Muslims and the Invention of Chemistry (1-3)

Ragheb el-Sergany, Dr

Chemistry is considered an Islamic science by all means, as the word chemistry

had not even been invented in any language or civilization before the Islamic
civilization; neither the ancient Egyptian civilization nor the Greek civilization. In
European languages, the word chemistry is written as Alchemie. It is a well-
known fact that every Latin word that starts with Al- has an Arabic origin. An
example of that would be alcohol, algebra...etc.

The word chemistry in Arabic (Alchemie) is derived from the word chem. or
chemeia, which means amount. This is because the Muslim scientists who
established this science used to say: if we added a certain amount (chemeia) of this
substance to another amount of another substance the result will be the following.
This name in itself illustrates an important fact, and that is that Muslim scientists
were the first to discover the theory of proportions in combining substances. This
was five centuries before the chemist Brawest. This theory states that substances
do not combine except with certain proportions and weights for each of them; this
is the law of constant proportions in the chemical bonding theory.

It is also mentioned in the book Lissan Al-Arab (Tongue of the Arabs), by Ibnul-
Manthour, that the word alchemie is an Arabic word derived from the word
Chama, which means to hide. Abu-Abdullah Ahmad al-Khawarizmy (387 A.H.
[1]) explains this in his book Mafateeh al-Oloum (Keys of Sciences), saying that
the name chemie is an Arabic name derived from Chama, which means to hide
something. This confirms what Alrazi wrote when he named his book on
chemistry Al-Asrar (The Secrets) and Ser Al-Asrar (The Secret of Secrets).

The terminological definition for chemistry is: the science that deals with the
nature of a substance, its composition and the changes occurring within it.

In other words, chemistry is the scientific study of the characteristics, composition,

and changes in the structure of a substance and the change in energy accompanying
them.[2]

In general, chemistry is divided into three main branches; underneath each branch,
there are sub-branches and more specialized details. Some of the smaller branches
are: Analytical Chemistry, Biological Chemistry, Organic and non-organic
Chemistry and Physical Chemistry. Among the other branches which are of
particular interest to specialized chemists are thermal chemistry, kinetic chemistry,
quantitative chemistry, statistical mechanics and spectral science.
Chemistry is a very important science due to its involvement in the activities of all
living creatures. Using chemistry, it is possible to transform raw (crude) substances
into substances useful for humans, that satisfy basic human needs.

A chemist, for instance, can produce some new substances from coal and oil, such
as dyes, medicine, plastics and artificial rubber. In the agricultural field, chemistry
has contributed to the production of fertilizers and insecticides. Chemistry has
made it possible to produce artificial fibers, which has a powerful impact on textile
manufacturing. These examples are all in addition to the other fields in which
chemistry has contributed in the context of our daily life.

Chemistry Before Islam:

Although we mentioned earlier that chemistry was an Islamic science from the
start, this does not negate the fact that there was a type of art called alkhimiaa,
which some people say was invented by the ancient Egyptians. Others claim that it
was made by the Chinese (during the third or fourth century B.C). Some also assert
that it also existed in the Greek and Serenades cultures.

Nevertheless, alkhimiaa of the ancient Egyptians or the Greeks and the

Serenades has been of no value and there is no similarity between it and modern
chemistry or even scientific thinking whatsoever. The Greeks and Serenades at that
time depended on assumptions and analytical thinking. They used emotional views
to justify phenomena and miracles, and to explain them. This method is also
closely related to magic, which the Muslims have later named Ilm as-sana (The
Science of Craft), this so-called science which has been trying, for ages, to reach
two distant goals:

First: converting cheap metals such as iron, copper, lead and zinc into valuable
metals such as gold and silver by discovering the stone of the philosophers.

Second: preparing the Elixir of life (Elixir of al-Hayat) as a remedy for mans
sufferings, a cure for all his pains and illnesses, which will also elongate his and all
other living creatures lives.[3]
The ancient Egyptians discovered the embalmment using chemicals as well as
preserving foods and clothes, and they were brilliant in making permanent (fixed)
dyes. Similarly the Greeks had a role in cheestry. They came up with a theory
about the possibility of converting cheap metals like iron, copper and mercury into
valuable metals like gold and silver. This theory stated that all the substances on
earth originated from four main elements: fire, dust, air and water. Each element
was said to have two features in common with another element.

For example, fire is dry and hot, dust is dry and cold, water is cold and moist, and
air is cold and dry. Based on this assumption, it would be possible to convert one
element to another. Aristotle saw that when all the elements reacted in the bellows
underneath the earths surface under a certain amount of pressure and and a
specific temperature, metals were produced.

Moreover, in the fifth century B.C, the Greek philosopher Democritus stated that
all substances are made of one thing in the form of small unbreakable units, called
atoms. Based on this theory the difference between substances is solely due to the
difference in the size, shape and position of their atoms.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived in the fourth century B.C., believed
that any of the main elements suggested (by Empedocles) can be converted to any
of the other elements by adding or removing heat or humidity. He decided that this
change, known as the transformation, occurs whenever an element is added to a
chemical reaction or a change in a physical status occur (solid, liquid, gas).
Aristotle believed that water, for instance, is transformed from liquid to gas
through heating.

During the first three hundred years after the birth of Christ, the scientists and
craftsmen in used and developed alkhimiaa, based on Aristotles theory of
transformation. They tried to transform lead and other metals into gold, and then
alkhimiaa was spread throughout the Arabian peninsula during the seventh
century A.C. and consequently to most of western Europe during the twelfth
century A.C. Alkhimiaa was the main source of chemical knowledge until the
seventeenth century A.C.

Despite the failure of those attempts in the alkhimiaa field to transform metal
into gold, over the many centuries they spent conducting experiments, researchers
of this field did broaden their knowledge of chemical substances. Modern chemists
are still using many of the laboratory tools and methodologies that those who
worked in al-khimiaa invented, such as: cones, filters and balances used to weigh
the chemical substances, as well as bowels used to melt metals. Theyve also
learned to prepare different acids and alcohols and make use of them.
The researchers collectively agreed that the Greek made a limited contribution to
thee field of chemistry, as they had viewed the physical sciences from the
theoretical and philosophical perspectives; all their efforts were focused on
converting cheap metals like lead and zinc into valuable metals like gold and silver
using a mysterious stone called the stone of the philosophers. Muslims were the
first to start this science on new basis, through experimenting and observing.
Holmyard states in his book The History of Chemistry Until Daltons Time:
Muslim scientists have fought against the childish mysteries which were
introduced to chemistry by the school ofAlexandria , and theyve used new
scientific basis in this field.

Generally speaking, for the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, this profession was
dominated by theoretical views and was practiced by priests and magicians whose
secrets were only known to themseves. There was a deficiency on the Greek side
while the Egyptians excelled in that field; nevertheless, there was only very little
evidence found overall.[4]

Muslims and The Basics of Chemistry:

It is not clear when exactly Muslims started to show their interest in chemistry, but
it is agreed upon that Khaled Ibn-Yazeed Ibn-Moawiya al-Omawy (85 Hijri / 704
A.C.), was the first Muslim to be seriously interested in this science. He was a
candidate for ruling and when he did not win, he redirected his efforts from politics
to science. It was narrated that he assigned some of the Copts who spoke Arabic,
such as Merinos, Shimon and Stephan the Alexandrian, to collect some of the
chemistry researches found in Alexandria and translate them to Arabic.

Hence, alkhimiaa with all its misconceptions reached the Muslims, with all its
illusions and misconceptions included..Its target at that time was to reach
imaginary goals which were not related in any way to modern chemistry, since the
latter is based on scientific basis and laws.

In the beginning, Muslim chemists believed, like the Greeks and the Serenades,
that all metals were of the same original elements: water, air, fire and dust, and that
their properties are changeable, the difference between them due to the difference
in the elements making them up. Therefore, whoever wanted to make gold would
only have to transform the metal into its original elements and remake it using the
right proportions of the elements for gold.

Even so, nobody was able to achieve this goal, including Muslim scientists and
their predecessors. Yet Muslims were able to discoverby coincidencenew
substances and laws which eventually enabled them to move from alkhimiaa to
chemistry.

As we have seen, at the very beginning, Muslim scientist concentrated mainly on

what their predecessors had written, mainly the writings of the Greeks,
of Alexandria , and the books of Dasios and Pelvis who wrote the book, The Secret
of Creation. It is clear that the focus on chemistry in the early ages of Islamic
history was due to the need to increase wealth by transforming metals into gold as
was believed was possible.

As time passed, by the end of the third Hijri year and with the beginning of the
fourth, this science had been developed and well featured by new scientists who
were brilliant in the chemistry field. In the lead were Jabir Ibn-Hayan (815 A.C.)
and ar-Razi (932 A.C.). This was the time of the enrichment of the Abbasid era.

These two giants set up the basics of modern chemistry and applied scientific
procedures in developing it, leaving behind previous-believed mysteries and
illusions. They accomplished many achievements, one of which was the successful
transformation of the platonic theories and opinions into practical science with
concrete laws and useful goals, and laboratories with certain specifications.

As a result of the tremendous accomplishments of Jabir Ibn-Hayan in the field of

chemistry, the world, for a long time, named chemistry after him, as Jabirs
profession or Jabirs science. After Jabir and ar-Razi, came other giant scientists in
the field like Avicenna, al Beyrouni and al-Galdaki.

It is possible to summarize Muslims rules of chemistry as follows:

First: The Aim of Chemistry:
Converting metals into gold was not the only goal for Muslims; in fact, they used
chemistry in pharmacy and produced chemical medicines for the first time in
history. They also used it in developing their industry at times of war and peace.

Second: The Laboratory:

The scientist Holmyard, who discovered the laboratory of Jabir Ibn Hayan,
described it as follows: It was in an underground basement, to be able to control
the temperature; it had very few pieces of furniture to avoid fire problems; it had a
big oven and many different equipment in both glass and copper, the most
important of which are the flasks, tubes, filters, cones, basins and droppers. In
addition to that, there were mortars and metal balls for crushing and cracking, as
well as the sensitive balances. A golden mortar has been found as well, which
weighed around two hundred pounds.

Ar-Razi, who came a century after Jabir, is considered to be the first to set the
main basis for chemical analysis laboratories. He invented over twenty innovative
devices, among which are those made of metal and glass, and he described each of
them accurately in his book The Secrets.

Third: The Scientific Experiments:

Historians collectively agree that Muslims merit in the scientific field is due to the
fact that they adopted the principle of experiments and observations before
coming up with a conclusion.

Jabir Ibn-Hayan used to advise his students to rely on scientific experiments only,
together with accurate observations, and among his advice in the field is: The first
duty is to experiment practically, because those who do not make practical
experiments will never reach even the lowest level of accuracy; you should
experiment, my son, in order to acquire knowledge.

Fourth: The Chemists Qualifications:

The chemist, Jabir Ibn Hayan advised the following: A) Be patient, persistent,
conservative and silent. B) Avoid the impossible and the useless. C) Dont get
deceived by appearances, because doing so will lead to wrong results for you
experiment. D) Scientists have never been proud merely of the amount of medicine
they know of, but rather with their skill in using it, and so he suggested: You
should be patient, take it slowly, avoid rushing and follow nature in whatever you
want to do. E) Be dedicated to the experiment from the beginning, in order not to
miss any slight change from which you can deduce huge results

Muslims and the Invention of Chemistry (2-3)

Fifth: Chemical Operations and Their Importance:

Muslim scientists have used several chemical operations both in preparing complex
medications, as well as in some industries. Through these operations they tested the
properties of the elements that were used in these operations and they prepared
different kinds of substances. They also developed new substances to fit their
needs, either to separate liquids, to prepare some metals from their crude, to
remove impurities or to transform substances from one state to another.

They used the balance to accurately measure and control the amount of impurities
in metals, which is something that was unknown to the world until after seven
centuries of Muslims using it.

The following are some of the operations which Muslims conducted to prepare and
purify substances:

1- Grilling: this has been and is still used nowadays in order to prepare metals
from their crude using hot air, where the substance is put on wide stone after it has
been dipped in water and then is placed in a small flask inside another bigger flask,
then the latter is heated for a long time, until the humidity is gone, the inner flask,
which contains the substance, is then closed.
2- Distillation: this is done by heating the liquid in a certain container,
converting it to gas which is then condensed and converted to liquid using a glass
distilling device made of glass. The condensed liquid is then collected in a certain
flask. This method is used to purify the liquid from any suspended substances and
also to separate volatile form non volatile liquids.
3- Purification: In this operation, the impurities are extracted and removed from
the required substance. In order to achieve this goal other operations are used to
help, such as distillation, washing, dissolving in different solvents and partial
crystallization.
4- Sublimation: this is converting a solid substance into gas , then back to the
solid state without passing into the liquid phase as in the case of iodine and
camphor.
5- Escalation: is heating a liquid substance especially essences, etc. with
liquid or solid substances with high boiling points. After heating in a water-bath of
no more that 100 degrees Celsius the volatile particles escalate, while non-volatile
substances remain on the bottom. Al-Kindi was the first to use this method and
named it essences escalation in his book. He used to perform this operation using
vapor escalation.
6- Calcification: it is similar to the process of grilling but actually in
calcification the substance is heated directly until it is converted into a powder.
Calcification has been used a lot in removing the crystallization water and in
converting crystallized substances into un-crystallized powder
7- Waxing: this is enveloping the substance in wax to insulate it and protect it
from certain factors as pollution or to simplify some processes. Waxing is made by
adding substances that help other substances to melt, like for instance adding
sodium carbonate to sand helps melting the sand to make glass.
8- Amalgamation: this is the union of mercury with other metals, Despite the
fact that Muslims were not the first to invent that process, they were the first to use
it to prepare for calcification and sublimation.
9- Fermentation: this is the reaction between carbohydrates and yeast. This
experiment led them to invent a method for preparing good alcohol from fermented
carbohydrates and sugary material. It is a well-known fact that Muslims were the
first to use bread mould and grass fungi to make medicine that can treat infected
wounds
10- Crystallization: In this process some bodies take fixed geometrical forms
which vary according to the variety of these bodies. This is done by dissolving the
substance in a solvent at a high temperature until the solution becomes saturated.
When the solution cools down, the crystals of the solute separate from the solution
in the form of pure crystals, and all the impurities remain dissolved in the
remaining solution. The solution is then filtered to produce the crystallized
substance.
11- Evaporation: this is the conversion of liquids and solid substances into vapor
by heating.
12- Filtration: It is used to get the pure or crystallized substances. Flasks similar to
those used now were used. Filtration paper was replaced with pieces of cloth made
of hair or linen in having fiber arrangements that would allow for the solution to be
filtered.

In short, we can conclude that, chemistry did not evolve into a real science except
when it was handled by Muslims. Muslims took it from the realm of theory that
they obtained from the Greeks and into the realm of practical experiment,
observation and scientific conclusion. This renovation resulted in a precious
heritage which they did not keep from the world; on the contrary, they presented it
to those who came after them in the field of science, Upon this heritage the world
founded the science of modern chemistry, and Muslims were the foundation and
pillars of that science.

With Muslims efforts, the field of chemistry moved from the preliminary phase of
translation made by Khaled Ibn-Yazid into the stage of accomplishments, clear
discoveries and positive contributions. Later on the science of chemistry
crystallized, and the discoveries increased. Among the most important of these
discoveries were:

Muslims were the first to use chemistry in manufacturing medicine:

Before the era of Muslims, all known drugs were made from medicinal herbs, and
for the first time, Ar-Razi introduced the salts of metals such as magnesium,
mercury, iron and zinc in medicine and therapy and he made from them ointments,
swords, pills and Almrok. Ar-Razi used to experiment with these drugs on animals
and especially monkeys, who are similar to humans.

Ibn-Sina (Avicenna) was also the first to recommend enveloping medicine pills in
either salts of silver or gold in case the medicine was sour or in case it was
intended to dissolve in the intestine rather than the stomach.

Muslims expanded their efforts in the field of pharmaceutical industry:

Muslims were the first to make soap from sodium, and they made colored, scented,
liquid and solid soaps. The European word, Savon, originally comes from the
Arabic word Sabon and some references mention that they were the first who made
paper.

Jabir Ibn-Hayan managed to invent types of paper that could resist fire, and it was
used to envelop versions of the Qur'an and other valuable books. He also invented
cloth that can resist water.

Abbas Ibn-Fernas managed to imitate lightening in the sky dome by the

combustion of magnesium, and thus he paved the road for night photography. He
also managed to imitate thunder by the help of ammunition, and the Arabs were the
first who used ammunition as a pushing force in guns.

Muslims excelled also in the manufacture of glass. They developed highly pure
types of glass. Jabir Ibn-Hayan invented the method of adding magnesium dioxide
to glass to remove the green and blue colors that appear in the conventional cheap
glass. Abbas Ibn-Fernas is also considered to be the first person to invente
crystallized glass (crystal!) by adding some metal salts to it as those of lead, gold
and silver to add more shine and glamour to it.

Muslims also invented Enamel which is made up of glass powder mixed with some
metal oxides, after which the mixture is dissolved into an oily material until it is
converted into liquid by heating. It is used to draw prominent drawings on glass,
shiny translucent drawings that were used to decorate lamps and the glass used in
mosques. This art was carried over from Andalusia to Europe, and it became
extremely popular and prevalent in churches and in the palaces of princes. Muslims
also invented many types of dyes.

Muslims invented many chemical substances that still hold the Arabic name, and
that are still the pillar of the science of chemistry. They invented alcohol through
fermentation, and they extracted volatile oils by distillation. They discovered soda,
extracted sugar from fruit juices by heating them on fire and it is still named
SUCCAR. They also extracted metals from chemical compounds and they made
alloys from different metals.
The manufacture of Arabic steel is considered one of the miracles of Arabic
science. Arabic swords always set an example in the strength of their metal, and its
purity. They wrote many books on that matter such as: The message of Al-Kindi
who died in 866 which was titled What is added to iron and swords so as not to
become blunt or weak. The department of material engineering in the university
of Stanford, in the United States of America, published a paper in 1984 that stated
that its scientists discovered the secret to manufacturing the Damascus steel that
was used by the Arabs to make their swords. The Stanford paper also stressed the
fact that Arabic swords had always set an example with the sharpness of their
blades, the smoothness of their surfaces and the strength of their metal. They
discovered that they were made from steel mixed with iron sulfide that was
produced from exposing metals to low temperature, findings which were unlike
those who studied Arabic steel before them and who faced problems while
studying it because they exposed it to very high temperature (the process of
blacksmithing)

Muslims knew that fire is extinguished in the absence of air, and they discovered
acids and alkalis and the difference between them. And the word alkali has its
origin in the Arabic work al kalawy.. One of the greatest accomplishments of
Muslims was the discovery of acids such as nitric acid and hydrochloric acid; these
were discovered by ar-Razi in 932. Furthermore, the discovery of organic acids
like vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid and formic acid had tremendous
consqequences. Muslims also prepared the royal water which dissolves gold from
nitric acid and hydrochloric acid in a ratio of 1:3.

Although many of the Muslim chemists directed their efforts to converting cheap
metals like copper and lead into gold and silver without any actual results, these
efforts did not go in vain. Through these efforts they reached many discoveries and
inventions that developed the science of chemistry and expanded it. Muslims
became the masters of the gold and silver industry in their times. They excelled in
making silver and gold alloys and coins that were set as examples thanks to their
neatness and perfection.

They also set the rules for discovering these ratios and discovering the fraud of all
precious metals. One of the contemporary chemists in Europe, Dr. Flenderbetri,
analyzed Arabic coins from different sources, and found that the proportions of
alloy are the same in all of them. He then weighed three coins which have the same
value and he did not find a big difference in weight. The difference did not exceed
one part of three thousand parts of the gram between one coin and the other, and he
says in the research report that he published that this accuracy is beyond all
imagination.

Additionally, Muslims excelled in leather tanning and preparation and they

discovered types of leather which range from soft, delicate types that are suitable
for clothes to tough types that are suitable as envelopes for swords, daggers and
manuscripts. They were also very creative when it came to drawing on leather with
permanent colors as well as writing on it. This industry is still blooming in Spain
since the era of the Muslims.

And the greatest evidence on their excellence in the industry of dyes, colors and
inks is the bright colors we see today in the Islamic palaces, as in Alhamra and the
palaces in Istanbul and what we see in the colored coverings of Qur'an. They have
also created an ink made from phosphoric substances that can light up at night and
another that emanates a golden shine in the light made from copper sulfide. It was
used instead of the expensive gold in writing the Qur'an and the valuable
manuscripts.

Muslim scientists have also invented types of paint that protect iron from rust.
Jabir Ibn Hayan invented chemical substances in which clothes or paper can be
soaked and thus protected from becoming wet, and other substances in which
clothes or paper can be soaked and thus protected from combustion[1].

Muslims and the Invention of Chemistry (3-3)

Muslims Achievements in The Science of Chemistry and Its Influence on Western

Culture:

The Orientalist Gustave LePont says: if it were not for the results and discoveries
that the Arabs have reached, La Voisier the father of modern chemistry would not
have been able to reach his discoveries)[1].

One of the greatest accomplishments of Muslims is their key role in establishing

the science of chemistry, and the world could not ignore that foundational role,
especially in Europe. Europeans have benefited a lot from the theories of Muslims,
their experiences and their experiments in chemistry.
They translated all Arabic books of chemistry into Latin, because Muslims were
the first to put the scientific basis of chemistry that was based upon experiments
into writing. Jabir Ibn-Hayanas we will see in the next article, by the grace of
Allahhad the greatest individual role in the establishment of the science of
chemistry. He was the one who organized a lot of the methods of research and
analysis, he created a number of chemical compounds and his researches were the
base references in Europe until the eighteenth century[2].

One of the manifestations of the influence of Muslims or the Islamic civilization

upon the west in the field of chemistry was that Europeans quoted many of the
Arabic terms in chemistry like for instance:
Al-Kafor: Camphor Al-Kalawy: Alkali
Al-Anbic: Alempic Al-Kohol : Alcohol
Al-Tutya : Tutry Al-Ethmed: Aktimany

The influence of Muslims in the science of chemistry is quite obvious in the

encyclopedia of Vincent de Bouvait. Professor Mierhoff says that ''the articles that
are attributed to De Bouvait are full of evidence on Jabir,'' and nobody can deny the
importance of this encyclopedia to the West.

There is a declaration in the eleventh edition of the British Encyclopedia which

states that the industry of ammonium salts was first known in Egypt, and through it
Europe was supplied with this salt for years and years. The people of Venice and
then the Dutch after them were the first who worked in this commerce from Egypt
to Europe. The method the Egyptians used in making ammonium salts was not
known in Europe until 1719 when Dr. Lumiere, the French counselor in Cairo, sent
the Egyptian method to the French academy.

Gustafe Lebon was fair with the Muslims when he said that the research made by
Renault and Vaviet, and before them, Caseri, Andrea and Virado, proved with no
doubt that the gun powder with the driving force that was considered an explosive
material that drives missiles is a genuine Arabic invention, and its credit is shared
with nobody else. The Arabs knew how to invent and use the power generated
from gun powder, and in brief they were the ones who invented firearms[3].

Will Durant says that ''Muslims may very well be the ones who invented chemistry
as a science because they introduced accurate observations and scientific
experiments and because of their vigilance on collecting results in a field in which
the Greek depended solely on artificial experience and obscure theories.

These accomplishments, along with these testimonials, first and foremost show
how far the Islamic civilization progressed, and how advanced it was in its pursuit
to serve all of humanity.

Great scientists were burdened with achieving accomplishments in the science of

chemistry. They enriched humanity through their efforts, and with the message
they carried and for which they did a great deal of work. Among those scientists
were some to whom the entire science of chemistry was attributed for years.

Ibn-Khaldun described him in his book when he came to talk about chemistry and
said, ''The pioneer in chemistry was Jabir Ibn-Hayan, they even attribute the
science to him and say the science of Jabir, and he wrote seventy books on
chemistry'' [4]
He is Abu-Musa Jabir Ibn-Hayan Ibn-Abdullah Al-Azdy, from the Yemeni tribe of
Azd. Some of the people of this tribe migrated to Al-Kufa after the collapse of the
dam of Ma'areb. He was born in Tus and settled in Baghdad after the establishment
of the Abbassid caliphate. His relation was tightened with the Persian family of Al-
Baramekah and his life extended from 103-200 Hijri/ 721-815 AC.

Jabir is considered the founder of experimental chemistry. He was the first to

acquire his information from experiments, observation and scientific conclusion.
He had so many discoveries and works to the extent that chemistry was attached to
his name, they used to say ''the chemistry of Jabir'' and ''chemistry is for Jabir'', and
also '' Jabir's craft''. He was also named '' the master of chemists'' and '' the father of
chemistry.''

Before Jabir, there were merely several primitive old jobs, that mingled with many
crafts like embalming (in ancient Egypt), leather tanning, dying, mining and oil
purification. But Jabir Ibn Hayan managed to develop chemistry and elevate it
from this lowly rank into a high science, by adding so much theoretical, practical
and scientific knowledge and by setting the basis and rules for preparing and
dealing with chemical substances, thus he is considered the master of chemists
without any counterpart[5].

Chemistry startedas we mentioned in the first article on chemistryas a

superstitious science that depended on old legends. The idea of turning cheap
metals into valuable ones controlled the scene because scientists who came before
Islam believed that metals such as gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin are from
the same type, and only differ due to the effect of heat, cold, dryness or humidity
on it. These are all changeable attributes according to the theory of the four
elements (fire, air, water and earth) and thus these elements can be changed into
one another with the aid of a third element, elixir. Based on this view, some
scientists from the civilizations that preceded the Islamic civilization imagined that
they could invent the elixir of life or the stone of wisdom that can remove the
deficiencies of life and prolong life[6], and this was known as the science of
alchemy.

Some of the early Arab and Muslim scientists like Jabir Ibn Hayan and Abu Bakr
Al-Razi were influenced by the theory of the four elements that the Arab and
Muslim scientists inherited from the Greek. However they studied it accurately and
this led them to discovering the scientific experimental method and applying it in
the field of experimental sciences.

Jabir used to say about this experimental method that ''the condition for perfecting
this craft, is work and experiment. He who does not work or experiment will
achieve nothing.''[7]
Also, in the first article in the great book of properties he says: ''In this book we
mention the properties of what we have seen after experiments and tests regardless
of what we have heard or read. And thus we mentioned what proved to be right and
we refused what proved to be wrong and we also compared what we discovered to
what people mentioned'' [8]

And thus Jabir is considered to be the first to introduce scientific laboratory

experiments in the scientific research method that he established. He sometimes
called experimenting ''training''. He used to say that ''he who is well-trained is a
real scientist, and he who is not well-trained is not a real scientist; you better train
well in all crafts, a well-trained craftsman excels and he who is not well-trained
fails''[9]

And thus, Jabir made a bigger step than the Greeks, by introducing experiment as a
basis for work and not only static meditation.

Jabir's works that depended on laboratory experiments were the most important
serious trials in studying nature in an accurate scientific way. He was the first to
introduce the laboratory experimental method, and the procedures he pursued in his
researches are almost identical to those followed today. His procedures can be
summarized in three steps:

The first: the chemist has to set an assumption through his observations so as to
explain the phenomenon he wants to explain.

The second: to deduce conclustions based theoretically on his assumptions.

The third: to take these conclusions back to nature and see whether it will support
his new findings or not. If they proved to be true, the hypothesis changes into a
scientific law that can be relied upon in detecting how nature will react under
certain circumstances.[10]

Halymyard was very interested in Jabir's works, his scientific method and his
books. He was keen on showing the scientific value of his work, and he said later
that ''the special thing about Jabir was that he showed and insisted upon the
importance of experiment much more than all the alchemists who came before
him''[11]

Jabir Ibn HayanPriorities and Achievements:

Jabir conducted so many laboratory experiments, some of which were already

known before his time and some of which were new experiments. Among the
methods that he used were evaporation, distillation[12], crystallization[13],
sublimation[14], filtration[15], melting, condensation, and dissolution. He studied
the properties of some elements accurately and thus discovered the complex silver
ammonium ion[16].

He prepared many chemical substances, he was the first to prepare sulfuric acid
from alum by distillation, he also prepared mercury oxide, nitric acid, which is
known as silver water and he used to call it hydrolyzing water or water of fire. He
also prepared hydrochloric acid, which is called the spirit of salt. He was the first
to discover caustic soda, as well as the first to retrieve silver nitrate, which he
called the rock of hell. He also prepared mercury chloride (Al Sulaymany),
nitrohydrochloric acid (the royal water) which was named thus because it could
dissolve gold, the king of metals.

He was the first to notice the precipitates of silver chloride upon adding table salt
to silver nitrate. He also used alum to make dyes on cloth permanent. He prepared
certain substances that can waterproof clothes; these substances are aluminum salts
that are derived from organic salts that contain hydrocarbon molecules. He
concluded that fire adds a blue color to copper, while copper adds a green color to
fire. He was the first to separate gold from silver using an acid, and he explained in
detail the method of preparing arsenic, purifying metals and dying cloth.[17]

He was the first to use the sensitive balance and the extremely accurate weights in
his laboratory experiments; he weighed amounts that are less than 1/100 pounds.
He was the one who prepared potassium carbonate, sodium carbonate, alkaline
lead and antimony. He also used manganese dioxide to remove colors in the glass
industry. He also crystallized the theory that states that a chemical reaction is
achieved by a combination between the atoms of the reacting elements, and he
gave as an example for that mercury and sulpher, when they unite to form a new
substance. He used to carry out most of his experiments in a special laboratory that
was discovered in the ruins of the city of Al-Kufa at the end of the twelfth Hijri
century (the eighteenth century A.C.)[18]

Jabirs Publications:

G. Lebon says in his compilations ''A scientific encyclopedia is made from the
works of Jabir, this encyclopedia contains the best of what the Arabic scientist
achieved in his times. His books contained the description of chemical compounds
that were completely unknown before him.'' [19]

Jabir had so many works that influenced the West, and they copied from these
works. Ibn al-Nadeem said that he had 306 books in chemistry all over the world
written in his special style, and although most of them were lost, still eighty of
these books are preserved in libraries in the East and West. Robert Alshestry (539
A.H- 1144 A.C), Girard Alcremony (583 A.H-1187 A.C) and others translated most
of his books into Latin in the twelfth century. His translated works represent the
base from which the modern science of chemistry was launched to the entire
world[20].

The book of Poisons and Preventing Their Damages is the most famous work of
Jabir and it is composed of five chapters. He divided poisons in it into animal,
plant and rock poisons. He also mentioned the antidotes to these poisons and their
reactions in the body. This book is considered a link between chemistry and
medicine.

One of his most famous books as well is The Big Book of Properties and its
original version exists in the British museum.

He wrote also the book of Measures and it means the work that is dependent upon
experiment, the book ofWeights, and the book of Iron in which he describes the
process of retrieving iron steel from its prime resources, and describes how to
make steel by melting in special bowels. He also wrote a book named The End of
Perfectionand it is an amazing book in chemistry. He also wrote a paper on ovens.

He, additionally, has written papers on mirrors. He wrote The Book of

Seventy, which is composed of seventy articles about his most important
experiments in chemistry and the conclusions that he reached. It is considered the
best of what the Arabs reached in their time.

Furthermore, Jabir has a book on alchemy that he named Mercy. In this book he
discusses the possibility of converting metals to gold. He also wrote other books
called The Twenty Sentences, The Secrets of Chemistry, The Basis of Chemistry.
He had works in mathematics, philosophy and poetry as well. Some of his books
were translated to Latin, such as The Book of Seventy and The Book of Mercy, and
there are books by him in Latin, that could not be found in the original Arabic
version like the books of The Search for Perfection and, The Covenant and The
Furnace.[21]

Jabir's books were translated to Latin, and they remained the best reference in the
field of chemistry for around a thousand years. His works were studied by famous
Western scientists such as, Coup, Bartholiet, Krauss, and Halymard who was fair in
his assessment of Jabir and who and put him on the top, thereby eliminating all
doubts that were directed at him by unfair or biased scientists. Also, Sarton who
enriched a period of time with the history of the Islamic civilization, writes, ''Jabir
did not know that the books he wrote could never be perceived to be written by a
man who lived in the second Hijri century, because of the vast number of books
and because of the abundance of information included in them.''[22]

This is how Muslim scientists were and this is what their creations were like. We ask Allah
SWT[23] to give back to our nation its glory and pioneering through the efforts
[1] http://www.fam.aust.com/helal/alhaqq/prtcp/arabic/science.html
[2] Abo Zeid Shalaby- History of Islamic civilization and Islamic thought page
376
[3] Al FaroukThe history of science of the Arabs ..page 91
[4] Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun (the Introduction of Ibn Khaldun) 1/322
[5] Akram Abdel Wahab, 100 Scientists Who Changed The Face of TheW orld,
page 17
[6] look up Ali Abdullah Al Dafa': The Amazing Works of The Islamic Arabic
Civilization page 274 and look up as well , Galal Mazhar The Civilization of
Islam and Its Influence on Improving The World- The library of Al Ghanky-
Cairo..pages 268-269
[7] Jabir Ibn Hayan. The Book of Al Tajrid., from a collection published by
Hollymard under the title of : Compilations in Chemistry for Jabir Ibn Hayan, Paris
1928
[8] Jabir Ibn Hayan, The Great Book of Properties, page 232, the Krauss collection
[9] Jabir Ibn Hayan, The Book of Seventy, page 464, the Krauss collection
[10] Look up Hekmat Naguib : Studies in the History of Sciences in the Times of
Arabs page 266.
Jalal Mazhar: The Islamic Civilization and Its Influence on The Progress of The
World pages 278-279. Akram Abdel Wahab: 100 Scientists Who Changed The
Face of The World page 17
[11] Omar Faroukh , The History of Sciences in Times of Arabs, Page 251
[12]Iit is the process of separating the substance that is to be prepared by
evaporating it then condensing it into a liquid
[13] Separating crystals from the sea salty water and similar cases
[14] It is the process of separating the volatile substance by heating it , its vapor
condenses into solid state without passing into liquid state.
[15] Many substances can be filtered using a filter or a piece of cloth
[16] Look up Hekmat Naguib : Studies in The History of Sciences in The Times of
Arabs page 266.
Jalal Mazhar: The Islamic Civilization and Its Influence on The Progress of The
World pages 280-281
[17] Jalal Mazhar: The Islamic Civilization and Its Influence on The Progress of
The World pages 281
[18] Look up in : The Achievements of Jabir, The Great Scientists 2/104,
Akram Abdel Wahab , 100 Scientist Who Changed The Face of The World page
17,
Aly Abdullah Al Dafa', The Amazing Works of The Arabic Islamic
Civilization page 275,
Abdel Halim Montasir, The History of Science and The Role of Arab Scientists in
Its Progress pages 105-106,
the universal Arabic encyclopedia on the internet , the link is
http://www.mawsoah.net/gae_portal/maogen.asp?main2&articleid=!
%20%20!329556_
[19] The Civilization of Arabs, page 25
[20] Look up in Ibn al-Nadem , index , page 420 . The Great Scientists 2/103.
Mohamed Aly Osman, Muslims Who Taught The World, page 64. Akram Abdel
wahab, 100 Scientist Who Changed The Face of The World page 17.
[21] Look up in Ibnul-Nadem , index , page 420 and what follows.
Al-Zarkaly , The Great Scientists 2/103,
Akram Abdul-Wahab, 100 Scientists Who Changed The Face of The World page
17.
Rehab Khedr Akaway, The Encyclopedia of The Geniuses of Islam, part 4, page 29
and what follows
[22] Look up in Abdul-Halim Montasir , The History of Science and the Role of
Arab Scientists in its Progress, page 106
[23] SWT = Subhanahu wa Ta'ala [Glorified and Exalted Be He