaxation, Ca2+ is sequested pumped back into SR by SECRA (SR Ca2+ ATPase)
4. Contraction + relaxation (ADP produced)
5. ATP availability oxidative metabolism + anaerobic
6. Muscle composition slow + fast twitch

Muscle fatigue: caused by lactic acid fermentation

Lack of ATP metabolic activity cannot meet ATP requirements

Lack of Ca2+ in sarcoplasmic reticulum storage

Sprint-endurance trade-off:

Sprint Endurance
Fast Ca2+ release + Slow Ca2+ release +
contraction contraction
Fast fibre type Fatigued by depletion of Ca2+
storage
Slow fibre type
->Maximising force production decreases fatigue resistance

Evolution of muscle physiology: link between physiology + ecology

Multiple demands prevent maximisation of either specialisation maximises either

Exercise consequences by +ve feedback
o Training effect -> muscle/cardiovascular system exercise capacity
o Endocrine changes endorphins, testosterone - motivation
Exercise
o locomotion, dispersal + aggression
o boldness and risk-taking, exploration, aggression
o Treatment with Ca2+ channel (DHPR receptor) blocked
Latency to leave refuge to avoid endocrine change
Exploration + aggression (exercise change)

Dispersal + Migration:

Leaving refuge + exploration tendency for dispersal

Threshold: once movement started, it is increasingly likely to continue
Exercise reinforces internal state + motion capacity

Homeostasis salt and water balance

Response to changing environments:

Let the internal environment change with the external environment:

o Low sensitivity to variables that change (salinity, temperature)
o Internal functioning fluctuates with external conditions (detrimental in unstable environments)
Regulate internal environment:
o Maintain constant internal conditions even if environment changes (homeostasis) beneficial
because performance is maximised

-> Example: Bull Sharks; move between marine + freshwater

Gravid females give birth the live young in estuaries; juveniles move into freshwater
Osmoregulation movement of ions between plasma + environment, and plasma + cell
o Internally osmolarity relatively constant despite environmental fluctuations
o Internal osmolarity slightly higher than seawater (when in sea)
o Internal osmolarity reduced in freshwater
o Urea increases at higher environmental osmotic pressures
Adjust internal osmolarity by varying urea concentrations
Minimise osmotic differences between internal and external environments
o Ions concentrations remain constant despite environmental fluctuations:
Regulation to maintain concentrations

Osmoregulation in saltwater Osmoregulation in freshwater

Slightly hyperosmotic to seawater:
urea, TMAO
Urea accumulated by kidney
Small osmotic influx of water
Rectal gland actively excretes Na+, Cl-
Large ionic and osmotic gradient
Reduction in internal osmolarity: reduced [urea]
Must reduce loss of Na+, Cl-; kidney reabsorbs ions, rectal gland
inactive, large volume of dilute urine
Gills secrete or absorb ions (not clear)

Problems with terrestrial environment:

 Water loss / retention (dehydration)
Reproduction (laying eggs)
Gas exchange in air (gills require water flow over gills)
Muscle and new limb structure (increased gravity)
Excretion

Example: Breeding migration of Robber Crab and Red Crab on Christmas Island:

Live in rainforest (burrows), migrating at start of wet season where breeding occurs and females released
eggs into water (hatch as zoea).
Females stay near water for eggs to mature; hatched eggs move on land

Gas exchange:

Gills in decapods: associated with appendages

o Suspended in water; water currents facilitate gas exchange (leg movement may assist_
Terrestrial crabs structural support of gills
o Modifications of branchial chambers into lung
o Pulmonary circulation

Terrestrial crabs: osmoregulation and excretion: in aquatic species, gills are primary site for salt
transport. In terrestrial crabs, gills are reduced but still primary site for:

Ion regulation: maintain osmotic pressure and essential ions

CO2 excretion CO2 produced by aerobic metabolism changes pH unless excreted
Nitrogen excretion (toxic) ammonium is most easily excreted
o Some crustaceans: detoxify and store ammonium in tissues (glutamine)
o Solid uric acid is insoluble and can be stored important for birds to reduce body weight
Use their own urine from antennal gland to flush gills

Terrestrial crabs: gill epithelium:

Several linked processes active transport + passive ion

exchange

Thermoregulation

T importance: influences all biological functions

Responses at the molecular level influence whole-animal

performance and ecology
Determines free energy + reaction rates
Constrains: metabolism, growth, behaviour, reproduction

Responses to T variation: Evolutionary theory: Coevolution

Regulate body T by thermoregulation + thermosensitvity

behaviour, physiologically: blood flow + internal heat
production
Processes are optimised at that Tb
Tb = environmental temperature
Regulate cellular and biochemical capacities
Optimise rates at particular environments

Internal heat production metabolic heat production, insulation

Behavioural thermoregulation microhabitat selection, shuttling, posturing, activity times

Mechanisms:

Conduction heat exchange between two solids

T differential within solid molecules have different energetic state; after period of time exchange of
energy will result in equilibrium
Convection heat exchange between a fluid and a solid
T differential between fluid and solid
Radiation short wave solar radiation + long wave thermal radiation
Different surfaces absorb at different rates (wave energy changes with wave length)
Evaporation heat required for vaporisation of water

Operative T:

Consider all heat exchange at (animal) surface single (average) T describing thermal environment
(calculated from heat transfer equations)
Behaviour: reptiles: ectoderms do regulate their Tb

Example: Galapagos Iguanas dive to Tb (water convection) + bask in the sun to Tb (radiation, convection,
conduction)

Analysing temperatures:

Take a Tb measurement from individuals; plot frequency of observations; compare means, variation
Temperature distribution evident
To show thermoregulation it is necessary to:
o Observe thermoregulatory behaviour directly + use a control:
Null-model: Tb of an animal that moves / behaves randomly
Compare measure Tb of real animal to null-model

Example: behavioural thermoregulation of freshwater crocodiles

Crocodiles move in and out of the water / sun behaviour predictable and correlated with Tb (day: stable)

Null distribution: provides a control

Compare Tb of animal to that of a theoretical animal that is no thermoregulation

Effectiveness of thermoregulation:

1 Determine selected Tb
a Thermal gradient
b No environmental constraints
2 Measure Tb of animals in the field
a Radio telemetry
b Single temperatures from many individuals
3 Measure null-distributions
a Operative temperatures
b Physical models
c Calculated from heat transfer equations
4 Calculate index of thermoregulatory efficiency (E = 0 (no regulation); E = 1 (perfect regulation))

Transient heat transfer:

mass heating + cooling rates (SA relative to V) (greater area for conduction; convection)
Thermal inertia caused by:
o Heat capacity with mass
o Conduction rate of internal conductive heat transfer with mass
o Convection boundary layer with linear dimension
o SA : V as body mass
Mass homeothermy:
o mass Tb fluctuations
o Very large ectotherms have stable Tb (body temperature) .i.e. salt crocodiles > skinks

Movement: in non-stable environments:

Animals move through thermal patches

Larger animals slower response to environmental ( Tb range)
Small animals Tb = Te (zero heat capacity)

Increasing body mass:

Advantageous more stable body temperature

o Max benefits when heating + cooling rates manipulated .i.e. increased peripheral blood flow
Disadvantages limits the range of Tb attainable / ability for thermoregulation

Cardiovascular system: respond to heating + cooling: blood vessels dilate or constrict ( pressure):

Heating blood flow to the periphery ( rate of heat transfer); vasodilation

Cooling blood flow to the periphery ( rate of heat transfer); vasoconstriction
Sensors in vessels signal to hypothalamus (autonomic nervous system) modulates heart rate
(baroreflex; autonomic nervous system):
o Vasoconstriction: CO ; HR , SV
o Vasodilation: CO ; HR, SV

Blood flow (Q): Q P (Poiseuilles Law); P l / r4; Q = P/R effected by vasoconstriction / dilation

Vasodilation: nitric oxide Vasoconstriction: renin-angiotensin system

Most important vasodilator Potent vasoconstrictor
Produced by endothelial cells Produced by kidney (renin) + liver (angiotensinogen)
Highly reactive (t1/2 = 5s) (toxic) gas Excretion (kidney
Stimulates angiogenesis Smooth muscle contraction
Produced by NO synthase in response in shear stress in Maintain BP during postural changes
blood vessels

Heart: heart rate determined by: cardiac pacemaker + baroreflex

Cardiac pacemaker specialised group of cardiac muscle cells; entrain all other muscle cells to their

rate of contraction (inherent rate of rhythmic

contraction)
SA node AV node (AV delay; ventricles contract after atria) Purkinje fibres (rapid depolarisation of
ventricular muscles)

Brain to Heart: autonomic control by CNS

Acute response to P + metabolic demand

Receptors on heart + blood vessels

Sympathetic: -adrenergic receptors Parasympathetic: cholinergic receptors

Located on heart Located on heart
HR; adrenaline HR; acetylcholine

Endotherms: thermal neutral zone Homeotherms produced own heat

Range of environmental temperatures over which metabolic rate remains constant

Thermoregulation by cardiovascular s
Metabolic rate below LCT to heat production
Metabolic rate above UCT
Tb beyond critical T (LCT thermal neutral zone UCT)

Thermoregulation: Tb controlled by cardiovascular adjustments:

Controlled flow between core and periphery alters rates of heating + cooling
Peripheral perfusion:
o Normothermia: 5% CO
o Heat stress: < 60% CO

Reptiles: model system:

HR before Tb ( rate of heating in warm environment)

HR as Tb reaches preferred levels
HR while Tb is stil high ( rate of cooling)
Baroreflex: HR s blood peripheral blood flow ( in heating; in cooling)
Peripheral blood flow: conduction (through body wall) + convection ( with HR)

Endothermy

Endotherm capable of internal, metabolic heat generation

Evolution mammals; fish (tuna + billfish); dinosaurs + birds

Selection pressures Tb, aerobic capacity; parental care

Mechanisms: endotherms + ectotherms same principle metabolic pathway

Quantitative changes metabolic rate; heat production + retention .i.e. brown adipose tissue +
heater organs
Consequences:

Tb high + stable; independent from Te

Extend activity times
aerobic activity + scope for activity
Limited size range
Dependent on constant, high food supply

Differences between ectotherms + endotherms:

Mammalian organs; relative mass, oxidative capacity + mitochondria .i.e. liver, kidney, heart, brain

Organs are the main site for heat production

Energy metabolism:

Metabolic rate (rate of metabolism) O2 consumption; resting rates (cost of life; includes
thermoregulation in endotherms)
Metabolic capacity maximal flux through metabolic pathways; constrained by enzymes; constrains
activity + heat production
Metabolic scope maximal rate of O2 consumption resting rate (how much metabolic rate can )

Metabolic pathways: macronutrients: produce substrates for ATP production (oxidative: mitochondria;
anaerobic; lactate)

Mitochondrial membrane:

e- passed between ETC protein complexes (I, III, IV [COX]) on IMM

H+ pumped into inter-membrane space; produces electrochemical gradients
Electrochemical gradient protonmotive force (storage of energy)
Protonmotive force drives ATP synthesis in complex V (oxidative phosphorylation)
COX (complex IV) transfers e to O2, production H2O

Metabolic capacity: determined by mitochondrial density / complexity + enzyme concentrations + activity /

membrane composition

Complex regulatory system thyroid hormone + autonomic NS

Energy sensing coupled to substrate utilisation

Membranes: phospholipids, proteins, cytoskeleton, fatty acids (saturated + unsaturated):

Fatty acids composition determines:

o Membrane-bound proteins activity Na+/K+ ATPase (resting MR) + mitochondrial ETC
o H+ and ion leak pump activity
As metabolic pacemakers:
o Activity of Na+/K+ ATPase (sodium pump) determines resting MR
o Molecular activity in endoderm > ectoderm (similar concentration)

Membrane composition determines Na+/K+ ATPase activity

Heat production: increase metabolic capacity:

H+ leak (IMM to cytoplasm) dissipate electromotive force as heat (rather than ATP synthesis)
membrane potential; H+ leak .i.e. rat leaks H+ at lower potential than lizard ( E lost to heat)
Uncoupling H+ movement mediated by specialised proteins .i.e. uncoupling (UCP) (in brown
adipose tissue), adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP)
Upregulate demand Na+ leaks: Na+/K+ ATPase activity (futile SERCA cycling)
Supply + demand ATP demand in endoderms .i.e. chicken ectothermic before hatching;
endoderms by day 8; ATP demand + capacity ( uncoupling)

Damage: reactive oxygen species (ROS):

High protonmotive forces produces oxygen radicals .i.e. superoxide, peroxide, hydroxyl radicals
Low ROC concentration required for physiological function high ROC causes oxidative stress .i.e.
damage to membranes, protein + DNA / diseases (hypertension, Alzheimers)
Exercise metabolic flux ROS production
ROS defence (against peroxidation):
1 Enzymatic: Oo-2 (superoxide dismutase) H2O2 (catalse/glutathione peroxidase) H2O + O2
o Not perfect; 2 radicals from H2O2 (cause lipid peroxidation; damage membrane)
2 Uncoupling: leak in gradient dissipates H+ gradient
3 Repeated exercise: ROS defence + oxidative stress; attenuates ageing process
4 Diet: antioxidants (supplementation works only is there is a shortage) .i.e. vitamin C, -carotene
Membranes, ROS and ageing:

Polyunsaturation of membrane MR susceptibility to ROS damage; ROS production

Conundrum:
o Saturated membranes MR; lifespan
o Polyunsaturated membranes MR; better health; lifespan

Animal Behaviour

Behaviour aggregate of the responses or reactions or movement may be an organism in any situation

Example: Tinbergens eggshell experiment; observed black-headed gulls removed eggs from their nests after
hatching. Significant: gull temporarily abandons chick to dispose of eggshell; eggs promote disease; edges may
injure chicks; white interior could attract predators

Ethology: concern behaviour mechanisms; fixed + flexible behaviours; production + detection of stimuli

Interaction of organisms with environment + behaviours survival value

Economic approach = behaviour costs + benefits (behaviour likely beneficial; otherwise natural
selection would have selected against it and removed it from the population)
Assumed behaviour is adapted to environment
Typically question aggregation in groups; diet patterns; dispersal; co-operation

Mechanism and function in animal behaviour:

Example: Zooplankton make large daily vertical migrations respond light quality + spectral light ratio s (act
as zeitgebers for their cardiac rhythms) / exploit surface resources in day + avoid predation at night

Animal behaviour repertoire: innate + learnt:

Innate genetically programmed (instinctive) .i.e. turtle hatchings move to sea

Determined + based on stimulus response; not 100% consistent within populations
Behavioural epigenetics environment affects gene expression + behaviour development .i.e. rats
stress response is affected by early life; experience = mothering confidence (down-regulation
glucocorticoid receptors)
Fixed action patterns are typically triggered by some sign stimulus or release
Sign stimulus releasing mechanism fixed action pattern
o Sign stimulus = critical portion of an overall stimulus (or releaser)
o Releasing mechanism = neural pathway
o Fixed action pattern = behavioural response

Example: Sexual attraction in sticklebacks females respond to red underside (sign stimulus)

Example: Egg-retrieving behaviour in geese retrieve anything egg-like (supernormal stimuli)

The sensory ecology of stimuli:

Perception is at animal discretion (humans assume vision dominates; anthropomorphic subjectivity)

Critical sight, smell, taste, hearing + touch
9 to 45 distinct senses proprioception (body position), nociception (pain), thermoception (hot/cold),
equilbrioeption (balance), semiochemicals (pheromone)

Dog 4 billion olfactory receptors cells, 170cm2 olfactory epithelium SA, 3 x 108 cells in olfactory bulb

human 12 million olfactory receptors cells, 100cm2 olfactory epithelium SA, 1 x 107 cells in olfactory bulb

Learned develops as the animal grows + becomes experienced .i.e. training a dog to sit
Behaviour due to experience; related to complexity of animals nervous system
Allows flexible behavioural patterns

Habituation response to repeated stimulus .i.e. turtle wont detract into its shell after repeated touching (opposite
to sensitisation)
Imprinting Learning that occurs only during a critical (genetically determined) period
.i.e. filial; ducklings follow duck
.i.e. sexual; young animal learns the characteristic of a desirable mate
.i.e. Westermarck effect; two people who live in proximity during early life years become desensitized
to later sexual attraction
Classical Learn an association between stimuli where a conditioned stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of
conditioning a second unconditioned stimulus. After repetition, animal behaves the same towards condition +
unconditioned stimuli .i.e. Pavlovs dogs; salivation occurred when scientist entered room to feed dogs
Operant Learning where an animal is reward or punished for performing a behaviour (reinforces or reduces the
conditioning particular behaviour) .i.e. rats in a Skinner Box press levers to receive feed
Observational Imitation; learning from copying others .i.e. blue tits took cream from the top of milk bottles; later
learnt to break foil seals
Insight learning When an animal uses cognitive or mental processes to associate experiences + solve problem .i.e.
Wolfgang Kohler trained chimpanzees to use tools for food rewards

Animal intelligence: many examples of animal cognitive ability .i.e. in chimpanzees

1 Brain size determined by ontogenetic, ecological + evolutionary factors (balance need /

affordability) .i.e. large animals need large brains / nervous systems
2 Neuron number + relative abundance in different brain regions determines neural function +
behaviour .i.e. no direct relation between neuron number and behavioural complexity
3 Encephlaisation quotient hummingbirds
4 Neocortex ration measures ratio of advanced to basic brain
5 Convolution index (wrinkles)
Comparison among closely related species groups makes more sense than comparison between
distantly related species .i.e. primates absolute brain size
Animals are well adapted to cope with their cognitive demands they are required to perform

Predation selective force (drives evolutionary processes); shaped biology + behaviour

Arms race between predators + prey adaption + counter-adaption .i.e. evolution from plantigrade
to unguilgrade (longer legs means faster runners)
o Van Valens Red Queen Hypothesis; run hard to stand still
Death or dinner principle prey face stronger selection pressures to overcome predators .i.e. fox may
reproduce after losing a rabbit; rabbit cant reproduce after losing to a fox

Example: Bats and Moths arms race based on echolocation: with bat predation (50MYA) moths evolved
sensitivity to bat echolocation frequencies bats shift frequencies + whisper + stopped using echolocation for
hunting moths auditory sensitivity; furry bodies dampen sound; increase risk assessment; evade by flying
erratically + plummeting; jam sonar (tiger moths)

Example: invasive species; prey will be a huge disadvantage (sudden + powerful selective force). Blue mussels
co-evolved with green shore crabs; mussels detect crab developmental cues invest in thicker shells. Asian
shore crab invasion; mussels didnt recognise cues (handicapped)

Example: colistin (last-resort antibiotic)

Induced defences costly to mount; finite resources (adopted when required) .i.e. puffer fish

Example: common frog tadpoles grown in predators presence develop wider bodies; shorter + wider tails;
less active swimmers. Predators removed tadpoles switched back quickly

Ways prey can reduce risk:

1 Make detection less likely camouflage:

Example: Biston betularia; break up outline (industrial melanism)

Example: Horned ghost crab; change your appearance at day or night

Example: Parrotfish; make cocoons at night (non-visual crypsis)

2 Making an attack less likely

o Signalling predator sighting alert predators less likely to attack
o Signalling youre poisonous .i.e. seasnakes
o Aposematism use of warning colouration to signal poisonousness
o Changing colour and shape
o Using other animals for shelter
3 Making capture less likely
o Deimatic behaviour startle or confuse predator .i.e. butterflies
4 Making consumption less likely
o Taste disgusting without being poisonous .i.e. salamander

Predator strategies:

1 Ambush or pursuit:
o Most predators specialise strategy determined from phenotype + behaviour
o Strategy effectiveness depends on habitat

Example: leopard seals ambush penguins at the edge of ice floes counter-adaption by the penguins, on entry
and exit leopard seals pursue prey on land + water ambush + pursuit

2 Optimal foraging:
o Maximising intake per unit time; requires ability to predict prey abundance patterns .i.e. breeding
colonies often attract predators
Predation one species benefits (predator) while the second species is harmed (prey) .i.e. parasites
(everywhere)

Example: Sacculina free swimming larva which uses chemosense to find prey. Females enter crabs soft
joints / fins hair follicles; feed + grows in crab. Female pushes out a bludge and wait for a male; upregulates
crab foraging for nurturing of parasite eggs

Parasite manipulation of host behaviour: many parasites have multiple life stages + intermediates hosts
which are eaten by final host (manipulate hosts to transmission)

Adaption to aid transmission are strongly selected for; parasite wins and hosts lose (arguably top of all
food chains) most extreme evolutionary arms race

Example: Euhaplorchis: digenean trematode with three hosts marine snail, fish, bird.

1 Parasitic eggs are released as bird droppings and eaten by snails

2 Snails are neutered; parasite grows and eventually bursts of snail to seeks fis
3 Burrows in fish and follows nerve to brain
4 Secretes proteins which interfere with fish serotonin + dopamine metabolism to reduce locomotion,
and allows bird predation

Widespread sociality very widespread; very diverse species (mammals + invertebrates)

Ecological + economic importance

Intrinsically interesting to us as social animals

Aggregation Group
Non-social animal grouping together .i.e. polar bears at a Social animals grouping together
whale carcass True social animals manifest social attraction
Exploit clumped resources
Shared habitat preferences
Shared migration routes

Social attraction varies in strength obligatory (must exist in group), facultatively (social under some
conditions) + solitary

Open entry groups Restricted entry groups Eusocial groups

Dynamic memberships
No restriction on group entry
No clear social hierarchy
Groups split + reform
Group size is variable
Fish shoals, bird flocks, unigulate herds
Restrictions on group entry
Clear social hierarchy
Reproduction (dominance)
Groups can split + reform
Groups highly stable
Multileveled groups
Lions, grey wolves
Consisting of close kin
Entry not possible to unrelated
Reproduction (dominance)
Co-operative young care
Generations overlap
Caste system with defined roles
Social insects + crustaceans, naked
mole rats

Example: Lions form matrilineal family groups (oldest is highest), with pride lionesses tending to be related.
Young males disperse at older age; outside males form small coalitions to usurp existing pride males

Example: grey wolves form groups where only dominant individuals breeds, but offspring comprises the
groups; social degrees of reproductive skew seen in many social groups

Formation of groups: benefits outweigh costs

Access of information and enable better decision-making predation defence

Reproductive success finding a mate for some sessile marine animals, like barnacles, aggregation
enables breeding (competition still present)
Energy / resource conservation
o Penguins to survive long Antarctic winter by huddling
o Drafting during bird migration
Foraging opportunities:
o Gaining access to defend resources overcoming the attentions of a territory-holder
o Co-operative hunting strategic predators .i.e. lions may hunt giraffes
Coordinated predator behaviour
Synchronised or complimentary timing of actions in order to achieve outcome that
an individual or a group of individuals acting alone could not achieve
Foraging efficiency:

1 With more individuals, group can search an area more effectively

Local enhancement when individual finds food, group responds to social cues and arrive at the
patch
 o Selection favours the ability to detect these cues when resources are; patchily distributed,
not easily defended or rapidly depleted by individuals, not easily detectable at range
o Groups of conspecifics may be more detectable at range than the patches of food they might
be feeding on .i.e. seabirds over baitfish school
o Behaviour / posture indicates of the presence or amount of food .i.e. geese eating worms

2 The group acts as information centre; comprises the collective information of all members lead to
strategic diversification producers+ scroungers
Groups are better able to defend resources than lone individuals .i.e. larger groups of lions and
hunting dogs are able to defend kills from hyenas for longer

Anti-predator advantages of group living: protection from predators

Vigilance predators strategy is to minimise the distance between itself and prey before detection
o Many eyes theory predators attacking larger groups are less successful
o As group size , individuals own vigilance without risk of failing to detect attack a
predators attack non-vigilant individuals
o Most grouping prey species have a detector who moves off first
Dilution of risk safety in number
o If approached by a predator that can only eat one group member, risk is 1/n ( as n )
Predator confusion predator success rate drops when prey group
o Timing in predator attack is essential
o When in a large group, predators may become indecisive (hesitation allows prey escape)
predator attacks unique prey individual
Groups are better able to defend resources than lone individuals .i.e. mobbing behaviour of nests

Costs of grouping;

Concentration of parasites
resource competition
High detectability of groups of prey by predators
Higher detectability of groups of predators by prey
Costs may be considerable, but they are generally outweighed by the benefits

Balancing advantages and disadvantages:

Short-term flexibility in group size and structure

Trade-off animals extent to which they group with others due to in priorities ( food intake;
predation)
Group more when risk is high (form larger, denser groups)
Group less when hungry (form small, more dispersed groups)

Optimum group size:

Both groups benefits + costs initially with group size, although with different functional curves
This predicts an optimum benefits : costs at some intermediate size
If group size is less than the predicted optimum, active recruitment occurs .i.e. sparrows (safer feeding
in groups), ravens, primates
The main problem with an optimum group size is that it is unstable
If you have the perfect group size, it is vulnerable to being invaded invaders affect group fitness
(unless group can exclude transient individuals) (invading individual still beenfits)
Theoretical group size which maximises benefits / reduces costs

Aggression extremely common among animals; important in structuring communities (fighting is rare)

Aggressive interactions are more than fighting (aggression + fighting arent synonymous)
Individuals contest a resource following initial encounter (rival detection):
1 Display size / quality of weapons (most contests are settled here; very frequent)
2 Sparring enables rivals to assess eachother, without costs of fighting
3 Fighting occurs

Displays: highly ritualised (all animals of that species know what the display mean) + concentrate on specific
phenotypic character(s) (relate to fighting capability)

Aggressive displays emphasise size (and hence strength)

Accurate assessment of rivals is beneficial to all

Sparring: similar to fighting except no direct injuries occur

Trial of strength often immobilises the weaponry

Push against eachother; lock apart weaponry
One individual typically backs down (clear signal) (if not, escalation to fighting)
Fighting: can result in serious injuries (fatal; directly or indirectly; wound infection)

Energetic + opportunity costs (take away time from other

functions) important benefits in order for a fight to
develop
Fighting probability is related to value of the prize
Animals typically dont maintain spite

Outcomes of an interaction between individual A (initiator) and

individual B (receiver)

Remembering the outcome of the fight: avoiding fighting

every time:

Fighting + assessment (in stable social environment)

develops linear or despotic dominance hierarchies or
pecking orders
Once established, aggression (more effective use of
time) .i.e. in hens, all hierarchy members benefit
o Dominant individuals pay a high physiological cost (stressful; fighting / challenges)
o Subordinate individuals have opportunities tendency to not leave / take opportunities
Phenomenon of winner effects (wins one contest; will win consecutive contests) + loser effects
o Individuals fighting ability doesnt change; its perception will affects likelihood of initiation
+ escalation in an aggressive situation

Animal fighting: due to scare resources food access; space / shelter; mates (mate required resources); not
mutually exclusive

Food fights: competition categorised as:

o Contest one overall winner of resource; favours size
o Scramble (1st to resource) many winners; favours speed, sensory perception, etc.

Example: African wild dogs (very successful social pursuit predators), hyenas and lions. AWD kills are stolen by
larger carnivores win the scramble competition; access prey / lose the contest competition

Avoiding aggressive competitors: phenotypic + ontogenetic diet shifts need to avoid aggression

Example: coral reefs are highly competitive Jewel damsels aggressively defend their food patches from
direct competitors like surgeonfish; adult surgeonfish cope with this / juveniles are vulnerable and pretend to
be non-competitor (pygmy angelfish)

Animals determine rivals by learning

Competition occurs for space + food .i.e. coral competing for sunlight detect other corals by
chemical cues produce fighting polyps with sweeper tentacles / extrude mesenterial filaments
(digestive apparatus) / coral grenages / allelopathy (poison water)
Competition for shelter .i.e. hermit crabs occupy gastropod shells, and must find new shell as it grows
aggression / fighting between individuals (frequency + intensity of shell raps (shell knocks));
attacker moves into new home; evicted crab resides in attackers empty shell
Competition based on territoriality exclusive food access; cost in amount of time spent defending
(economics of territoriality .i.e. nutritional value of algae changes; reef herbivores change behaviour
Competition for reproduction most serious aggression over scarce resource. Sexual aggression:
o Transsexual (mostly male v male)
o Ansiogamy males produce more, small gametes; females produce less, large gametes
Parental investment females > males
o Males can theoretically fertilise an infinite amount of females
o Sexes have different optimal strategies
o Darwin males should compete with one another for female access / females should be
picky about which males they choose to mate with
o Modes of sexual selection:
1 Male v male competition (over mate or reproductive territory): sexual dimorphism where males >
females .i.e. size predicts reproductive success of Elephant Seals (big males monopolise mating)
2 Female choice (based on colour, size + display): females are passive in the process of male v male
competition (closely monitor fights + adjust behaviour accordingly) offspring genetic quality
Hotshot hypothesis: females use social information of make choice
Males have evolved coercive mating new females strategies:
o Adjust likelihood of fertilisation post-copulation
o Solicit additional males to provide competition for the coercive male prior to mating

Nervous System

Peripheral NS appendaged from Central NS

Porifera without neurons

Cnidarians peripheral nerve net (no centralised brain; simplest NS); intersection of nerve nets at ganglia
(concentration nervous tissue); epithelial cells have transverse extensions of nervous cells. Theories;

1 Extension of epithelial cells downgrowths of sheet-like epithelium (with associated nuclei).

Development of connection between epithelial cell and down-growth may have disengaged and the
epithelial cell may have given up its nucleus (incorporated into new cells underneath epithelial sheet)
these cells developed contractile properties (smooth muscle allows body wall control); connections
between new cells + epithelial cells were precursor of nervous tissue for communications
2 Paedomorphosis (sea squirts) have start of CNS (concentration of nervous tissue down one side of
animal notochord; connective tissue between nerve chord + muscle for movement): sessile adult /
free-swimming larva; theory of prolonged larval stage becoming sexual mature but still planktonic
(free-swimming) (spine, CNS, digestive system (no cephalisation brain)

Notochord present in vertebrate embryology tells CNS where to form + PNS where to grow

Planarian (flatworm) (unsegmented) central ganglion (U-shaped structure with two lobes; nine branches from
each lobe) in the head region + pair of ventral nerve chords that extend the body length + cross-connecting
lateral nerve chords + branching nerves

Mammals have no segmentation in adult form, however repeated sections in the vertebral column

Earthworm (segmented): ganglion completely enclosed with body segments + branching peripheral nerves +
rudimentary brain + nerve chord

Radially symmetrical animals segmented animals have a chain of segmental ganglia; brain-like structure
(ganglion); pair of nerve chord cross-connected by lateral nerves nerve ring around periphery (two nerve
trunks) (no centralised brain) .i.e. medusa

Bilaterally symmetric animals true CNS with peripheral NS

Arthropods: crustacean

Larger ganglion
One ganglion for each thoracic + abdominal body segment (complete)
Decentralized brain function
Brain
CNS of ganglia
Repeated in section
Fully segmented region in tail
Branching nerves
One ganglion for each thoracic and abdominal body segment
Nerve chord
Nerves radiating out into appendages
Decentralized brain function thought processes in ganglion as well

Arthropods: grasshopper

Slightly bilateral symmetry nerve tracts in duplicate

Brain with optic lobe on lateral side of brains (for vision)
Branching nerves
Nerve cords (one pair)
Ganglion

Cuttlefish:

Bilateral symmetry
Highly developed optic nerves (visual processing)
Specialised brain
Branching nerves

Behavioural + psychological vertebrate development encephlaisation (specialised processing functions):

response times to stimuli memory + information storage retrieval .i.e. bulls cannot be used in a
second bullfight (learnt too much)
Thoughts complex and flexible behaviour (alternative behaviours / interactions)
Emotional thought (feelings)

Neuromuscular junction:

Dendrites connected to axon terminals of different cells depolarisation travels down axon
Myelin sheaths (from Schwann cells) provides insulation depolarisation between nodes along the
axon to occur faster
Dendrites have axon knobs (axon terminals)
AP:

1 Resting membrane (potential -70mV) is stimulated + local depolarization reaches threshold

2 Voltage-gated ion channels open; Na+ moves into cells (depolarisation)
3 Peak polarisation; Na+ gates close, K+ gates open (repolarisation)
4 Over shooting occurs (hyperpolarisation)
5 Na+/K+ ATPase restores resting potential

Neuromuscular junction:

1 Presynaptic AP arrives at synapse; causes influx of Ca2+

2 Ca2+ stimulated acetylcholine release from pre-synaptic membrane into synaptic cleft (vesicular
exocytosis)
3 Acetylcholine binds to receptor on post-synaptic membrane; chemically-gated ion channels open
(neurotransmitter receptor full)
4 Post-synaptic AP are transferred
5 Acetylcholine inactivated (acetate + choline); reabsorbed into presynaptic membrane; acetylcholine
resynthesised

Peripheral interface with CNS: sensory receptor in PNS afferent neuron (peripheral axon; afferent fibre)
axon terminals to interneurons in CNS axon terminals to efferent neuron (axon; efferent fibre) axon
terminals to effector organ

Spinal cord: afferent neuron to dorsal horn of the grey matter (neuronal cell bodies) interneurons through
CNS afferent neuron from ventral horn

CNS cells:

No Schwan cells on axons (provides similar insulation) extension from oligodendrocytes (interact +
wrap around several nerve cells (since its cell body is very separate)
Ependymal cells junction between brain interstitial + cerebrospinal fluid
Microglia aids wrapped of cells; keeps cells localised in one place
Astrocytes (start-shaped cells) modulate neuron repair

Cellular study by antibodies which are coupled to luminous molecules astrocyte immunostaining

Comparative anatomy: differences in basic brain plan (reflects animal sensory specialities)

Fore brain Cerebrum Motor area voluntary muscle movements

Sensory cortex conscious perception of touch, pressure, vibration,
pain, temperature, taste
Hypothalamus Autonomic function
Secretes releasing hormones for anterior pituitary regulation
Thalamus Controls
Midbrain Optic lobes Integrates visual info with other sensory inputs
Relays auditory info
Midbrain nuclei Involuntary control of muscle tone
Processing of incoming sensations + outgoing motor commands
Hindbrain Cerebellum Involuntary coordination + control of outgoing movements
Balance + coordination + fine motor skills
Folds: gyrus (ridge) + sulcus (groove)
Pons Links cerebellum with other brain centres + medulla + spinal chord
Modifies output of respiratory centres in medulla
Medulla oblongata Regulates HR + CC; vasomotor control, RR
Relays info to the cerebellum
Integrates feeding + safety stimuli
PNS info spinal cord pons + medulla thalamus (twin lobes) to specific cerebral hemispheres (.i.e.
occipital lobes for visual processing)

1st ventricle lateral ventricles

2nd ventricle 0

Epithelium at top of 3rd ventricle Choroid plexus (produces cerebrous spinal fluid)

3rd ventricle cerebrospinal fluid production

4th ventricle -
Corpus callosum (white matter) communicate LR cerebral hemisphere
Sagittal fissure between hemispheres

Autonomic NS controls organs automatically (no processing in cerebral hemispheres); divided into
sympathetic (stressed) + parasympathetic (relaxed) NS

Heart Digestive
system
Sympathetic adrenalin Increased HR, Decreased
CO digestion
Parasympathetic Decreased HR, Increased
acetylcholine CO digestion

Sensory Systems:

Reception chemical,
mechanical, light, thermal,
electrical (heart cells)

Pheromone producing glands

(non-olfactory chemical
stimulation) alarm, tracer +
primer pheromones alter the
physiology + behaviour of other
ants

Mammalian taste
(chemoreceptors) taste buds
present in papillae; different
proteins inside taste receptors
that can be fired off in different
combinations to give different
interpretations of taste

Microvilli (projections of epithelium)

Axons to PNS, through cranial nerve to CNS

Human olfactory epithelium:

positioned in the roof the nasal
cavity

Cell types in sensory

layer
Olfactory bulb
connects to olfactory
(cranial) nerve (tip of
the brainstem) at
the ends of the bulbs,
they extend down
through the skull to
cilia and microvilli;
molecules interact with
receptors in microvilli
to transfer information

Olfaction:

Information then
relayed to the
olfactory cortex where
odours are analysed
Odour information is
projected to higher
brain centre and
affects emotions,
thoughts, and
behaviour
Recent cloning + molecular techniques located mammal genes that code for odour reception
About 70 genes from the same family have been identified in fruit-flies and some in nematodes
Each of 500 to 1000 genes encodes a separate type of odour receptor

Chemoreception in isopods sense of smell antenna and antennule is equivalent of nose in crustaceans
(cranial nerves into the brain); deep water isopods (challenge of light no vision) so relies on chemoreception
for finding food (antennule have consecutive bumps (crustaceans and insects have cuticle extension called
setae which have the receptors)

Mechanoreception receptors respond to touch, pressure, stretching, sound, vibration and gravity, and all
forms of motion .i.e. scorpions detect prey movement so know when to ambush

Touch receptors:
 o Insects tactile hairs; sensitive to touch + vibration
o Mammals each hair follicle has receptors sensitive to touch

Touch reception from receptors in skin or cuticle (crustaceans) human endoskeleton (lower down) +
exoskeleton (cranium) hair or setae have nerve at the bottom of the shaft because pressure is felt; nerve at
the base of the setae

Pacinian corpuscle large layers of connective tissue which sense compression (mechanical; squeezing your
hand) (afferent neuron with neuron in the middle of the Pacinian corpuscle)

Tonic and phasic receptors: desensitisation (transient conveying of messages; touch receptors switch off)

Tonic receptors slow adaption; sensation is never truly gone (just reduced)
Phasic receptors (Pacinian corpuscle) switched off feeling dies down relatively quickly

Lateral inhibition (helps focus touch reception) pushing triggers nerves in a radius around the stimulus (more
accurate feeling by connective interneurons form the lightly stimulated nerves which terms them off, so only
the most stimulated nerves are felt (reduced are of sensation and more precise location on skin)

Setae reception (extension of cuticle): similar to mammalian system

Setae are often hollow (sensory olfaction within hollow setae), with neuron at the base of the shaft

Lateral line system of fish + amphibians:

A nervous system structure; distant touch reception system

Contains neuromasts receptor cells found in aquatic amphibians + some fish
o Occur in canals under the epidermis + opening at intervals to the surface (lateral line canals)
o Collection of hair cells with the cilia embedded in a gelatinous cupula
o Cupula projects into the lateral line canal + bends in response to water disturbance
o Detects wave vibration + water currents
o Electroreceptor cells on nose (sharks) detect electrical currents from muscles + hearts
Aids fish in locating predators + prey + schooling
Functions in the reception of bioelectric signals
Electroreceptor cells are found in pores closely associated with the lateral line system

Stereocillia (grading in height) role in depolarisation:

1 Connecting proteins between stereocillum form ropes (tip link) between other stereocillum
2 Tips links stretch towards the tallest member; opens mechanically-gated K+ channels
3 Cell depolarises; opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
4 Ca2+ entry causes release of neurotransmitter, and AP transfer through synaptic cleft

If the tips are pushed towards the shortest stereocillum, no K+ enters the hair cell (hyperpolarises)

Balance:

Lobster righting reflex (flip body correct way) contain statocysts + hair cells in the antennule (contains
statoliths; sand + mucous); statoliths move with gravity + hair cells detect movement (and relay to CNS)

Mammalian balance otoliths (little bones) within the semicircular canal of the inner ear; descend with gravity
depending on orientation, hitting hair cells and determining orientation. Hair cells also detect ear rotation;
motion of fluid in semicircular canals depend on depolarisation / lack of depolarisation events based on the
currents within adjacent cells (move stereocilia)

Sight:

Insects multiple lenses with retina or retina type membranes (with sensory cells); 360 degree vision

Invertebrate similar structure to animals; pigments + range of colours vary

Mantis shrimp most complex eyes; 167 different types of photoreceptors or pigments

Inner most lining retina (point of sensory cells)

3 sets of cells rods and cones (detecting of light), bipolar cells (connects rods and cones) , ganglion
cells (to optic nerve)
o Sensory molecules are housed in membrane discs, which are housed in rods + cones
Light cells undergo spontaneous depolarisation light stops depolarisation
Retinal / opsin (rhodopsin) the membrane discs have rhodopsin in their membrane; when light hits
changes configuration (message to voltage dependent channels)
Sequence of phototransduction (activation of proteins) which close down Na+ channels (stop
depolarisation)
o Closure of channel prevents depolarisation
o Signals are transmitted from cone/rod to bipolar cells to ganglion cells
o To optic nerve to brain
 o Brain interprets decrease in depolarisation

Endocrine System

Hormones:

Can act on nucleus up/downregulate DNA transcription, mRNA translation + protein formation

Hormone classes:

Protein + thyroid AA polymer Acts on receptor proteins on non-cytosolic cell surface

hormone N terminus central carbon with R group C
terminus
Steroid hormone 4 carbon ring with side chain
Steroid (mitochondria) pregneulone;
precursor for all steroids
(hydrophilic)
Stimulates secondary cytosolic pathway
Can move through the membrane
LDL facilitates transfer through membrane

Neurohypophysis + adenohypophysis controls other endocrine glands (controlled by hypothalamus)

Cortisol catabolises fat + protein supplies to provide energy (to cope with long term stress)
Adrenaline from the medulla (to cope with short term stress)
Thyroid T3 (3 atoms of iodine) and T4 (4 atoms of iodine)

Endocrine feedback systems:

negative feedback system

Insect endocrinology:
developmental hormones

Corpora allata secretes

juvenile hormone (keeps
insect in juvenile form)
Prothoracic gland
secretes ecdysone
hormone (changes
exoskeleton)

Sea squirt endorcrinology

hormone control over
metamorphosis (stayed in free-
living, larval stage)

Pineal gland regulates circadian rhythms (control cortisol release throughout the day)

Hypothalamus 1 step process; produces:

Oxytocin (smooth muscle contraction) released from neurophypophysis

ADH (vasopressin; antiduretic hormone conserves water (pulled out of DCT + CD in later nephron)
released from neurophypophysis
o Stimulates water reclamation into the bloodstream ( urine volume + BP)

Hormones may be evolutionarily related (s in precursors could have produced two separate hormones)

Vasopressin of vasotocin:

Stimulates alpha male behaviour in frogs (endocrine products can have huge effect on behaviour;
satellite frogs with vasotocin became alpha male)
Aggression of pigs
Water absorption in toads through the skin pores (open up) absorb water through their stomach

Anterior pituitary hormones cortisol (breakdown fat and protein supply effects digestive system)

Endocrine control of birth and development in vertebrates:

 Growth hormones stimulate anabolic metabolism in
the body (catabolism to breakdown first)

Thyroid gland; T3 and T4: follicular cells produce T4

hormone (epithelial tissue)

Colloid (C cell) storage of hormone precursor (2 AA)

Stays there until iodination out of follicle into the
bloodstream
Goitre if release cannot occur
Precursors move into the colloid, require iodination
before movement into the blood
Increases developmental processes:
o Tadpole rapid growth in developmental
pathway with T3 ad T4
o Goitre in a ray (in tanks) after iodine
treatment (allows precursor release)

Pancreas: regulates the levels of blood

sugar

Endocrine Systems in Stress

Adipokinetic hormone hormone

released in response to stress: interacts
with GDP binding protein (with
phospholipase C)

Sugar-phosphate head
enzyme removes head (IP3)
goes to ER, stimulating Ca2+
release
Phospholipid tail
diacylglycerol (DAG) goes to
protein kinase C (requires Ca2+
for activation) for
phosphorylation of an effector
protein (changes cell
physiology)
o Also stimulation of
adenylate cyclase to
convert ATP to cyclic
AMP, stimulating
protein kinase A to
phosphorylate an
effector protein

Hormone action:

Mobilises fat into haemolymph

(open circulatory system) to active metabolism to assist with stress (analogous to cortisol)
Releasing AKH to mobilise fat to cope with stress
Interacts with the immune response metabolic systems stimulated by hormones often interact with
the immune system

Cortisol effects on metabolism: 2 step process (metabolic fuel for stress)

gluconeogenesis
Catabolism of fats + AAs
in blood glucose (to help body with stress)
of inflammation / depression of immune system

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis:

Hypothalamus (environmental + internal stress) pituitary gland adrenal glands (caudiomedial

aspect of kidneys)

1 Hypothalamic neurons secretes releasing hormones

2 Hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system
3 Anterior pituitary endocrine cells secrete hormones into capillaries
4 Venules form, and hormones are sent to target tissue or endocrine glands

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC):
Proprotein inactive form of larger AA sequence or protein (cleavage forms active protein)

Teleosts bony, jawed Cotricotrophs (anterior pituitary): ACTH proprotein has many active proteins
fish Melanotrophs: melanocytes stimulating proteins (hormone + physiological relaxation)
Lampreys jawless fish ACTH and -endorphins (cope with stress physiologically; calming opiate receptors)
Metabolic + physiological method to cope with stress
Same protein makes different effects in other parts of the body

Animals cut up POMC different form different endorphins for different functions (different methods of stress
control)

Anatomy of the adrenal glands

Cortex:
o Zona glomerulosa mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
o Zona fasciculate cortisol
o Zona reticularis sex steroids (testosterone)
Medulla catecholamines

Hormones of the adrenal cortex 4 ring structure (cholesterol) + side chain (prenegalone when removed)

Occurs in the mitochondria site for side chain cleavage

Steroidogenic (makes steroid) from cholesterol transported through the blood (hydrophobic coated
in phospholipids and lipoproteins) (LDL low density lipoprotein transfers cholesterol in the lumen)
Interacts with the LDL receptors
Cholesterol goes to outermembrane of mitochondria, binding to StAR
StAR moves cholesterol to out membrane to inner membrane, forming pregnenolone (catalysed by
P450scc in IMM)
Enters cell; interacts with lysosome (breakdown of material)
Pregnenolone moves through the membrane by contact point (bridge of protein being outer and inner
membrane)

Steroid pathways: cholesterol pregnenolone makes all steroid hormones (precursor for all steroids)

Conversion between cholesterol and pregneulone is first and rate limiting step in making steroid
hormones (steroidogenesis)

Control of cortisol secretion:

Stress detected in the cerebrum

In response to this stress the hypothalamus secretes corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH)
CRH travels down the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary where it stimulates the
release of ACTH from the corticotropes
ACTH travels to the adrenal cortex where it stimulates the release of cortisol and other steroids
Cortisol and ACTH exert negative feedback effects on the system

Cortisol concentrations stress (detected in blood, stomach + faeces)

Increasing swimming in fish causes stress:

1 Water flow (make them exercise) over the gills and blood blow through the gills and can lead to
increased ion loss in freshwater fish effects on endocrinology + metabolism depending on the
species + state of nutrition
2 Starvation and swimming speed on endocrinology
o Exercise stress in goldfish
o Exercise didnt effect stress in carps

Species difference; carps are used to exercise / goldfish are not

3 Seasonal and predator influences on adrenal function in adult Steller sea lions predation of orcas

ATCH injections cause cortisol increase in faeces when under stress

Predation by killer whale elevates faecal corticosterone

4 Enclosed area on endocrinology

5 Temperature changes in species of urchins (heat shock protein 70 whenever there is stress to an
animal, proteins get damaged and cells must replace the protein initially make protein of long line of
AA HS proteins bind to save the linear proteins to move around the cell before folding can occur)

Heat shock protein expression increased in higher temperature

This technique can be used on plants

Stress occurs in cold and hot temperatures

Australian Fauna

Fam Common name Scientific Characterist Habitat Diet

ily name ics
Glow worm Arachnoca Endemic to Tasmani Insectivor
mpis Tasmania a ous
tasmaniens Catches
is nocturnal
insects by
making a web
of sticky
threads

Tiger snake Notechis Can be Souther Small

scutatus black, n mammals
brown, Australia and birds,
orange- , most frogs,
brown or habitats lizards,
oliver occasional
Largest ly carrion
and
heaviest
snake in
Tasmania
Banded
Good
climber
Highly
venomou
s
Lowland copperhead Austrelaps 1-1.5m Open Frogs,
 superbus long vegetati skinks,
Adapted on,
to cold marshla
Grey, nd close
black, to water
red, red from sea
line along level to
flank 1000m
altitude

White-lipped whip snake Drysdalia Smallest Grasslan Skinks

caronoides of d, alpine
Tasmania moors,
n snake button
species grass
30-60cm plains,
long scree,
Can be rock
active fields
during Sea
winter level to
due to 300m
small size altitude
(quicker
to warm
up)
White
line on
side of
jaw

Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish Astacopsis Largest Freshwat
gouldi freshwate er
r (rivers),
invertebr N
ate in the Tasmani
world a
Live up to <400m
60y sea level
Weigh
5kg
Start
breeding
at age 14
Threaten
ed by
overfishin
g, river
disturban
ce,
pesticide
run-off

Typical Tasmanian fauna

Tiger snake
Lowland copperhead
Glow worm
White-lipped whip snake
Tasmanian devil (Darsus sarcopii)

DFTD:

Most devils contract the cancer at 2yo, after reaching adulthood

No juveniles have been identified with it yet, and only a few 1yo
The presence and prominence of the disease is patchy
Devils in W coast of Tasmania are genetically quite different from the rest of Tasmania due to the
restriction of spread of gene pools
Females spend 8m to rear pouched young may die before pouched young are independent
Worsened by population crashes in 1860, 1910, 1940
Lethal kills within 1-5m due to
o Starvation
o Breakdown of bodily functions
65% of Tasmania affected by the disease
50% Tasmanian population lost since 1995

Special features:

Strongest jaw power per body size in the animal kingdom allows to consume all of carcass, including
bones
Body markings
Solitary animals but have specific social behaviour when fighting over food
Awkward gait allows endurance over long distances
Shy behaviour despite loud grunting communication between devils

Spotted-tail quolls (Dasyrus maculatus)

Tasmania is last stronghold

Largest climbing marsupial carnivore in the world
Prey on possums, small wallabies, pademelons, insects
Soon to be vulnerable to extinction
Up to 1m, 7kg in males
Average of 4kg

Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Monoecious
Young spends 5-6m in the pouch
0.5-1kg leaves eaten/day

Threats to koalas:

Dogs
o >2 killed by dogs each week
o Bite can easily be lethal due to lack of fat over vital organs
Food trees: strictly leaf eaters, preferably eucalypts

Forest Red Gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis)- alluvial flats, fertile hilly areas
Tallowwood (Eucalyptus microcorys) hilly areas with fertile soils, sand
Small-fruited grey gum (Eucalyptus propinqua) moisty, well-drained gravelly soils with some clay
Red stringybark (Eucalyptus resinifera) sandy, well-drained soils
Spotted gum (Corymbia citriodora) heavy, well-drained soils on slopes
Scribby gum (Eucalyptus racemose) clay to sandy poorly-drained soils
Queensland white stringybark (Eucalyptus tindaliae)
Queensland grey ironbark (Eucalyptus siderophloia) alluvial soils
Broad-leaved ironbark (Eucalyptus fibrosa fibrosa) stony, well-drained soils
Five-veined paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia) gravelly, swampy soils

Protection initiatives:

Introduction of Habitat Significance Areas

Vegetation Protection Local Law
Koala Conservation Policy and Strategy
Initiatives to allow residents to turn their private property into conservation land for koalas
Encourage fauna-friendly fencing fencing that doesnt inhibit of the movement of native fauna between
properties
o 50cm gap before first rail, or rails all at 30cm spacing
o Mesh fencing <1.2m and with a 30cm gap under bottom
o Place plank of across top to provide walkway
o Place timber planks at 45 degrees to fence to allow koalas to climb
o Lined with fauna-proof fencing if there is a dog (solid, 2m high, >3m away from vegetation)
Making gardens koala-friendly
o Plant trees close to each other to allow koalas to move from tree to tree
o Placing climbing poles in the back yard to escape fencing
o Add floating device to a rope in your pool to allow an escape route
Planting trees for koalas

Wombats

Name Scientific name Status Popula Lifes Habitat Die Character

tion pan ts istics
Norther Lasiorhinus krefftii Critically ~200 <26y Sandy Largest
n hairy- endange (35 in in the grassy <40kg
nosed red 1980) wild woodlan >1m
(NHN) d in Softer fur
womba Epping Long,
t Forest pointed
National ears
Park and Square
Richard muzzle
Underw lined with
ood fine
Nature whiskers
Refuge Nasal
(QLD) bones
shorter
than the
frontal
Worlds
largest
burrowing
herbivore
One of
most
endangere
d animal in
the world
Bare- Vombatus ursinus Locally Tens of 15y Forests, <35kg
nosed common thousan wild, coastal Bare nose,
(comm , ds 20y scrub, small ears,
on) declinin captiv heath coarse
womba g in ity From brown fur
 t Western sea
Victoria level to
and above
South snowline
Australia

Southe Lasiorhinus latifrons Patchy Thousa 14y Arid- Gra 26kg

rn distributi nds wild, adapted ss Broad
hairy- on 17y , nose, long
nosed within captiv Nullarbo ears, soft
womba limited ity r Plains grey-
t range of SA brown fur
Graze at
night
Teeth
never stop
growing

NHN wombats:

Live in burrows
o Purpose
Conserve water and energy
Protect from climate
o Usually under trees, in deep sandy soils
o Can have several entrances
o Extensive network of tunnels
o Only space for one wombat
Strong claws to dig
Marks entrance with dung, urine, scratches
Monoecious
Gives birth between November and April (usually)
Back-facing pouch to avoid soil entering the pouch
Stays 8-9 months in pouch

Threats to population:

Competition for food by introduced grazing animals

Habitat loss
Predation by wild dogs
Destruction of food supply by wildfires
Droughts and floods

Management: NHN wombat Recovery Project implemented by the NHN Wombat Recovery Group

Management of original population at Epping Forest National Park

o Controlled burns
o Construction and mai9ntenance of predator-proof fence
o Weed control
o Providing supplementary food and water during droughts
o Monitor population numbers and health
Establishment and management of new colony at Richard Underwood Nature Refuge
o Creating structures for wombat protection
Predator-proof fence
Water stations
Remote cameras
Tracking devices
Starter wombat burrows
o Translocation of healthy Epping Forest population
Estimation of numbers
o Hair census placing sticky tape across burrow entrances and DNA fingerprinting
o Monitoring number of burrows
 o Remote cameras at burrows and feeding stations

Pacific marine turtles

Name Scienti Adult Hatchling Flipper tracks Statu Bree

fic s ding
name seas
on
Leathe Dermoc Vulner Jan-
rback helys able, Mar
turtle coriace endan
a gered
in QLD

5 carapace ridges, Beaded black and

no scales, long white markings on
and pointed black- carapace and
brown carapace, plastron
soft leathery skin
Logger Caretta Endan Dec-
head caretta gered Marc
turtle h

Large head, 5 pair costal

strong jaws, scales, 3-4
parrot-like beak inframarginal
scales underneath
Green Cheloni Vulner ~Feb
turtle a able
mydas

High dome Dark brown with

carapace, green white margins,
with dark mottling white plastron

Olive Lepidoc Endan June-

Ridley helys gered Sept
Turtle olivace
a

Black/grey on both
Grey-green, sides
circular carapace,
cream-white
plastron, pores in
scales of bridge,
Hawks Eretmo Vulner Dec-
bill chelys able Feb
turtle imbrica
te

Overlapping Dark brown

scales,
olive/brown,
variegated with
brown markings,
 yellow plastron
with white/black
spots
Pointed jaw,
parrot-like beak
Flatbac Natator Vulner
k turtle depress able
us

Low done,
smooth, upturned-
Olive-green, scales
edge, olive
with broad black
carapace.
margin, white
Preocular scales,
plastron
yellow plastron

Marine turtles:

Long lived (>50y for some species)

Slow to sexually mature (8-50y)
Only 1/1000 hatchlings survive to adulthood
Threats
o Predating on hatchlings and eggs (canids, iguanas, feral pigs, humans)
o Vehicles disturbing nests
o Bycatch in fisheries
o Marine debris being eaten by/trapping/choking turtles
o Disturbance of breeding habitat due to urban development
o Deterioration of water quality
Management
o Support predator management
o Report nest and predation sightings to local rangers
o Keep dogs on leash during breeding season
o Drive slowly and on wet sand below high-tide mark
o Pick up marine debris
o Report ghost nests to local rangers
o Minimise light and fires on the beach

Name Scientifi Stroke Carapa Pair Pairs

c name ce s prefro
cos ntal
tal scales
scal
es
Leather Dermoch
back elys
turtle coriacea
Loggerh Caretta Alternat Scales 5 None
ead caretta ing
turtle
Green Chelonia Breast Scales 4 1
turtle mydas stroke
Olive Lepidoch Alternat Scales >6 None
Ridley elys ing
Turtle olivacea track
Hawksbi Eretmoc Alternat Overlap 4 2
ll turtle helys ing ping
imbricat track scales
e
Flatback Natator Breast Scales 4 1
turtle depressu stroke
s

Foxes
 Identifying tracks
o Front foot larger than back foot
o Elongated, oval-shaped claws which
usually dont show up
o Foot fair visible between toes
o Large space between centre pad and toe
pads
o Inverted V space of centre pad
o Hind feet reuse front feet impressions
o Straight, narrow track
Management used to prevent turtle predation
o Den fumigation
o Ground shooting
o Trapping
o aiting
o Exclusion fencing
o Cages around turtle nests

Wild dog/dingo:

Track identification
o Front foot larger than back foot
o Little foot fair between pads
o Small space between centre pad and toe pads
o Triangular centre pad
o Tracks straight but not aligned
Management used
o Typical techniques
o Ground shooting
o Leg hold trapping
o Baiting
1080
Strychnine

Pest management

Management of invasive predators:

Ground/aerial shooting
Trapping
Baiting
Exclusion fencing
Protecting prey with cages/fencing

Principles of pest management: around which pest management programs are designed

1. Integration into wildlife and habitat management programs

2. Public awareness
3. Commitment for program funding from community, government and businesses
4. Partnerships between businesses, government agencies, communities
5. Planning resources to meet appropriate targets
6. Prevention of spread, using early detection and intervention to control pests
7. Best practice using the best practices ecologically and socially
8. Improve and evaluate practices

Feral pigs:

Track identification
o Eat all of eggs in nest
o Back feet larger than front
o 2 toes, 2 dew claws
o Small, narrow stride
Management used typical

Goanas:

Track identification
o Alternating foot prints
o Visible tail drag
Nest predation identification
o Domed burrow
 o Burrow into nest at an angle from the side of the nest
Management only trapping, exlucsion fencing, nest protection

Identifying slipper strokes in the sand:

Key identification features

o Stroke style
o Track width
o Hind flipper marks
o Front flipper marks/
o Plastron drag
o Tail drag
Clarity of track depends on
o Flipper damage
o Terrain
o Sand moisture
o Tides
o Wind
o Weather
o Time of the day clearest in the morning
The higher mound of sand is the back of the track
Width measured from outer edge of track
Sand is thrown back toward emerging track when digging

Beach monitoring: for nesting and predation of nests

Record
o Species (according to track/sighting)
o GPS coordinates of nest location
o Presence of nest
o Extent of damage to nest
o Evidence and identification of predator
o Curved carapace length (CCL) of turtle from where neck skin and carapace meet to back edge of
carapace
Take photos
Mark nest location
Mark track to avoid duplicate measurement

False crawl: turtle flipper tracks in the sand that dont lead to a nest
APPENDIX

Lecture 9: Reptiles

Reptare; to crawl

Class: reptilia

Steps in transition from aquatic to terrestrial life:

Pectoral girdle if free promoting terrestrial locomotion

Development of lungs from gills CO2 excretion
Development of kidneys from gills nitrogenous waste
Characteristics:

Stronger skeleton than amphibians

Pelvic girdle attached to 2+ sacral vertebrae
Skull deeper and narrower
Hard outer skin conserves water; gas + water balanced not regulated through skin (greater gas
exchange surfaces within lungs; increased compartmentalisation / folds with secondary bronchus +
faveolar sac)
o Horny scales with keratin
o Impervious
o Thick stratum corneum
Amniote egg
No body insulation (ectoderms) back; high temp metabolic rate (some heat exchange control)
Colour change controlled by hormones + nerves
o Camouflage; change in shade + colour
o Thermoregulation (more radiation heat absorbed on dark skin)
o Sexual signalling
Dispersion of aggregation of black pigment cells in skin (melanophores)
Water conservation:
o Lungs only ventilated when necessary
o Kidney reabsorb water from tubule
o Uric acid (substance excreted as solid nitrogenous waste)
o Urine isosmotic with blood
o Water absorption in cloaca
o Salt glands remove salt from the system
Reproduction move towards internal fertilisation; protects embryo from desiccation (lack of
moisture); soft shells (nesting area typically close to water)
o Intromittent organ (except tuatara) penis (turtle, crocs); Hemipenes (Squamata)
o Ovarity ancestral
o Viviparity 20% of Squamata
o Parthenogenesis reproduction withouot provision of male gametes
o Little parental care (except crocodiles)
o Temperature-dependant sex determination .i.e. global warming sex biased population
Ammonite egg: embryonic membranes:
o Absorption of nutrients (yolk-sac membrane)
o Nitrogen excretion (allantois outgrowth of hindgut)
o Respiration (chorion)
o Protection (amnion)
o Chorion + allantois chorioallantoic membrane: Ca2+ uptake + nitrogenous waste
o Extra-embryonic membranes placenta

Reptile orders:

Chelonia or Testudines or Testudinata Turtles, tortoises

Carapace (shell) + plastron (pad on chest)

Crocodylia Crocodiles, alligators, caiman, gavial

Sphenodontida Tuatara
1 family, 1 order, 1 species (NZ island)
Squamata 3 suborders;
Sauria or Lactertilia (lizard)
Serpents or Ophidia
Amphisbaenia

Sauria in Australia:

Gekkonidae Geckos
Pygopodidae Legless lizard
Agamidae Dragons
Scincidae Skinks
Varanidae Goannas
Serpents in Australia

Typhloipade Blind snakes

Boidae Pythons
Colubridae Harmless snakes
Achrochordidae File snakes
Elapidae; Laticaudidae; Hydrophiidae Cobras + sea snakes

Lecture 10: Birds and Mammals

Birds:

Feathers .i.e. feathered dinosaurs

o Complete array of types; downy; analogues of diving birds; hydrophilic feathers; coloured
feathers
o Made of keratin, types down feather (juvenile insulation) + contour feather (flight)
o Functions camouflage, display, thermoregulation, flight, repel water
o Two main pelvic structures Saurischian pelvis, Ornithischian pelvis
o not bird dinosaurs also developed feathers
Beak; without teeth
Wishbone (furcular) and keeled sternum attachment of flight muscles
Specialised digestive system:
o Crop outgrowth of alimentary tract used for food storage
o Gizzard muscular, thick-walled region of stomach for grinding food (with grit)
High metabolic rate
Hard-shelled eggs (more calcified than reptilian)
Hollow bones for flight

Archaeopteryix: ancient wing transitional species between early + feather dinosaurs (China)

Flight hypothesis:

1. From the ground up initially cursorial

2. From the trees / cliffs down initial arboreal .i.e. snakes, gliders

Ratites Running birds

Raptors Predators
Strong, powerful flight with long claws and powerful thumbs
Parrots Likely Gondwana origin
Highly intelligent; use tools + capable of mimicry
Passerines Songbirds
Gondwana origin (vocal chord structure)
More than half of the worlds species
Perching feet
Penguins Loss of flight
Glands secrete oils

Convergent evolution pterosaur + bat + bird

Mammals:

Fur
Sweat glands (including mammary)
2 occipital condyles articulation with cranial / anterior of atlas vertebra
70% mammal diversity is Rodentia (rats), Chiroptera (bats), Soricomorphia (moles, shrews)
Australias mammal fauna predominantly Gondwanan; marsupials dominate (bats, rats + dingoes
later introduction)

Monotremes Echidna (2 Aus species, 3rd in New Guinea) + Platypus

Egg laying mammals
 Single opening (cloaca) excretion of waste; reproduction
Egg-laying
Milk glands
Marsupials Kangaroos, bandicoots, wombats, koalas
Young carried in pouch (marsupium)
Born at early developmental stage .i.e. jelly-bean
Distinctive reproductive systems female marsupials have 2 vaginas; dont form placentas as normal
mammals do (sack), pause development of offspring; produce milk for offspring at different
developmental stages
South American origin (Gondwana)
Major radiation in Australo-papuan region
Adaptions to unpredictable environment .i.e. kangaroos gestational diapause; bandicoots short
gestation
Eutherians All indigenous to Europe, Africa, North America (north of Mexico)
Placental
Lack epipubic bones
Skeletal characteristics distinguish from other mammalian clades
Most complex placentation (placenta / umbilical cord in uterus)

Lecture 11: Muscle Function and Movement

Determinants of movement:

Importance of locomotor performance migration, foraging, predation, escape, interactions, status

Fitness (sexual activity)
Animal movement:
o Motion capacity physiology + anatomy (ability + inability for locomotion)
o Internal state motivation
o Navigation capacity

Sooty shearwater travel up to 910km/day; migrating birds are declining rapidly; birds that disperse widely
during non-breeding season are less vulnerable

Restricted dispersal = more sensitive to habitat loss (movement capacity influences populations)

Motion capacity:

Muscle function contraction + relaxation

Energy metabolism oxidative metabolism (mitochondria) + anaerobic (glycolysis)
Cardiovascular system cardiac function + blood flow

Motion capacity: muscle function:

Structure:

Connective tissue sheaths:

o Epimysium surrounds muscle belly
o Perimysium surrounds fasciculi (fibre groups)
o Endomysium surrounds individual fibre
Muscle fibre fusion of many cells (myoblasts) = numerous nuclei + myofibrils
Myofibrils contain myofilaments:
o Actin thin, appears light (I band), two strands of twisted actin, with tropomyosin + troponin
o Myosin thick, appears dark (H band), myosin with tail and double head
Myosin + overlapping actin (A band)
o Z line in middle of I band sarcomere between Z lines
AP moves down motor neuron, through neuromuscular junction, spreads out through the motor end-
plate and the sarcolemma (cell membrane of muscle cells) Transverse (T) tubes release Ca2+
 o AP stimulates receptor DHPR (dihydropiridine receptor) to interactor with RyR (ryanodine
receptor), releasing Ca2+

Sliding filament model:

Cross bridge myosin heads attach to actin filaments; requires ATP

o Ca2+ binds to troponin, opening tropomyosin-blocking binding site
Myosin heads tilt toward the sarcomere centre, pulling actin with them (sarcomere shortens)
In relaxation, Ca2+ is sequested pumped back into SR by SECRA (SR Ca2+ ATPase)

Contraction + relaxation (ADP produced)

ATP availability oxidative metabolism + anaerobic
Muscle composition slow + fast twitch

Muscle fatigue: lactic acid fermentation is significantly relevant

Lack of ATP metabolic activity cannot meet ATP requirements

Lack of Ca2+ in sarcoplasmic reticulum storage

`Sprint-Endurance trade-off:

Sprint Endurance
Fast Ca2+ release + contraction Slow Ca2+ release + contraction
Fast fibre type Fatigued by depletion of Ca2+ storage
Slow fibre type

Maximising force production decreases fatigue resistance

Evolution: link between physiology + ecology

Multiple demands prevent maximisation of either specialisation maximises either

Example: Zebrafish: skeletal muscle contractility predicts activity + behaviour + locomotor performance

Exercise consequences:
o Training effect muscle / cardiovascular system ( exercise capacity; +ve feedback)
o Endocrine changes (endorphins, testosterone) ( motivation; +ve feedback)
Exercise locomotion, dispersal + aggression

Example: Mosquitofish control (still), exercise (flowing), detraining (flowing, then still)

Exercise boldness (risk taking), exploration, aggression (escalation)

Treatment: Ca2+ channel (DHPR receptor) blocked (training effect removed):
o Latency to leave refuge (endocrine change)
o Exploration + aggression (exercise change

Dispersal + Migration:

Leaving refuge + exploration tendency for dispersal

Threshold: once movement started, it is increasingly likely to continue
Exercise reinforces internal state + motion capacity

Lecture 12: Homeostasis salt and water balance

Response to changing environments:

 Let the internal environment change with the external environment:
o Low sensitivity to variables that change (salinity, temperature)
o Internal functioning fluctuates with external conditions (detrimental in unstable
environments)
Regulate internal environment:
o Maintain constant internal conditions even if environment changes (homeostasis) beneficial
because performance is maximised

Example: Bull Sharks; move between marine + freshwater

Gravid females give birth the live young in estuaries; juveniles move into freshwater
Osmoregulation movement of ions between plasma + environment, and plasma + cell
o Internally osmolarity relatively constant despite environmental fluctuations
o Internal osmolarity slightly higher than seawater (when in sea)
o Internal osmolarity reduced in freshwater
o Urea increases at higher environmental osmotic pressures
Adjust internal osmolarity by varying urea concentrations
Minimise osmotic differences between internal and external environments
o Ions concentrations remain constant despite environmental fluctuations:
Regulation to maintain concentrations

Osmoregulation in saltwater Osmoregulation in freshwater

Slightly hyperosmotic to seawater: urea, TMAO Large ionic and osmotic gradient
Urea accumulated by kidney Reduction in internal osmolarity: reduced [urea]
Small osmotic influx of water Must reduce loss of Na+, Cl-; kidney reabsorbs ions, rectal
gland inactive, large volume of dilute urine
Rectal gland actively excretes Na+, Cl- Gills secrete or absorb ions (not clear)

Problems of terrestrially:

Water loss / retention (dehydration)

Reproduction (laying eggs)
Gas exchange in air (gills require water flow over gills)
Muscle and new limb structure (increased gravity)
Excretion

Example: Breeding migration of Robber Crab and Red Crab on Christmas Island:

Live in rainforest (burrows), migrating at start of wet season where breeding occurs and females
released eggs into water (hatch as zoea).
Females stay near water for eggs to mature; hatched eggs move on land

Gas exchange:

Gills in decapods: associated with appendages

o Suspended in water; water currents facilitate gas exchange (leg movement may assist_
Terrestrial crabs structural support of gills
o Modifications of branchial chambers into lung
o Pulmonary circulation

Terrestrial crabs: osmoregulation and excretion: in aquatic species, gills are primary site for salt
transport. In terrestrial crabs, gills are reduced but still primary site for:

Ion regulation: maintain osmotic pressure and essential ions

CO2 excretion CO2 produced by aerobic metabolism changes pH unless excreted
Nitrogen excretion (toxic) ammonium is most easily excreted
 o Some crustaceans: detoxify and store ammonium in tissues (glutamine)
o Solid uric acid is insoluble and can be stored important for birds to reduce body weight
Use their own urine from antennal gland to flush gills

Terrestrial crabs: gill epithelium:

Several linked processes active transport + passive ion exchange

Lecture 13: Thermoregulation

T importance: influences all biological functions

Responses at the molecular level influence whole-animal performance and ecology

Determines free energy + reaction rates
Constrains: metabolism, growth, behaviour, reproduction

Responses to T variation: Evolutionary theory: Coevolution

o Regulate body T by thermoregulation + thermosensitvity behaviour, physiologically:

blood flow + internal heat production
o Processes are optimised at that Tb
Tb = environmental temperature
o Regulate cellular and biochemical capacities
o Optimise rates at particular environments

Internal heat production metabolic heat production, insulation

Behavioural thermoregulation microhabitat selection, shuttling, posturing, activity times

Mechanisms:

Conduction heat exchange between two solids

o T differential within solid molecules have different energetic state; after period of time
exchange of energy will result in equilibrium
Convection heat exchange between a fluid and a solid
o T differential between fluid and solid
Radiation short wave solar radiation + long wave thermal radiation
o Different surfaces absorb at different rates (wave energy changes with wave length)
Evaporation heat required for vaporisation of water

Operative T:

Consider all heat exchange at (animal) surface single (average) T describing thermal environment
(calculated from heat transfer equations):

Behaviour: reptiles: ectoderms do regulate their Tb

Example: Galapagos Iguanas dive to Tb (water convection) + bask in the sun to Tb (radiation, convection,
conduction)

Analysing temperatures:

Take a Tb measurement from individuals; plot frequency of observations; compare means, variation
Temperature distribution evident
To show thermoregulation it is necessary to:
o Observe thermoregulatory behaviour directly + use a control:
Null-model: Tb of an animal that moves / behaves randomly
Compare measure Tb of real animal to null-model

Example: behavioural thermoregulation of freshwater crocodiles

Crocodiles move in and out of the water / sun behaviour predictable and correlated with Tb (day: stable)
Null distribution: provides a control

Compare Tb of animal to that of a theoretical animal that is no thermoregulation

Effectiveness of thermoregulation:

1. Determine selected Tb
a. Thermal gradient
b. No environmental constraints
2. Measure Tb of animals in the field
a. Radio telemetry
b. Single temperatures from many individuals
3. Measure null-distributions
a. Operative temperatures
b. Physical models
c. Calculated from heat transfer equations
4. Calculate index of thermoregulatory efficiency (E = 0 (no regulation); E = 1 (perfect regulation))

Lecture 14: Cardiovascular dynamics

Transient heat transfer:

mass heating + cooling rates (SA relative to V) (greater area for conduction; convection)
Thermal inertia caused by:
o Heat capacity with mass
o Conduction rate of internal conductive heat transfer with mass
o Convection boundary layer with linear dimension
o SA : V as body mass
Mass homeothermy:
o mass Tb fluctuations
o Very large ectotherms have stable Tb (body temperature) .i.e. salt crocodiles > skinks

Movement: in non-stable environments:

Animals move through thermal patches

Larger animals slower response to environmental ( Tb range)
Small animals Tb = Te (zero heat capacity)

Increasing body mass:

Advantageous more stable body temperature

o Max benefits when heating + cooling rates manipulated .i.e. increased peripheral blood flow
Disadvantages limits the range of Tb attainable / ability for thermoregulation

Cardiovascular system: respond to heating + cooling: blood vessels dilate or constrict ( pressure):

Heating blood flow to the periphery ( rate of heat transfer); vasodilation

Cooling blood flow to the periphery ( rate of heat transfer); vasoconstriction
 Sensors in vessels signal to hypothalamus (autonomic nervous system) modulates heart rate
(baroreflex; autonomic nervous system):
o Vasoconstriction: CO ; HR , SV
o Vasodilation: CO ; HR, SV

Blood flow (Q): Q P (Poiseuilles Law); P l / r4; Q = P/R effected by vasoconstriction / dilation

Vasodilation: nitric oxide Vasoconstriction: renin-angiotensin system

Most important vasodilator Potent vasoconstrictor
Produced by endothelial cells Produced by kidney (renin) + liver (angiotensinogen)
Highly reactive (t1/2 = 5s) (toxic) gas Excretion (kidney
Stimulates angiogenesis Smooth muscle contraction
Produced by NO synthase in response in shear stress in Maintain BP during postural changes
blood vessels

Heart: heart rate determined by: cardiac pacemaker + baroreflex

Cardiac pacemaker specialised group of cardiac muscle cells; entrain all other muscle cells to their
rate of contraction (inherent rate of rhythmic contraction)
SA node AV node (AV delay; ventricles contract after atria) Perkinje fibres (rapid depolarisation of
ventricular muscles)

Brain to Heart: autonomic control by CNS

Acute response to P + metabolic demand

Receptors on heart + blood vessels

Sympathetic: -adrenergic receptors Parasympathetic: cholinergic receptors

Located on heart Located on heart
HR; adrenaline HR; acetylcholine

Endotherms: thermal neutral zone Homeotherms produced own heat

Range of environmental temperatures over which metabolic rate remains constant

Thermoregulation by cardiovascular s
Metabolic rate below LCT to heat production
Metabolic rate above UCT
Tb beyond critical T (LCT thermal neutral zone UCT)

Thermoregulation: Tb controlled by cardiovascular adjustments:

Controlled flow between core and periphery alters rates of heating + cooling
Peripheral perfusion:
o Normothermia: 5% CO
o Heat stress: < 60% CO

Reptiles: model system:

HR before Tb ( rate of heating in warm environment)

HR as Tb reaches preferred levels
HR while Tb is stil high ( rate of cooling)
Baroreflex: HR s blood peripheral blood flow ( in heating; in cooling)
Peripheral blood flow: conduction (through body wall) + convection ( with HR)

Lecture 15: Endothermy

Endotherm capable of internal, metabolic heat generation

Evolution mammals; fish (tuna + billfish); dinosaurs + birds

Selection pressures Tb, aerobic capacity; parental care

Mechanisms: endotherms + ectotherms same principle metabolic pathway

Quantitative changes metabolic rate; heat production + retention .i.e. brown adipose tissue +
heater organs

Consequences:

Tb high + stable; independent from Te

Extend activity times
aerobic activity + scope for activity
Limited size range
Dependent on constant, high food supply

Differences between ectotherms + endotherms:

Mammalian organs; relative mass, oxidative capacity + mitochondria .i.e. liver, kidney, heart, brain

Organs are the main site for heat production

Energy metabolism:

Metabolic rate (rate of metabolism) O2 consumption; resting rates (cost of life; includes
thermoregulation in endotherms)
Metabolic capacity maximal flux through metabolic pathways; constrained by enzymes; constrains
activity + heat production
Metabolic scope maximal rate of O2 consumption resting rate (how much metabolic rate can )

Metabolic pathways: macronutrients: produce substrates for ATP production (oxidative: mitochondria;
anaerobic; lactate)

Mitochondrial membrane:

e- passed between ETC protein complexes (I, III, IV [COX]) on IMM

H+ pumped into inter-membrane space; produces electrochemical gradients
Electrochemical gradient protonmotive force (storage of energy)
Protonmotive force drives ATP synthesis in complex V (oxidative phosphorylation)
COX (complex IV) transfers e to O2, production H2O

Metabolic capacity: determined by mitochondrial density / complexity + enzyme concentrations + activity /

membrane composition

Complex regulatory system thyroid hormone + autonomic NS

Energy sensing coupled to substrate utilisation

Membranes: phospholipids, proteins, cytoskeleton, fatty acids (saturated + unsaturated):

Fatty acids composition determines:

o Membrane-bound proteins activity Na+/K+ ATPase (resting MR) + mitochondrial ETC
o H+ and ion leak pump activity
As metabolic pacemakers:
o Activity of Na+/K+ ATPase (sodium pump) determines resting MR
o Molecular activity in endoderm > ectoderm (similar concentration)

Membrane composition determines Na+/K+ ATPase activity

Heat production: increase metabolic capacity:

H+ leak (IMM to cytoplasm) dissipate electromotive force as heat (rather than ATP synthesis)
membrane potential; H+ leak .i.e. rat leaks H+ at lower potential than lizard ( E lost to heat)
 Uncoupling H+ movement mediated by specialised proteins .i.e. uncoupling (UCP) (in brown
adipose tissue), adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP)
Upregulate demand Na+ leaks: Na+/K+ ATPase activity (futile SERCA cycling)
Supply + demand ATP demand in endoderms .i.e. chicken ectothermic before hatching;
endoderms by day 8; ATP demand + capacity ( uncoupling)

Damage: reactive oxygen species (ROS):

High protonmotive forces produces oxygen radicals .i.e. superoxide, peroxide, hydroxyl radicals
Low ROC concentration required for physiological function high ROC causes oxidative stress .i.e.
damage to membranes, protein + DNA / diseases (hypertension, Alzheimers)
Exercise metabolic flux ROS production
ROS defence (against peroxidation):
1. Enzymatic: Oo-2 (superoxide dismutase) H2O2 (catalse/glutathione peroxidase) H2O + O2
o Not perfect; 2 radicals from H2O2 (cause lipid peroxidation; damage membrane)
2. Uncoupling: leak in gradient dissipates H+ gradient
3. Repeated exercise: ROS defence + oxidative stress; attenuates ageing process
4. Diet: antioxidants (supplementation works only is there is a shortage) .i.e. vitamin C, -carotene

Membranes, ROS and ageing:

Polyunsaturation of membrane MR susceptibility to ROS damage; ROS production

Conundrum:
o Saturated membranes MR; lifespan
o Polyunsaturated membranes MR; better health; lifespan

Lecture 16: Animal Behaviour 1

Behaviour aggregate of the responses or reactions or movement may be an organism in any situation

Example: Tinbergens eggshell experiment; observed black-headed gulls removed eggs from their nests after
hatching. Significant: gull temporarily abandons chick to dispose of eggshell; eggs promote disease; edges may
injure chicks; white interior could attract predators

Ethology: concern behaviour mechanisms; fixed + flexible behaviours; production + detection of stimuli

Interaction of organisms with environment + behaviours survival value

Economic approach = behaviour costs + benefits (behaviour likely beneficial; otherwise natural
selection would have selected against it and removed it from the population)
Assumed behaviour is adapted to environment
Typically question aggregation in groups; diet patterns; dispersal; co-operation

Mechanism and function in animal behaviour:

Example: Zooplankton make large daily vertical migrations respond light quality + spectral light ratio s (act
as zeitgebers for their cardiac rhythms) / exploit surface resources in day + avoid predation at night

Animal behaviour repertoire: innate + learnt:

Innate genetically programmed (instinctive) .i.e. turtle hatchings move to sea

Determined + based on stimulus response; not 100% consistent within populations
Behavioural epigenetics environment affects gene expression + behaviour development .i.e. rats
stress response is affected by early life; experience = mothering confidence (down-regulation
glucocorticoid receptors)
Fixed action patterns are typically triggered by some sign stimulus or release
Sign stimulus releasing mechanism fixed action pattern
o Sign stimulus = critical portion of an overall stimulus (or releaser)
o Releasing mechanism = neural pathway
 o Fixed action pattern = behavioural response

Example: Sexual attraction in sticklebacks females respond to red underside (sign stimulus)

Example: Egg-retrieving behaviour in geese retrieve anything egg-like (supernormal stimuli)

The sensory ecology of stimuli:

Perception is at animal discretion (humans assume vision dominates; anthropomorphic subjectivity)

Critical sight, smell, taste, hearing + touch
9 to 45 distinct senses proprioception (body position), nociception (pain), thermoception (hot/cold),
equilbrioeption (balance), semiochemicals (pheromone)

Dog 4 billion olfactory receptors cells, 170cm2 olfactory epithelium SA, 3 x 108 cells in olfactory bulb

human 12 million olfactory receptors cells, 100cm2 olfactory epithelium SA, 1 x 107 cells in olfactory bulb

Learned develops as the animal grows + becomes experienced .i.e. training a dog to sit
Behaviour due to experience; related to complexity of animals nervous system
Allows flexible behavioural patterns

Habituation response to repeated stimulus .i.e. turtle wont detract into its shell after repeated touching (opposite
to sensitisation)
Imprinting Learning that occurs only during a critical (genetically determined) period
.i.e. filial; ducklings follow duck
.i.e. sexual; young animal learns the characteristic of a desirable mate
.i.e. Westermarck effect; two people who live in proximity during early life years become desensitized
to later sexual attraction
Classical Learn an association between stimuli where a conditioned stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of
conditioning a second unconditioned stimulus. After repetition, animal behaves the same towards condition +
unconditioned stimuli .i.e. Pavlovs dogs; salivation occurred when scientist entered room to feed dogs
Operant Learning where an animal is reward or punished for performing a behaviour (reinforces or reduces the
conditioning particular behaviour) .i.e. rats in a Skinner Box press levers to receive feed
Observational Imitation; learning from copying others .i.e. blue tits took cream from the top of milk bottles; later
learnt to break foil seals
Insight learning When an animal uses cognitive or mental processes to associate experiences + solve problem .i.e.
Wolfgang Kohler trained chimpanzees to use tools for food rewards

Animal intelligence: many examples of animal cognitive ability .i.e. in chimpanzees

1. Brain size determined by ontogenetic, ecological + evolutionary factors (balance need /

affordability) .i.e. large animals need large brains / nervous systems
2. Neuron number + relative abundance in different brain regions determines neural function +
behaviour .i.e. no direct relation between neuron number and behavioural complexity
3. Encephlaisation quotient hummingbirds
4. Neocortex ration measures ratio of advanced to basic brain
5. Convolution index (wrinkles)
Comparison among closely related species groups makes more sense than comparison between
distantly related species .i.e. primates absolute brain size
Animals are well adapted to cope with their cognitive demands they are required to perform
Lecture 17: Animal Behaviour 2

Predation selective force (drives evolutionary processes); shaped biology + behaviour

Arms race between predators + prey adaption + counter-adaption .i.e. evolution from plantigrade
to unguilgrade (longer legs means faster runners)
o Van Valens Red Queen Hypothesis; run hard to stand still
Death or dinner principle prey face stronger selection pressures to overcome predators .i.e. fox may
reproduce after losing a rabbit; rabbit cant reproduce after losing to a fox

Example: Bats and Moths arms race based on echolocation: with bat predation (50MYA) moths evolved
sensitivity to bat echolocation frequencies bats shift frequencies + whisper + stopped using echolocation for
hunting moths auditory sensitivity; furry bodies dampen sound; increase risk assessment; evade by flying
erratically + plummeting; jam sonar (tiger moths)

Example: invasive species; prey will be a huge disadvantage (sudden + powerful selective force). Blue mussels
co-evolved with green shore crabs; mussels detect crab developmental cues invest in thicker shells. Asian
shore crab invasion; mussels didnt recognise cues (handicapped)

Example: colistin (last-resort antibiotic)

Induced defences costly to mount; finite resources (adopted when required) .i.e. puffer fish

Example: common frog tadpoles grown in predators presence develop wider bodies; shorter + wider tails;
less active swimmers. Predators removed tadpoles switched back quickly

Ways prey can reduce risk:

1. Make detection less likely camouflage:

Example: Biston betularia; break up outline (industrial melanism)

Example: Horned ghost crab; change your appearance at day or night

Example: Parrotfish; make cocoons at night (non-visual crypsis)

2. Making an attack less likely

o Signalling predator sighting alert predators less likely to attack
o Signalling youre poisonous .i.e. seasnakes
o Aposematism use of warning colouration to signal poisonousness
o Changing colour and shape
o Using other animals for shelter

3. Making capture less likely

o Deimatic behaviour startle or confuse predator .i.e. butterflies

4. Making consumption less likely

o Taste disgusting without being poisonous .i.e. salamander

Predator strategies:

1. Ambush or pursuit:
o Most predators specialise strategy determined from phenotype + behaviour
o Strategy effectiveness depends on habitat

Example: leopard seals ambush penguins at the edge of ice floes counter-adaption by the penguins, on entry
and exit leopard seals pursue prey on land + water ambush + pursuit

2. Optimal foraging:
 o Maximising intake per unit time; requires ability to predict prey abundance patterns .i.e. breeding
colonies often attract predators

Predation one species benefits (predator) while the second species is harmed (prey) .i.e. parasites
(everywhere)

Example: Sacculina free swimming larva which uses chemosense to find prey. Females enter crabs soft
joints / fins hair follicles; feed + grows in crab. Female pushes out a bludge and wait for a male; upregulates
crab foraging for nurturing of parasite eggs

Parasite manipulation of host behaviour: many parasites have multiple life stages + intermediates hosts
which are eaten by final host (manipulate hosts to transmission)

Adaption to aid transmission are strongly selected for; parasite wins and hosts lose (arguably top of all
food chains) most extreme evolutionary arms race

Example: Euhaplorchis: digenean trematode with three hosts marine snail, fish, bird.

1. Parasitic eggs are released as bird droppings and eaten by snails

2. Snails are neutered; parasite grows and eventually bursts of snail to seeks fis
3. Burrows in fish and follows nerve to brain
4. Secretes proteins which interfere with fish serotonin + dopamine metabolism to reduce locomotion,
and allows bird predation

Lecture 18: Animal Behaviour 3

Widespread sociality very widespread; very diverse species (mammals + invertebrates)

Ecological + economic importance

Intrinsically interesting to us as social animals

Aggregation Group
Non-social animal grouping together .i.e. polar bears at a Social animals grouping together
whale carcass True social animals manifest social attraction
Exploit clumped resources
Shared habitat preferences
Shared migration routes

Social attraction varies in strength obligatory (must exist in group), facultatively (social under some
conditions) + solitary

Open entry groups Restricted entry groups Eusocial groups

Dynamic memberships Restrictions on group entry Consisting of close kin
No restriction on group entry Clear social hierarchy Entry not possible to unrelated
No clear social hierarchy Reproduction (dominance) Reproduction (dominance)
Groups split + reform Groups can split + reform Co-operative young care
Group size is variable Groups highly stable Generations overlap
Multileveled groups Caste system with defined roles
Fish shoals, bird flocks, unigulate herds Lions, grey wolves Social insects + crustaceans, naked
mole rats

Example: Lions form matrilineal family groups (oldest is highest), with pride lionesses tending to be related.
Young males disperse at older age; outside males form small coalitions to usurp existing pride males

Example: grey wolves form groups where only dominant individuals breeds, but offspring comprises the
groups; social degrees of reproductive skew seen in many social groups

Formation of groups: benefits outweigh costs

Access of information and enable better decision-making predation defence

Reproductive success finding a mate for some sessile marine animals, like barnacles, aggregation
enables breeding (competition still present)
Energy / resource conservation
o Penguins to survive long Antarctic winter by huddling
o Drafting during bird migration
Foraging opportunities:
o Gaining access to defend resources overcoming the attentions of a territory-holder
o Co-operative hunting strategic predators .i.e. lions may hunt giraffes
Coordinated predator behaviour
Synchronised or complimentary timing of actions in order to achieve outcome that
an individual or a group of individuals acting alone could not achieve
Foraging efficiency:

1. With more individuals, group can search an area more effectively

Local enhancement when individual finds food, group responds to social cues and arrive at the
patch
o Selection favours the ability to detect these cues when resources are; patchily distributed,
not easily defended or rapidly depleted by individuals, not easily detectable at range
o Groups of conspecifics may be more detectable at range than the patches of food they might
be feeding on .i.e. seabirds over baitfish school
o Behaviour / posture indicates of the presence or amount of food .i.e. geese eating worms

2. The group acts as information centre; comprises the collective information of all members lead to
strategic diversification producers+ scroungers
Groups are better able to defend resources than lone individuals .i.e. larger groups of lions and
hunting dogs are able to defend kills from hyenas for longer

Anti-predator advantages of group living: protection from predators

Vigilance predators strategy is to minimise the distance between itself and prey before detection
o Many eyes theory predators attacking larger groups are less successful
o As group size , individuals own vigilance without risk of failing to detect attack a
predators attack non-vigilant individuals
o Most grouping prey species have a detector who moves off first
Dilution of risk safety in number
o If approached by a predator that can only eat one group member, risk is 1/n ( as n )
Predator confusion predator success rate drops when prey group
o Timing in predator attack is essential
o When in a large group, predators may become indecisive (hesitation allows prey escape)
predator attacks unique prey individual
Groups are better able to defend resources than lone individuals .i.e. mobbing behaviour of nests

Costs of grouping;

Concentration of parasites
 resource competition
High detectability of groups of prey by predators
Higher detectability of groups of predators by prey
Costs may be considerable, but they are generally outweighed by the benefits

Balancing advantages and disadvantages:

Short-term flexibility in group size and structure

Trade-off animals extent to which they group with others due to in priorities ( food intake;
predation)
Group more when risk is high (form larger, denser groups)
Group less when hungry (form small, more dispersed groups)

Optimum group size:

Both groups benefits + costs initially with group size, although with different functional curves
This predicts an optimum benefits : costs at some intermediate size
If group size is less than the predicted optimum, active recruitment occurs .i.e. sparrows (safer feeding
in groups), ravens, primates
The main problem with an optimum group size is that it is unstable
If you have the perfect group size, it is vulnerable to being invaded invaders affect group fitness
(unless group can exclude transient individuals) (invading individual still beenfits)
Theoretical group size which maximises benefits / reduces costs

Lecture 19: Animal Behaviour 4

Aggression extremely common among animals; important in structuring communities (fighting is rare)

Aggressive interactions are more than fighting (aggression + fighting arent synonymous)
Individuals contest a resource following initial encounter (rival detection):
1) Display size / quality of weapons (most contests are settled here; very frequent)
2) Sparring enables rivals to assess eachother, without costs of fighting
3) Fighting occurs
Displays: highly ritualised (all animals of that species know what the display mean) + concentrate on specific
phenotypic character(s) (relate to fighting capability)

Aggressive displays emphasise size (and hence strength)

Accurate assessment of rivals is beneficial to all

Sparring: similar to fighting except no direct injuries occur

Trial of strength often immobilises the weaponry

Push against eachother; lock apart weaponry
One individual typically backs down (clear signal) (if not, escalation to fighting)

Fighting: can result in serious injuries (fatal; directly or indirectly; wound infection)

Energetic + opportunity costs (take away time from other

functions) important benefits in order for a fight to
develop
Fighting probability is related to value of the prize
Animals typically dont maintain spite

Outcomes of an interaction between individual A (initiator) and

individual B (receiver)

Remembering the outcome of the fight: avoiding fighting

every time:

Fighting + assessment (in stable social environment)

develops linear or despotic dominance hierarchies or pecking orders
Once established, aggression (more effective use of time) .i.e. in hens, all hierarchy members
benefit
o Dominant individuals pay a high physiological cost (stressful; fighting / challenges)
o Subordinate individuals have opportunities tendency to not leave / take opportunities
Phenomenon of winner effects (wins one contest; will win consecutive contests) + loser effects
o Individuals fighting ability doesnt change; its perception will affects likelihood of initiation
+ escalation in an aggressive situation

Animal fighting: due to scare resources food access; space / shelter; mates (mate required resources); not
mutually exclusive

Food fights: competition categorised as:

o Contest one overall winner of resource; favours size
o Scramble (1st to resource) many winners; favours speed, sensory perception, etc.

Example: African wild dogs (very successful social pursuit predators), hyenas and lions. AWD kills are stolen by
larger carnivores win the scramble competition; access prey / lose the contest competition

Avoiding aggressive competitors: phenotypic + ontogenetic diet shifts need to avoid aggression

Example: coral reefs are highly competitive Jewel damsels aggressively defend their food patches from
direct competitors like surgeonfish; adult surgeonfish cope with this / juveniles are vulnerable and pretend to
be non-competitor (pygmy angelfish)

Animals determine rivals by learning

Competition occurs for space + food .i.e. coral competing for sunlight detect other corals by
chemical cues produce fighting polyps with sweeper tentacles / extrude mesenterial filaments
(digestive apparatus) / coral grenages / allelopathy (poison water)
Competition for shelter .i.e. hermit crabs occupy gastropod shells, and must find new shell as it grows
aggression / fighting between individuals (frequency + intensity of shell raps (shell knocks));
attacker moves into new home; evicted crab resides in attackers empty shell
 Competition based on territoriality exclusive food access; cost in amount of time spent defending
(economics of territoriality .i.e. nutritional value of algae changes; reef herbivores change behaviour
Competition for reproduction most serious aggression over scarce resource. Sexual aggression:
o Transsexual (mostly male v male)
o Ansiogamy males produce more, small gametes; females produce less, large gametes
Parental investment females > males
o Males can theoretically fertilise an infinite amount of females
o Sexes have different optimal strategies
o Darwin males should compete with one another for female access / females should be
picky about which males they choose to mate with
o Modes of sexual selection:
1) Male v male competition (over mate or reproductive territory): sexual dimorphism where males >
females .i.e. size predicts reproductive success of Elephant Seals (big males monopolise mating)
2) Female choice (based on colour, size + display): females are passive in the process of male v male
competition (closely monitor fights + adjust behaviour accordingly) offspring genetic quality
Hotshot hypothesis: females use social information of make choice
Males have evolved coercive mating new females strategies:
o Adjust likelihood of fertilisation post-copulation
o Solicit additional males to provide competition for the coercive male prior to mating

Lecture 20: Nervous System

Peripheral NS appendaged from Central NS

Porifera without neurons

Cnidarians peripheral nerve net (no centralised brain; simplest NS); intersection of nerve nets at ganglia
(concentration nervous tissue); epithelial cells have transverse extensions of nervous cells. Theories;

1. Extension of epithelial cells downgrowths of sheet-like epithelium (with associated nuclei).

Development of connection between epithelial cell and down-growth may have disengaged and the
epithelial cell may have given up its nucleus (incorporated into new cells underneath epithelial sheet)
these cells developed contractile properties (smooth muscle allows body wall control); connections
between new cells + epithelial cells were precursor of nervous tissue for communications
2. Paedomorphosis (sea squirts) have start of CNS (concentration of nervous tissue down one side of
animal notochord; connective tissue between nerve chord + muscle for movement): sessile adult /
free-swimming larva; theory of prolonged larval stage becoming sexual mature but still planktonic
(free-swimming) (spine, CNS, digestive system (no cephalisation brain)

Notochord present in vertebrate embryology tells CNS where to form + PNS where to grow

Planarian (flatworm) (unsegmented) central ganglion (U-shaped structure with two lobes; nine branches from
each lobe) in the head region + pair of ventral nerve chords that extend the body length + cross-connecting
lateral nerve chords + branching nerves

Mammals have no segmentation in adult form, however repeated sections in the vertebral column

Earthworm (segmented): ganglion completely enclosed with body segments + branching peripheral nerves +
rudimentary brain + nerve chord

Radially symmetrical animals segmented animals have a chain of segmental ganglia; brain-like structure
(ganglion); pair of nerve chord cross-connected by lateral nerves nerve ring around periphery (two nerve
trunks) (no centralised brain) .i.e. medusa

Bilaterally symmetric animals true CNS with peripheral NS

Arthropods: crustacean

Larger ganglion
One ganglion for each thoracic + abdominal body segment (complete)
 Decentralized brain function
Brain
CNS of ganglia
Repeated in section
Fully segmented region in tail
Branching nerves
One ganglion for each thoracic and abdominal body segment
Nerve chord
Nerves radiating out into appendages
Decentralized brain function thought processes in ganglion as well

Arthropods: grasshopper

Slightly bilateral symmetry nerve tracts in duplicate

Brain with optic lobe on lateral side of brains (for vision)
Branching nerves
Nerve cords (one pair)
Ganglion

Cuttlefish:

Bilateral symmetry
Highly developed optic nerves (visual processing)
Specialised brain
Branching nerves

Behavioural + psychological vertebrate development encephlaisation (specialised processing functions):

response times to stimuli memory + information storage retrieval .i.e. bulls cannot be used in a
second bullfight (learnt too much)
Thoughts complex and flexible behaviour (alternative behaviours / interactions)
Emotional thought (feelings)

Neuromuscular junction:

Dendrites connected to axon terminals of different cells depolarisation travels down axon
Myelin sheaths (from Schwann cells) provides insulation depolarisation between nodes along the
axon to occur faster
Dendrites have axon knobs (axon terminals)

AP:

1. Resting membrane (potential -70mV) is stimulated + local depolarization reaches threshold

2. Voltage-gated ion channels open; Na+ moves into cells (depolarisation)
3. Peak polarisation; Na+ gates close, K+ gates open (repolarisation)
4. Over shooting occurs (hyperpolarisation)
5. Na+/K+ ATPase restores resting potential

Neuromuscular junction:

1. Presynaptic AP arrives at synapse; causes influx of Ca2+

2. Ca2+ stimulated acetylcholine release from pre-synaptic membrane into synaptic cleft (vesicular
exocytosis)
3. Acetylcholine binds to receptor on post-synaptic membrane; chemically-gated ion channels open
(neurotransmitter receptor full)
4. Post-synaptic AP are transferred
5. Acetylcholine inactivated (acetate + choline); reabsorbed into presynaptic membrane; acetylcholine
resynthesised

Peripheral interface with CNS: sensory receptor in PNS afferent neuron (peripheral axon; afferent fibre)
axon terminals to interneurons in CNS axon terminals to efferent neuron (axon; efferent fibre) axon
terminals to effector organ
Spinal cord: afferent neuron to dorsal horn of the grey matter (neuronal cell bodies) interneurons through
CNS afferent neuron from ventral horn

CNS cells:

No Schwan cells on axons (provides similar insulation) extension from oligodendrocytes (interact +
wrap around several nerve cells (since its cell body is very separate)
Ependymal cells junction between brain interstitial + cerebrospinal fluid
Microglia aids wrapped of cells; keeps cells localised in one place
Astrocytes (start-shaped cells) modulate neuron repair

Cellular study by antibodies which are coupled to luminous molecules astrocyte immunostaining

Comparative anatomy: differences in basic brain plan (reflects animal sensory specialities)

Fore brain Cerebrum Motor area voluntary muscle movements

Sensory cortex conscious perception of touch, pressure, vibration, pain,
temperature, taste
Hypothalamus Autonomic function
Secretes releasing hormones for anterior pituitary regulation
Thalamus Controls
Midbrain Optic lobes Integrates visual info with other sensory inputs
Relays auditory info
Midbrain nuclei Involuntary control of muscle tone
Processing of incoming sensations + outgoing motor commands
Hindbrain Cerebellum Involuntary coordination + control of outgoing movements
Balance + coordination + fine motor skills
Folds: gyrus (ridge) + sulcus (groove)
Pons Links cerebellum with other brain centres + medulla + spinal chord
Modifies output of respiratory centres in medulla
Medulla oblongata Regulates HR + CC; vasomotor control, RR
Relays info to the cerebellum
Integrates feeding + safety stimuli
PNS info spinal cord pons + medulla thalamus (twin lobes) to specific cerebral hemispheres (.i.e.
occipital lobes for visual processing)

1st ventricle lateral ventricles

2nd ventricle 0

Epithelium at top of 3rd ventricle Choroid plexus (produces cerebrous spinal fluid)

3rd ventricle cerebrospinal fluid production

4th ventricle -
Corpus callosum (white matter) communicate LR cerebral hemisphere
Sagittal fissure between hemispheres

Autonomic NS controls organs automatically (no processing in cerebral hemispheres); divided into
sympathetic (stressed) + parasympathetic (relaxed) NS

Heart Digestive system

Sympathetic adrenalin Increased HR, CO Decreased digestion
Parasympathetic acetylcholine Decreased HR, CO Increased digestion

Lecture 21: Sensory Systems:

Reception chemical, mechanical, light, thermal, electrical (heart cells)

Pheromone producing glands (non-olfactory chemical stimulation) alarm, tracer + primer pheromones alter
the physiology + behaviour of other ants
Mammalian taste (chemoreceptors) taste buds present in papillae; different proteins inside taste receptors
that can be fired off in different combinations to give different interpretations of taste

Microvilli (projections of epithelium)

Axons to PNS, through cranial nerve to CNS

Human olfactory epithelium: positioned in the roof the nasal cavity

Cell types in sensory layer

Olfactory bulb connects to olfactory (cranial) nerve (tip of the brainstem) at the ends of the bulbs,
they extend down through the skull to cilia and microvilli; molecules interact with receptors in
microvilli to transfer information

Olfaction:

Information then relayed to the olfactory cortex where odours are analysed
Odour information is projected to higher brain centre and affects emotions, thoughts, and behaviour
Recent cloning + molecular techniques located mammal genes that code for odour reception
About 70 genes from the same family have been identified in fruit-flies and some in nematodes
Each of 500 to 1000 genes encodes a separate type of odour receptor

Chemoreception in isopods sense of smell antenna and antennule is equivalent of nose in crustaceans
(cranial nerves into the brain); deep water isopods (challenge of light no vision) so relies on chemoreception
for finding food (antennule have consecutive bumps (crustaceans and insects have cuticle extension called
setae which have the receptors)

Mechanoreception receptors respond to touch, pressure, stretching, sound, vibration and gravity, and all
forms of motion .i.e. scorpions detect prey movement so know when to ambush

Touch receptors:
o Insects tactile hairs; sensitive to touch + vibration
o Mammals each hair follicle has receptors sensitive to touch

Touch reception from receptors in skin or cuticle (crustaceans) human endoskeleton (lower down) +
exoskeleton (cranium) hair or setae have nerve at the bottom of the shaft because pressure is felt; nerve at
the base of the setae

Pacinian corpuscle large layers of connective tissue which sense compression (mechanical; squeezing your
hand) (afferent neuron with neuron in the middle of the Pacinian corpuscle)

Tonic and phasic receptors: desensitisation (transient conveying of messages; touch receptors switch off)

Tonic receptors slow adaption; sensation is never truly gone (just reduced)
Phasic receptors (Pacinian corpuscle) switched off feeling dies down relatively quickly

Lateral inhibition (helps focus touch reception) pushing triggers nerves in a radius around the stimulus (more
accurate feeling by connective interneurons form the lightly stimulated nerves which terms them off, so only
the most stimulated nerves are felt (reduced are of sensation and more precise location on skin)

Setae reception (extension of cuticle): similar to mammalian system

Setae are often hollow (sensory olfaction within hollow setae), with neuron at the base of the shaft

Lateral line system of fish + amphibians:

A nervous system structure; distant touch reception system

Contains neuromasts receptor cells found in aquatic amphibians + some fish
o Occur in canals under the epidermis + opening at intervals to the surface (lateral line canals)
 o Collection of hair cells with the cilia embedded in a gelatinous cupula
o Cupula projects into the lateral line canal + bends in response to water disturbance
o Detects wave vibration + water currents
o Electroreceptor cells on nose (sharks) detect electrical currents from muscles + hearts
Aids fish in locating predators + prey + schooling
Functions in the reception of bioelectric signals
Electroreceptor cells are found in pores closely associated with the lateral line system

Stereocillia (grading in height) role in depolarisation:

1. Connecting proteins between stereocillum form ropes (tip link) between other stereocillum
2. Tips links stretch towards the tallest member; opens mechanically-gated K+ channels
3. Cell depolarises; opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
4. Ca2+ entry causes release of neurotransmitter, and AP transfer through synaptic cleft

If the tips are pushed towards the shortest stereocillum, no K+ enters the hair cell (hyperpolarises)

Balance:

Lobster righting reflex (flip body correct way) contain statocysts + hair cells in the antennule (contains
statoliths; sand + mucous); statoliths move with gravity + hair cells detect movement (and relay to CNS)

Mammalian balance otoliths (little bones) within the semicircular canal of the inner ear; descend with gravity
depending on orientation, hitting hair cells and determining orientation. Hair cells also detect ear rotation;
motion of fluid in semicircular canals depend on depolarisation / lack of depolarisation events based on the
currents within adjacent cells (move stereocilia)

Sight:

Insects multiple lenses with retina or retina type membranes (with sensory cells); 360 degree vision

Invertebrate similar structure to animals; pigments + range of colours vary

Mantis shrimp most complex eyes; 167 different types of photoreceptors or pigments

Inner most lining retina (point of sensory cells)

3 sets of cells rods and cones (detecting of light), bipolar cells (connects rods and cones) , ganglion
cells (to optic nerve)
o Sensory molecules are housed in membrane discs, which are housed in rods + cones
Light cells undergo spontaneous depolarisation light stops depolarisation
Retinal / opsin (rhodopsin) the membrane discs have rhodopsin in their membrane; when light hits
changes configuration (message to voltage dependent channels)
Sequence of phototransduction (activation of proteins) which close down Na+ channels (stop
depolarisation)
o Closure of channel prevents depolarisation
o Signals are transmitted from cone/rod to bipolar cells to ganglion cells
o To optic nerve to brain
o Brain interprets decrease in depolarisation

Lecture 22: Endocrine System

Hormones:

Can act on nucleus up/downregulate DNA transcription, mRNA translation + protein formation

Hormone classes:

Protein + thyroid AA polymer Acts on receptor proteins on non-cytosolic cell surface

hormone N terminus central carbon with R group C (hydrophilic)
terminus Stimulates secondary cytosolic pathway
Steroid hormone 4 carbon ring with side chain Can move through the membrane
Steroid (mitochondria) pregneulone; LDL facilitates transfer through membrane
precursor for all steroids
Neurohypophysis + adenohypophysis controls other endocrine glands (controlled by hypothalamus)
Cortisol catabolises fat + protein supplies to provide energy (to cope with long term stress)
Adrenaline from the medulla (to cope with short term stress)
Thyroid T3 (3 atoms of iodine) and T4 (4 atoms of iodine)

Endocrine feedback systems:

negative feedback system

Insect endocrinology:
developmental hormones

Corpora allata secretes

juvenile hormone (keeps
insect in juvenile form)
Prothoracic gland
secretes ecdysone
hormone (changes exoskeleton)

Sea squirt endorcrinology hormone control over metamorphosis (stayed in free-living, larval stage)

Pineal gland regulates circadian rhythms (control cortisol release throughout the day)

Hypothalamus 1 step process; produces:

Oxytocin (smooth muscle contraction) released from neurophypophysis

ADH (vasopressin; antiduretic hormone conserves water (pulled out of DCT + CD in later nephron)
released from neurophypophysis
o Stimulates water reclamation into the bloodstream ( urine volume + BP)

Hormones may be evolutionarily related (s in precursors could have produced two separate hormones)

Vasopressin of vasotocin:

Stimulates alpha male behaviour in frogs (endocrine products can have huge effect on behaviour;
satellite frogs with vasotocin became alpha male)
Aggression of pigs
Water absorption in toads through the skin pores (open up) absorb water through their stomach

Anterior pituitary hormones cortisol (breakdown fat and protein supply effects digestive system)

Endocrine control of birth and development in vertebrates:

Growth hormones stimulate anabolic metabolism in the body (catabolism to breakdown first)

Thyroid gland; T3 and T4: follicular cells produce T4 hormone (epithelial tissue)
 Colloid (C cell) storage of hormone precursor (2 AA)
Stays there until iodination out of follicle into the bloodstream
Goitre if release cannot occur
Precursors move into the colloid, require iodination before movement into the blood
Increases developmental processes:
o Tadpole rapid growth in developmental pathway with T3 ad T4
o Goitre in a ray (in tanks) after iodine treatment (allows precursor release)

Pancreas: regulates the levels of blood sugar

Lecture 23: Endocrine Systems in Stress

Adipokinetic hormone hormone released in response to stress: interacts with GDP binding protein (with
phospholipase C)

Sugar-phosphate head enzyme removes head (IP3) goes to ER, stimulating Ca2+ release
Phospholipid tail diacylglycerol (DAG) goes to protein kinase C (requires Ca2+ for activation) for
phosphorylation of an effector protein (changes cell physiology)
o Also stimulation of adenylate cyclase to convert ATP to cyclic AMP, stimulating protein kinase
A to phosphorylate an effector protein

Hormone action:

Mobilises fat into haemolymph (open circulatory system) to active metabolism to assist with stress
(analogous to cortisol)
Releasing AKH to mobilise fat to cope with stress
Interacts with the immune response metabolic systems stimulated by hormones often interact with
the immune system

Cortisol effects on metabolism: 2 step process (metabolic fuel for stress)

gluconeogenesis
Catabolism of fats + AAs
in blood glucose (to help body with stress)
of inflammation / depression of immune system

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis:

Hypothalamus (environmental + internal stress) pituitary gland adrenal glands (caudiomedial

aspect of kidneys)

1. Hypothalamic neurons secretes releasing hormones

2. Hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system
3. Anterior pituitary endocrine cells secrete hormones into capillaries
4. Venules form, and hormones are sent to target tissue or endocrine glands

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC):

Proprotein inactive form of larger AA sequence or protein (cleavage forms active protein)

Teleosts bony, jawed Cotricotrophs (anterior pituitary): ACTH proprotein has many active proteins
fish Melanotrophs: melanocytes stimulating proteins (hormone + physiological relaxation)
Lampreys jawless fish ACTH and -endorphins (cope with stress physiologically; calming opiate receptors)
Metabolic + physiological method to cope with stress
Same protein makes different effects in other parts of the body

Animals cut up POMC different form different endorphins for different functions (different methods of stress
control)

Anatomy of the adrenal glands

Cortex:
 o Zona glomerulosa mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
o Zona fasciculate cortisol
o Zona reticularis sex steroids (testosterone)
Medulla catecholamines

Hormones of the adrenal cortex 4 ring structure (cholesterol) + side chain (prenegalone when removed)

Occurs in the mitochondria site for side chain cleavage

Steroidogenic (makes steroid) from cholesterol transported through the blood (hydrophobic coated
in phospholipids and lipoproteins) (LDL low density lipoprotein transfers cholesterol in the lumen)
Interacts with the LDL receptors
Cholesterol goes to outermembrane of mitochondria, binding to StAR
StAR moves cholesterol to out membrane to inner membrane, forming pregnenolone (catalysed by
P450scc in IMM)
Enters cell; interacts with lysosome (breakdown of material)
Pregnenolone moves through the membrane by contact point (bridge of protein being outer and inner
membrane)

Steroid pathways: cholesterol pregnenolone makes all steroid hormones (precursor for all steroids)

Conversion between cholesterol and pregneulone is first and rate limiting step in making steroid
hormones (steroidogenesis)

Control of cortisol secretion:

Stress detected in the cerebrum

In response to this stress the hypothalamus
secretes corticotrophin-releasing hormone
(CRH)
CRH travels down the hypophyseal portal
system to the anterior pituitary where it
stimulates the release of ACTH from the
corticotropes
ACTH travels to the adrenal cortex where it
stimulates the release of cortisol and other
steroids
Cortisol and ACTH exert negative feedback
effects on the system

Cortisol concentrations stress (detected in blood,

stomach + faeces)

Increasing swimming in fish causes stress:

1. Water flow (make them exercise) over the gills

and blood blow through the gills and can lead
to increased ion loss in freshwater fish
effects on endocrinology + metabolism
depending on the species + state of nutrition
2. Starvation and swimming speed on
endocrinology
o Exercise stress in goldfish
o Exercise didnt effect stress in carps

Species difference; carps are used to exercise / goldfish are not

3. Seasonal and predator influences on adrenal function in adult Steller sea lions predation of orcas

ATCH injections cause cortisol increase in faeces when under stress

Predation by killer whale elevates faecal corticosterone

4. Enclosed area on endocrinology

5. Temperature changes in species of urchins (heat shock protein 70 whenever there is stress to an
animal, proteins get damaged and cells must replace the protein initially make protein of long line of
AA HS proteins bind to save the linear proteins to move around the cell before folding can occur)

Heat shock protein expression increased in higher temperature

This technique can be used on plants

Stress occurs in cold and hot temperatures