Abstract

The late Holocene evolution of Pescadero Marsh, a barrier estuary in central coastal

California, was interpreted by analysing two sediment cores from the site. One core

was taken from the marine end of the marsh in close proximity to the sand barrier

while the other was taken from the landward end. Both cores were thoroughly

analysed in terms of changing down core sediment stratigraphy, diatom assemblages,

and geochemistry. A gradual terrestrialisation of a drowned valley estuary was

established resulting in the modern marsh which occupies the site today. While

sediment stratigraphy and diatom analysis revealed the late Holocene environmental

history of the site, geochemistry was used to identify a clear human impact period

from erosional changes within the catchment of Pescadero Creek.

1
Acknowledgements
First and foremost I should thank my parents (and John Lennon!) for financial

assistance. Thanks are also due to the technical staff in the University of Liverpool

Geography Department, Bob Jude, Bob Hunt, Irene Cooper, Alan Henderson, Hilda

Hull and honorary member Ian Thrasher all of whose help was greatly appreciated.

Thanks should also go to Dr Jan Bloemendal for his input and enthusiasm as MSc

course director.

Particular thanks are due to Dr John Boyle and Dr Andy Plater for allowing me to

room with them in California and to all of the anonymous third year students who

inexplicably pulled out of the field trip leaving a seat free on the plane for me. At this

point I should also mention Andrea Wall because I would not have made it on to the

plane without her organisational skills and last but by no means least Robert Bernard

Fowler for keeping me entertained on the journey.

Finally another special mention has to go to Andy for being an available, attentive and

enthusiastic supervisor both in the field and in the department. All the ideas,

assistance and time I was afforded were greatly appreciated.

2
Contents

(Page 1)Abstract

(2)Acknowledgements

(3)Contents

(6)List of tables and figures

(7)CHAPTER 1: Introduction

(7)1.1. Coastal wetlands

(7)1.2. Research Context

(8)1.3. Study site

(12)CHAPTER 2: Background

(12)2.1. Estuaries and lagoons

(12)2.2. Holocene estuarine evolution in North America

(18)2.3. Detailed local human history

(20)2.4. Case studies and contemporary interest

(22)CHAPTER 3: Theoretical framework

(22)3.1. The potential environmental suite

(23)3.2. Marine and terrestrial cores

(24)3.3. Analytical approach

(27)3.4. Contemporary diatom assemblages

(28)3.5. Hypotheses

(30)CHAPTER 4: Potential drivers of estuarine evolution

(30)4.1. Primary drivers

(31)4.2. Resolving drivers

3
(38)CHAPTER 5: Methodology

(38)5.1. Sediment description

(39)5.2. Field levelling

(39)5.3. Contemporary environments

(40)5.4. Diatom counts

(41)5.5. X-ray fluorescence

(42)5.6. Loss on ignition

(42)5.7. Salinity index

(44)CHAPTER 6: Results

(62)CHAPTER 7: Results description

(62)7.1. Diatom data, core stratigraphy, loss on ignition and salinity index

(62)7.1.1. Marine core

(66)7.1.2. Terrestrial core

(70)7.2. Contemporary environments and past assemblages

(74)7.3. X-ray fluorescence

(75)7.3.1. Marine core

(75)7.3.2. Terrestrial core

(77)CHAPTER 8: Discussion

(77)8.1. Problems presented by diatom counts

(80)8.2. Discussion of diatom data, core stratigraphy, loss on ignition and salinity
index

(90)8.3. Discussion of X-ray fluorescence

(98)CHAPTER 9: Conclusions

4
(100)CHAPTER 10: Further work

(100)10.1. A more holistic and higher resolution approach

(102)10.2. Effects of deviating human histories: Baja versus Alta California

(104)REFERENCES

5
List of tables and Figures

(9)Figure 1: Map of central coastal California with Pescadero Point indicated

(9)Figure 2: Map of Pescadero Marsh

(10)Figure 3: Map of Pescadero Marsh detailing contemporary environments

(45)Figure 4: Stratigraphy of marine and terrestrial cores

(46)Figure 5: List of contemporary environment clusters

(47)Figure 6: Marine core diatom diagram

(48)Figure 7: Terrestrial core diatom diagram

(49)Figure 8: Clustered contemporary environments diatom diagram

(50)Figure 9: Marine core diatom life form charts

(51)Figure 10: Terrestrial core diatom life form charts

(52)Figure 11: Contemporary environments diatom life form charts

(53)Figure 12: Contemporary environments diatom salinity tolerance charts

(54)Figure 13: Salinity indices and diatom count total charts

(55)Figure 14: Geochemical element correlation matrices

(56)Figure 15: Marine core XRF organic indicators

(57)Figure 16: Marine core XRF minerogenic indicators

(58)Figure 17: Terrestrial core XRF organic indicators

(59)Figure 18: Terrestrial core XRF minerogenic indicators

(60)Figure 19: Si/K and K/Ti down core ratios

(61)Figure 20: Scatter plot to show K versus Ti: terrestrial core

(98)Figure 21: Environmental progression conclusions table

(102)Figure 22: 1847 Map of Baja and Alta California

6
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Coastal wetlands

Coastal wetlands appear to be both important sinks of global carbon and exporters of

nutrients which help sustain the productivity of estuarine and other coastal

ecosystems. A nexus of physical, biological and chemical processes is at the heart of

wetland dynamics and alterations to any one element can have repercussions for the

whole marsh (Viles & Spencer 1995).

Pescadero Marsh is part of an estuarine coastal wetland in central California (Willis

1996). Due to the dynamic nature of coastal wetlands the environment at Pescadero

Marsh is likely to have changed considerably since its inception (Bird 1984).

1.2. Research Context

Sediment cores from estuaries can provide a range of useful insights into their

environmental history and health. Analysis of sediment from various depositional

environments can establish past rates of sedimentation and temporal changes in the

character and source of sediments. These data can be used to identify the physical

impacts on the wetland from both the land and the sea (Brooke 2002).

Using evidence of past environmental change to predict future scenarios can help to

plan for the sustainability of a site. Resolving coastal response to sea level change and

sedimentation in a wetland environment can serve such a function and in doing so

other important impacts on evolution may be identified. For example in the estuaries

and lagoons of North America the rate of sedimentation may change significantly at

the point of European colonisation (Mudie & Byrne 1980).

Research of this nature is in keeping with the objectives of the PAGES (Past Global

Changes) program where human and natural interactions and impacts at such

7
environments are assessed and future implications considered. Reconstructing past

estuarine environments to predict possible future scenarios is more specifically of

interest to programs such as LOICZ (Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone)

and LUCIFS (Land Use and Climate Impacts on Fluvial Systems During the Period of

Agriculture) however the emphasis here tends to be on supporting dependent

populations rather than preserving ecosystems. The study site, Pescadero Marsh, is at

present valued for its ecological and aesthetic qualities rather than its ability to

support human populations (Bay Nature 2006).

1.3. Study site

The setting of Pescadero Marsh is of scientific interest both in terms of its physical

geography and its human history. Since Europeans began to colonise the west coast of

America, central coastal California has been documented as home to aesthetically

pleasing and ecologically important wetlands (Gordon 1996). During the Euro-

American period the wetland areas have been observed to be shrinking (Bay Nature

2002). Prior to the Western European influx, Mexican settlements are suggested to

have impacted on ecosystems (Mayers 2001). And before the Mexican period, shell

middens and archaeological remains at coastal wetlands such as Elkhorn Slough

(Woolfolk 2005) would suggest that Native American activity in the area has resulted

in small scale pre-historic anthropogenic impacts (Patch & Jones 1984). Increased

human activity has been explicitly linked with greater delivery to lowland sediment

basins in the Monterey Bay area (Mayers 2001). Population and land use has also

dramatically changed over the last 200 years in the neighbouring San Mateo County,

which is home to Pescadero Creek (Mosier 2001). It is therefore thought that

sediments from Pescadero Marsh may reveal a similar trend.

8
Figures 1 & 2: Map to show the location of San Mateo County on the northern

central coast of California with Pescadero Point indicated and a map to show the area

of Pescadero Marsh with locations of core sites indicated.

Pescadero Creek meets the Pacific Ocean approximately 30 miles north-west of the

Monterey Bay area, central coastal California. Here fresh and salt waters mix in a

small tidal estuary behind an open sand barrier. The wetlands which surround the

estuary are government protected.

The contemporary wetland area at Pescadero is divided in to different systems by

local solid topography. There is a small marine dominated, intermittently open, barrier

lagoon at the north end of the site and a larger more environmentally diverse system

surrounding the lower reaches of Pescadero Creek (shown in figure 2). While the

larger system is currently a barrier estuary there is the potential for it to have been and

to again become a lagoon (Roy et al. 1994).

Both sites at Pescadero see a transition from ocean to land however a more complex

suite of environments exists at the latter and the transition here takes place over a

9
much larger area. Therefore sediments from the barrier estuary site are likely to reveal

more sensitive environmental transitions. This site is also more terrestrially influenced

and as a result is more sensitive to changes in river input and suitable for isolating

more marked marine events.

Figure 3: Pescadero Marsh, major contemporary environments illustrated.

The Frijoles Fault runs through the area of Pescadero Marsh. This is a small branch of

the San Gregorio Fault system which in turn is part of the larger San Andreas Fault

(Bay Nature 2006). Rough locations of the fault are present on some maps of the area

however no exact location is known as the Frijoles fault is actually a system of

smaller anastomising fault lines (Mazzoni 2003). Central coastal California is also

10
prone to Tsunami (OKeefe et al. 2005) a phenomenon which could greatly affect the

functions of Pescadero Marsh.

11
Chapter 2: Background

2.1. Estuaries and lagoons

Pescadero Marsh is currently part of a barrier estuary system, as identified from the

classifications in Roy et al. (1994); however it is hypothesised to have been part of a

lagoonal system for some time during the late Holocene.

On geological time scales estuaries are ephemeral features. They are semi-enclosed

inlets where saltwater and river water mix, found worldwide, often forming in

drowned river valleys. Estuarine life span depends largely on the balance between sea

level rise and sediment infill. Considerable overlap between lagoons and estuaries has

been identified. Both are complicated, dynamic interface zones which result in

complex morphological, biological and chemical characteristics (Viles & Spencer

1995).

As morphodynamic systems, lagoons have also been defined as ubiquitous and

ephemeral features. Lagoons are coastal water bodies physically separated, to a

greater or lesser extent, from the ocean by a strip of land (Cooper 1994). The simple

but enduring Lucke Model (Lucke 1934) depicts lagoon evolution as a gradual

territorialisation by sediment infill. However sea level rise, sedimentation rates and a

number of other factors can cause deviation from this projected path. Good general

reviews of estuarine and lagoonal water bodies can be found in Bird (1984), Carter &

Woodroffe (Eds1994) and Viles & Spencer (1995) amongst others.

2.2. Holocene estuarine evolution in North America

The North American record of Holocene estuarine evolution is best described

primarily in terms of its most fundamental driver sea level change. Contemporary

estuarine environments are likely to have been formed when a global ice minima

12
driven by the Earths orbital eccentricity approached around 6,000 years ago (Goodwin

2005). Sea level subsequently rose toward a mid Holocene peak drowning river

valleys and embayments along Americas coasts. On the Pacific coast the resultant

wave dominated regime built sand barriers across drowned coastal plains blocking

valley mouths (Fairbridge 1992). Globally sea level has now largely stabilised

however smaller scale fluctuations and an overall gradual rise continue along the

American Pacific Coast (Coe 1992).

Wetlands are believed to have persisted behind a barrier at Pescadero throughout the

late Holocene (Willis 1996). However this does not necessarily imply that the

environment has been static as the suite of environments encountered between the

ocean and terra firma continue to respond sensitively to numerous stimuli (Viles &

Spencer 1995). Sea level rise may cause landward transgression of inter-tidal

environments, but if sea level rise is out paced by sedimentation, or if sea level falls,

estuarine deltas and lagoon barriers may prograde seaward (Cooper 1994). A detailed

account and facies models of barrier and estuarine response to sea level change is

given by Walker and James (1992).

The tectonic shore evolution of central coastal California is characterised by a long

term regressive trend overlain at present by a short term eustatic transgression

(Fairbridge 1961). Some tectonic influence is liable to affect ~1,300 km of the

California coast between the Gulf of California and the Mendocino Fracture Zone due

to the San Andreas transform fault system located between the pacific and North

American plates (Pirazzoli 1994). The San Gregorio fault system is a smaller part of

this fault of which a smaller part again, The Frijoles Fault, runs across Pescadero

Marsh. The nature of the Frijoles fault allows for the possibility that there are

numerous distinct blocks of land across the Pescadero wetlands which can be affected

13
in different ways by tectonic activity. There is documented tectonic uplift at the sight

of the small northern lagoon (Willis 1996) however there also appears to be evidence

of subsidence on the larger marsh area in the form of rapidly buried marsh soils

(Abram et al. 2005). While the over riding tectonic trend in the area is uplift other

local estuarine sediments have recorded subsidence events. Koehler et al. (2005)

describe buried marsh soils at China Camp Marsh, San Pablo Bay, akin to those

described by Abram et al. (2005) at Pescadero Marsh. These buried soils were

interpreted as representing tectonic subsidence by Koehler et al. (2005) who used

radiocarbon dating, paleo-ecological data and stratigraphic evidence to suggest rough

timings of past earthquakes. Nelson et al. (1996) highlight the difficulties involved in

establishing past tectonic subsidence from marsh sediments

Climate change is also fundamentally linked to the Holocene marine coastal evolution

of North America. Sea level change is dominantly driven by changing climate as the

Milankovitch orbital parameters dictate global insolation and therefore ice volume

(Fairbridge 1992). The onset of the Holocene stage was accompanied by rising

temperatures. In the later Holocene cool intervals (indicated by pollen records)

accompanied negative sea level fluctuations. The warming following one such event

The Little Ice Age still affects Americas coasts today slowing the velocity of the

Gulf Stream and other geostrophic currents (Fairbridge 1992). Climate trends may

also affect estuarine environments as demonstrated by Davis (1992) who presents

evidence from San Joaquin Marsh, southern California. Here centennial scale

Holocene cold periods identified in Santa Barbara Basin varves and local

dendrochronology records were correlated with paleo-vegetation changes at San

Joaquin Marsh. Sections of freshwater sediment from the marsh were identified

through the paleo-ecology of pollen. Four such sections were identified, including a

14
Little Ice Age event, strongly supporting a climatic link. The mechanism responsible

is suggested by Davis to be increased stream flow in the San Diego Creek and

vegetation redistribution during climate down turns however, as discussed above,

Fairbridge (1992) documents a prolonged glacio-eustatic sea level fall associated with

The Little Ice Age which may have also played a role. Radiocarbon dating was used

by Davis to correlate marsh sediments with known cold periods, this has allowed the

freshening events identified to be explicitly linked with climate rather than other

factors i.e. barrier closure which under the right conditions may also result in marsh

freshening.

Along with global sea level, climate will also exert a localised effect on spatially

different environments. The California coastline occupies a transition zone between

the typical North Pacific westerly zone and the southerly Mediterranean/semi-arid

zone. The boundary between the two has repeatedly shifted abruptly north and south

throughout the Holocene in response to ocean current distribution (Fairbridge 1992).

Climate within a catchment can be reflected by fluvial sediment delivery to coastal

water bodies. Paleo-limnological studies of the Holocene climate in central coastal

California such as Plater et al. (2006) reveal a high degree of sensitivity in the nature

of sedimentation to changes in precipitation. Plater et al. used X-ray fluorescence

element analysis techniques on sediments from Pinto Lake, Santa Cruz County. Two

distinct organic periods identified were attributed to changes in precipitation driven

mineral matter run-off in the catchment. The Pinto Lake record also included evidence

of alternating wet and dry periods with a cyclicity close to that of the El Nino/La

Nina phenomenon. While it is reasonable to suggest that climate has a similar impact

on fluvial delivery of sediment to estuarine settings any record of this will be greatly

affected by the added complexities of such environments not least by the significant

15
marine influence on sedimentation. Estuaries/lagoons are poor sediment traps

compared to lacustrine environments and are prone to erosion events (Walker &

James 1992). Erosional contacts may be identified but eroded sediments can not be

analysed it is therefore unlikely that such a record could be recovered intact from

estuarine sediments. One aspect of local climate recorded in lake sediments which

may be apparent in estuarine sediment is that of high energy events. Distinct high

energy deposits are regularly encountered in such sediments. Terrestrial and marine

storms can form these deposits as can tectonic activity, tsunami and channel infilling

(Walker & James 1992). Subtle differences may allow distinction and therefore the

construction of a history of extreme events impacting on an estuary and its catchment.

With the Pacific coast being tectonically prone to tsunami, indications of past

occurrence can be useful for future planning (OKeefe et al. 2005).

Coastal morphology has been identified as a key factor in coastal wetland formation

as river valleys were drowned by sea level rise to form many North American lagoons

and estuaries (Fairbridge 1992). Coastal morphology is also important in dictating

where erosion and deposition occur affecting the nature of sediments accreted (Dyer

1986). Coastal morphology is not static even over the relatively short geological life

span of an estuary/lagoon. The most apparent way changing morphology impacts

these environments is through the dynamic nature of barrier systems. A series of

papers (Long et al. 1996, Plater et al. 1999) regarding the Holocene evolution of

Romney Marsh, southeast England, highlight the difficulty in isolating paleo-sea level

data from estuarine sediments formed in a barrier or back-barrier environment due to

changing barrier integrity. Here barrier dynamics are further complicated by

migration, the barrier being a pulse of shingle migrating up coast. This has resulted in

a past change in location of the main inlet/outlet and a redistribution of

16
marine/terrestrial influence across the marsh. In such a scenario changing barrier

status can locally mimic the effects of sea level change.

Lario et al. (2002) also address the issue of barrier status by practically applying a

suite statistics model of sediment grain size mean versus sorting (Tanner 1991) to

estuarine sediments again from Romney Marsh and various Spanish locations. Here a

significant degree of success was found when linking environments suggested by the

model to conclusions about barrier status derived from sediment composition. It is

therefore evident that Barrier integrity can be an important factor, independent of sea

level, in estuarine/lagoonal evolution and one which is likely to be reflected in the

preserved sedimentary record. Although the papers discussed regarding barrier status

are based on evidence from European sites the sediment dynamics principles involved

may also be applied to American estuarine environments in general or in a site

specific manner.

Sea level change, climate and coastal morphology are largely factors which impact on

estuarine catchments. As discussed these factors are intrinsically linked to one

another. Also apparent are forcing factors affecting estuarine environments which act

from within the catchment. Some such factors are linked to the above external forces

such as vegetation distribution (Davis 1992) and substrate erosion (Plater et al. 2006).

Changes within catchments become distinct from external forcing factors when

human activity becomes apparent. Anthropogenic action can be cited as a possible

cause for the majority of changes occurring within a catchment and particularly the

important factors of changing vegetation cover/land use and terrestrial substrate

delivery/erosion (Mayers 2001). There is a wealth of evidence that throughout North

America pre-historic humans have utilised estuaries and lagoons as fertile hunting

grounds since their sea level driven inception. Along with further archaeological

17
evidence that early populations often lived nearby and managed local land to some

extent with fire (Patch & Jones 1984, Woolfolk 2005, Mayers 2001) it becomes clear

that human activity can be another key factor in the course of an estuaries evolution.

However as with the other factors discussed the specific effects are difficult to isolate

and allocate causes.

The anthropogenic effects on a catchment become easier to identify in North

American Estuarine sediments following the onset of the Euro-American era with

significant population increases and the growth of large scale agriculture and urban

development (Brush 1994). During the last two to three centuries the population in the

Chesapeake Bay catchment, on the eastern seaboard of North America, soared from 2

million to 14 million people (by 1994). The effects of which has been clearly recorded

in the sediment record as demonstrated by Brush (1994) who analyzed environmental

indicators such as sedimentation rate, charcoal occurrence and relative amounts of

metal elements preserved in the sediment record before and after European settlement.

Historically dateable pollen horizons were used to provide a timescale for sediment

accumulation. This technique is described in detail by Mudie & Byrne (1980) who

used the method to identify the onset of Euro-American land use in the areas

surrounding several west coast estuaries.

2.3. Detailed local human history

The population and land use history of central coastal California also merits

discussion as distinct from North America as a whole. Mayers (2001) discusses in

detail such factors in the wider Monterey Bay area which encompasses Pescadero

Marsh. An even more site specific land use history would be of benefit to a sediment

study however as Mayers points out despite the short history of large scale change in

18
this part of California such literature, particularly regarding pre Euro-American

habitation, is often lacking. From Mayers account and other useful texts (Plater et al.

2006 and Gordon 1996) it is apparent that three distinct population stages occurred.

The exclusive influences of the aboriginal populations from ~8,000 years before

present to 1769 AD were limited in terms of population and landscape impacts. The

coastal dwelling Ohlone tribe had a diet consisting mainly of fish and shell fish, their

nomadic life style avoided the exhaustion of environments. Tribes living inland to a

small extent practised agriculture and kept livestock however the greatest impact of

aboriginal peoples was the practice of land management with fire. This played a

significant role in the distribution and composition of grasslands.

The Spanish/Mexican empires lasted from 1769 1848. Permanent pastoral

settlements were established and logging began with limited impact. Livestock

grazing during this era had the greatest influence on the landscape and along with

agriculture initiated a major floral transformation on the Californian landscape.

Following Californias independence from Spain in 1822 more land was issued in

Ranchos (land grants). As agriculture increased so did land degradation. American

habitation from 1848 saw ranching intensity increase further and the gold rush of

1848 lead to the onset of large scale mining, industry and the construction of

infrastructure. The twentieth century brought an ever increasing population and new

technology such as irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides. After World War Two more

responsible policies were introduced to manage land but by this point the area had

been affected dramatically by the recent changes (Mayers 2001). The population of

San Mateo County, the location of Pescadero Marsh, increased from 77,405 in 1930

to 649,623 by 1990 (Mosier 2001). Ariel photographs of Pescadero Marsh from 1928

1987 show the lagoon area to have constricted while land use around it has changed

19
(Willis 1996). Euro-American land use had caused large scale degradation which

could be reflected in local sediment traps.

2.4. Case studies and contemporary interest

The events of the late Holocene in central coastal California have been identified in

sedimentary records from several local estuarine sites allowing for the distinct

possibility that sediments from Pescadero Marsh may also reveal similar information.

The effects of human impact have been clearly documented at Elkhorn Slough.

Elkhorn Slough is a contemporary estuarine environment in the Monterey bay area.

Paleo-environmental change here, described by Patch and Jones (1984), was inferred

largely from archaeological evidence against a background of secondary evidence

regarding estuarine evolution and local population history. This allowed the

production of a cultural chronology for the surrounding area. Schwartz et al. (1986)

also worked at Elkhorn and produced a stratigraphic reconstruction of past

environments from marsh sediments attempting to quantify the effects of past human

and natural impacts and draw implications for future longevity. They found that

following the impact of Euro American increased sedimentation the contemporary

marsh environment at Elkhorn only survives due to a human maintained outlet.

Genuine contemporary interest in central coastal California estuaries and lagoons can

be demonstrated by commissioned scientific initiatives currently taking place at

Bolinas Lagoon. Bolinas lagoon, on the north side of the entrance to San Francisco

Bay, is at present the subject of a restoration program which has led to Philip

Williams & Associates (2003) producing a detailed conceptual model of past and

future response to sea level change and sediment flux. A key factor identified here is

the lagoons active tectonic setting as part of the San Andreas Fault system. This was

demonstrated by a dramatic increase in the lagoons tidal prism following the 1906

20
earthquake. This tectonic subsidence to some degree offset the impact of Euro-

American land use driven increases in sedimentation.

21
Chapter 3: Theoretical framework

Numerous features of estuarine evolution have been discussed along with natural and

anthropogenic forcing factors both in the context of the study site and of other

analogous locations. This chapter addresses how such trends may be recognised in

sediments from Pescadero Marsh.

3.1. The potential environmental suite

To understand changes in sedimentation down core it can be useful to consider

homogenous sediment sections in the context of a suite of environments which occur

in an estuarine system. Knowledge of these environments can help to develop an

understanding of coastal sedimentation beyond the basic principle of increasing

energy and salinity with proximity to the open ocean (Dyer 1986).

Within the tidal range the distribution of environments will change due to the

proximity of the (relative sea level) RSL (Viles & Spencer 1995). Such a model can

be applied to the area as a whole or to one specific point i.e. the location of a sediment

core. The underlying theory is that inter-tidal environments migrate landward as sea

level rises (Roy et al. 1994). The RSL can be affected at any time by a number of

factors. Below is a generalised conceptual model of the environments found on

Pescadero Marsh that may be found within the inter-tidal zone:

< Falling water level / sediment in-filling <

Salt marsh > *Possible
Mud flats > tidal channels
Possible lagoon > throughout*
Barrier >
Beach >
Ocean
> Rising water level >

22
Further wetland environments are liable to exist or to have existed, behind the areas of

salt marsh, which are rarely affected by the tide. These are freshwater wetlands which

to some extent control their own water table (Godwin 1978). These environments

complete the landward progression to terra firma and also respond to redistribution of

the inter-tidal suite. Whilst these environments are unlikely to be as prominently

represented in the sediments recovered at Pescadero there is the potential for more

terrestrialised environments to have existed on areas which are now marsh. A

theoretical progression from Godwin (1978) is illustrated below:

Terra firma/ < Landward <

Flood plain > *Possible
Fen wood > fresh water channels
Fen Carr > throughout*
Sedge fen >
Reed swamp >
> Seaward > Possible open water

When RSL changes in the inter-tidal zone for a sustained period the distribution of

environments across the area will change. Low frequency high magnitude events can

also alter the distribution of environments or simply leave a characteristic deposit

without affecting the local system. Any suggested pattern of environmental change

encountered at Pescadero Marsh must be considered along with potential forcing

factors in order to pass comment with any confidence on the late Holocene evolution.

3.2. Marine and terrestrial cores

Instead of analysing one core at a high resolution, the decision was taken to analyse

two full cores at a lower resolution. With one core taken from the seaward end of

Pescadero Marsh and the other taken from the landward end it was felt that the

benefits to the study out weighed the loss of resolution. Once correlated the cores

23
would reveal information about two spatially different environments at the same time.

With specific regard to Pescadero Marsh, the existence of past lagoonal environments

could be assessed as such conditions would likely generate similar environmental

conditions at both study sites. This would be reflected by similarities in the benthic

and epontic diatom communities. Planktonic diatom species remain suspended in

water and are delivered to the sediment column from sources external to the local

environment. Divergence in planktonic species between cores would reflect external

input events from land and marine sources in lagoonal and estuarine environments

(Vos & de Wolf 1993). Assessing similarities and differences between the cores in all

of the tested variables should allow correlation between the sites and accurate

comments on past environments.

3.3. Analytical approach

To identify the progression of past environments at Pescadero Marsh the major

methods employed were diatom paleo-ecology, Sediment description and X-ray

fluorescence. These methods were deemed to be the most appropriate and efficient for

the completion of the task in the time available.

Sediment description is the most basic of the techniques however it is also

fundamental to studies of past estuarine environments. Describing the sediments down

core will reveal changes in depositional energy and sediment source. Other

information relating to numerous catchment and local environment factors may also

be revealed depending on what else is present in the core. One example would be the

presence of charcoal which, in coastal California, is often suggested to represent early

indigenous landscape management with fire (Patch & Jones 1984).

24
Different diatom species have characteristic ecological tolerances and habitats. The

salinity tolerances and life form types of different species were selected as key factors

for this study. Diatom species have been classified from fresh to marine water tolerant

(and several stages in between) by Van der Werff and Huls (1957 1974). Whereas

species life form types, which are predominantly euplanktonic, tychoplanktonic,

epontic and benthic with some variations on these themes, are listed by Denys (1993).

Individual diatom species tolerances are generally not very tightly constrained.

Assemblages of species are therefore used to imply past environments.

While the salinity tolerance groupings are self explanatory and can be easily linked to

environments the life form groupings require explanation. Euplanktonic diatoms are

always suspended in the water column. These diatoms are therefore considered

allochthonous and represent inputs to an environment rather than internal conditions.

An example being an influx of marine water to a lagoonal environment represented by

a pulse of marine euplanktonic diatoms. Benthic diatoms live on the bed of estuaries

and move around freely. Epontic diatoms are attached to things for example an

estuaries bed or vegetation. When Benthic and epontic diatoms dominate a relatively

calm estuarine environment is implied. Tychoplanktonic diatoms have either benthic

or epontic origins but become planktonic when ripped off estuary beds and vegetation

during storms. These diatoms are fundamentally linked with stormy conditions. By

considering the proportion of diatom life forms and their salinity tolerances from an

estuarine paleo-environment it should be possible to comment on the nature of the

past environment and on the source and style of in puts (Vos & de Wolf 1993).

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is used to extract information about the relative abundance

of geochemical elements within a sediment sample. The presence and abundance of

elements such as Si, Ti, Fe and Zn, to name but a few, in sediments can be used

25
individually or in small and large groups to suggest changing or evolving system

behaviour within a catchment. According to Engstrom and Wright (1984) any

discussion of sediment geochemistry must begin with Mackareths (1966) monograph

on the English Lake District (Barr 2005). Mackereths basic theory was that the

organic component, calculated from loss on ignition and the proportions of Na and K,

of lake sediments reflects erosion intensity within the catchment. If the catchment is

stabilised by vegetation cover then surface rocks and soils will be weathered more

deeply. Such weathering should diminish the base content of the mineral fraction prior

to its erosive removal therefore reducing the base content of the lake sediment i.e. Na,

K, Mg (Barr 2005). Dissolved ions produced as a result of weathering will be carried

by surface waters from the catchment to the lake. Of these ions, nutrients such as

phosphorous enhance algal production in the lake leading to the accumulation of

organic algal detritus within the sediment (Engstrom & Wright 1984). On the other

hand, if the catchment is not fully stabilised e.g. as a result of reduced vegetation

cover, then erosion may cut through the upper weathered materials and bring to the

lake un-weathered and un-leached minerals from the sub soil. These un-weathered

minerals are recorded in sediments by higher concentrations of Na, K and Mg and a

higher proportion of mineral versus organic matter. Mackareth (1966) concluded that

the concentration of Na, K and Mg within lake sediments directly reflects the intensity

of weathering and erosion within the catchment being primarily associated with

detrital material. The utility of these elements as indices for soil erosion, both

climatically and anthropogenically induced, has been demonstrated in many previous

studies (Barr 2005).

Evidently the basis of interpreting geochemistry in this manner is firmly rooted in lake

sediment studies. However some of Mackareth's principles transfer to estuarine

26
environments and many studies of estuarine sediments have successfully utilised XRF

i.e. Brush (1994), Plater et al. (1998) and Plater et al. (2000). As estuaries are poor

sediment traps the geochemical record from Pescadero Marsh is liable to be less

coherent than that of a lake sediment series. The major feature which will be looked

for is a marked increase in sub soil erosion within the catchment of Pescadero creek

which can be connected to the arrival of Euro-Americans in the area and a significant

change in land use practices (Plater et al. 2006).

3.4. Contemporary diatom assemblages

Contemporary environments were sampled with the intention of producing a series of

diatom assemblages representative of the major environments across the modern

marsh. These assemblages may be of use to help categorise past environments by

assessing levels of similarity between down core and surface assemblages. This

technique is used effectively, in the context of forensic science, by Horton et al

(2006).

While this technique has often been used successfully it is not without its problems. It

is worth noting that the contemporary environments sampled are not necessarily

representative of all of the environments sampled down core as past environments

may not exist on the modern marsh. Some diatom species in the contemporary

assemblages may not preserve well enough to be represented in core samples. This

problem is liable to worsen with depth. Pescadero Marsh had also been subject to

heavy fluvial flooding prior to sampling which is liable to have had a freshening

effect on the contemporary samples taken. Also of note is the fact that diatom

distribution can change seasonally i.e. Synedra tabulata which is sensitive to light

intensity. S. tabulata is found in all littoral zones during autumn and winter but during

27
spring and summer becomes confined to the lower littoral regions (Canadian Diatom

Database 2006). These factors amongst other not addressed are likely to increase the

difficulty in correlating past and present environments using diatom assemblages.

3.5. Hypotheses

While it is unlikely that the specifics of the evolutionary path taken by Pescadero

Marsh during the late Holocene could be predicted with any level of confidence it is

probable that some more general trends will be observed.

Main Hypotheses

(1) The sedimentary record from Pescadero Marsh will reveal a gradual

terrestrialisation from an open estuary to the modern sheltered marsh in

keeping with the Lucke Model of estuarine evolution (1934).

(2) At some point during this transition a lagoon will have existed on the site of

Pescadero Marsh.

(3) Deviation from the path of terrestrialisation will be observed. Natural forces,

and potentially human activity, will account for these deviations.

(4) There will be a notable change in the sediments retrieved from Pescadero

Marsh which can be linked to an increase in the local population when non

indigenous peoples and land use practices became common.

28
Alternative Hypotheses

(1) The sediments retrieved from Pescadero Marsh will reveal a transgression of

the ocean inland as sea level continued to rise throughout the late Holocene.

(2) The sediments from Pescadero Marsh may reveal no significant environmental

change.

(3) There will be no clear period of human impact in the sediment from Pescadero

Marsh.

The main hypotheses are those which are expected to be proven to some extent

however the possibility remains that some of the alternative hypotheses may

instead be supported.

29
Chapter 4: Potential drivers of estuarine environmental
change

4.1. Primary drivers

No definitive list of forces driving estuarine evolution can be produced. Instead the

most prominent factors recurring in the relevant literature are cited below.

Fundamental to all of these factors are changes in the relative water level and source

at any set location.

Sea level - will affect water level and source as it rises and falls (Coe 1992).

Tectonic activity - can cause abrupt changes in relative water level to any

areas of Pescadero Marsh which have been uplifted or subsided (Pirazzoli

1994).

Sedimentary infill / erosion causes local water level to rise or fall. A major

problem is that eroded sediments will not be present for analysis. During the

late Holocene Pescadero Marsh has in-filled to some extent (Willis 1996)

however the possibility remains that some of the sedimentary record has been

removed.

Barrier status changes can affect salinity and cause water level to rise and

fall by impeding the passage of water from and to the ocean.

Episodic events will also affect the sedimentary record leaving characteristic deposits

and potentially causing reorganisations in the local system:

Storms marine and terrestrial storms (Viles & Spencer 1995).

Tsunami events which may be associated with tectonic events (Leeder1999).

30
 El Nino Southern Oscillation storms and precipitation levels associated with

the ENSO may be apparent over 20-30 year periods in central coastal

California causing subtle cyclical sedimentation patterns (Plater et al. 2006).

However due to both estuarine environments being poor sediment traps and

the high resolution sampling required to identify such trends, these patterns

may be present but not revealed by this study.

4.2. Resolving drivers

Sea level: The most accurate way to reconstruct past lower sea level stands in a

coastal wetland would be to identify horizons of salt marsh sediment beneath the

contemporary marsh surface. Salt marsh vegetation is a proxy indicator of mean high

water level (Goodwin 2005). However this method will be limited by the occurrence

of such sediments in a core which would only happen at times when either core site

was at or around mean high water level. Even if such sediments were encountered the

application of a chronology by radiometric dating is not a possibility. Therefore past

sea level trends for the entirety of both cores would be interpreted in terms of a

general trend.

Working under the fundamental assumption that a change in sea level should result in

a re-distribution of environments across the wetland as depicted in the environmental

suite. As previously stated, if sea level was to gradually rise it should be observed that

a section of sediment characteristic of one type of environment within the

environmental suite would gradually be replaced up core by sediment characteristic of

an environment closer to the open ocean and vice versa. In order to apply this logic it

is therefore necessary to be able to classify different sediments as coming from known

environments to suggest how sea level is changing. There is no one method by which

31
to do this. Rather a multi proxy approach is required where by as much

complimentary information as possible regarding each identified sediment section is

acquired. The main sources of information needed would be diatom inferred salinity

and sediment composition. These factors would be useful considered together in the

context of the trends found above and below. Species life form and where possible

habitat preference data along with geochemical trends should also be considered to

help put individual sections in the context of the whole core and to identify other

possible causes of observed trends.

This multi-proxy approach would also be the basis for resolving the drivers of non sea

level instigated changes as a lack of conformity to sea level change trends would help

to identify alternatively forced environmental change. To more specifically indicate

sea level change a numerical figure of salinity, a transfer function, calculated from the

diatom assemblage present in each environment would imply changing proximity to

the ocean however this method is still crude. A more sophisticated method suggested

by Vos and de Wolf (1993) was also utilised where by contemporary environments

across the marsh were sampled and diatom assemblages counted. This would allow

past environments from both cores to be compared with modern environments

potentially making classification easier.

Barrier closure: Barrier status complicates the record of sea level change by affecting

the proportion of marine influence within the estuarine area. It is probable that the

presence of a barrier became an important factor to this localised environment as sea

level rise slowed in the late Holocene (Fairbridge 1992). The inter-tidal area will have

ceased to rapidly migrate inland and maintained a relatively stable position (Roy et al.

1994).

32
Barrier closure for prolonged periods may cause distinctive patterns of sedimentation.

A closed barrier would likely result in lagoon formation and therefore relatively

uniform conditions in the areas of marsh encompassed. Reduced salinity would be

likely at the marine end of the marsh as fresh water becomes trapped and ocean input

impeded. Whilst at the same time submergence in lagoon water would cause salinity

to increase in the more landward, previously fluvial dominated, areas of the marsh

(Cooper 1994). During periods of barrier closure terrestrial sediments would

dominate, with the exception of marine wash over in the zone behind the barrier, and

an increasing proportion of fines would be deposited in low energy lagoonal areas

rather than being delivered to the ocean (Dyer 1986). Fresher water zones may be

observed to encroach into previously tidal areas of the marsh with distinctive brackish

diatom assemblages recorded above more marine influenced sediment sections. The

best potential indicator of barrier closure will be corresponding sections of the marine

and terrestrial cores featuring similarly brackish and reduced energy deposits.

Significant rises in sea level may result in the barrier transgressing landward however

this is unlikely to occur without barrier breach as the tidal delta is an important factor

in sediment redistribution (Roy et al 1994). Intermittent barrier closure is expected to

have been a regular process since the inception of the estuary. For a number of

reasons this will occur on a shorter time scale than that which we consider sea level

rise on. Therefore periods of barrier closure may cause temporary distortions to the

record of sea level change by affecting the normal distribution of salinity rather than

physical water level. However sea level change is the more powerful factor and will

dominate the underlying pattern preserved. During a stable barrier regime

sedimentation will be distinctly different to the marine dominated regime in place

prior to the barrier being established. Even when a barrier is open it still affords a

33
significant amount of protection to the wetlands and estuary existing behind. However

there may be periods when the barrier was severely degraded i.e. due to major storm

events or lack of sediment supply for maintenance which result in halophytic and

fresh water vegetation zones retreating landward.

Diatom inferred salinity from both cores may be useful in assessing barrier status

along with sediment stratigraphy and diatom life form distribution. These factors will

reveal information about depositional energy, local environment and environmental

transitions which may be linked to barrier status (Dyer 1986). Diatom life form data

may be particularly useful in distinguishing protected from stressed environments

(Vos & de Wolf 1993).

Sedimentary infill: Sediment erosion is unable to be taken in to account. The rate and

nature of sediment accretion on the other hand can reflect the environmental history of

Pescadero Marsh. The rate of delivery of terrestrial sediment to the wetlands will have

been affected long and short term by climate, ground cover and land use. A key

feature of this study is the assumption that as human activity in the wider Pescadero

Creek catchment has significantly increased so has terrestrial sediment delivery to the

wet lands. This is due to the well documented onset of logging, ranching, and

agriculture in central coastal California (Mayers 2001). The sediment record from

Lake Pinto near Santa Cruz suggests that the phase of major human impact began

around 1850 and escalated following the gold rush era of ~1870 (Mayers 2001).

Population records for the greater San Francisco Bay area (Mosier 2001) suggest that

similar timing would be the case at Pescadero.

A major increase in sedimentation should be apparent when human activity greatly

increased in the Pescadero Creek catchment. Loss on ignition tests will reveal the

amount of organic matter in the sediment but more usefully when correlated with Ti

34
data from the X-ray fluorescence results the minerogenic versus organic components

should be revealed (Plater et al. 2006). Larger and more minerogenic grains delivered

to the estuary from the catchment will reveal greater erosion implying an increased

sedimentation rate.

Such a change in sedimentation is also likely to be identifiable from the inevitable

change in sediment source which would have accompanied an increase in delivery.

Changing ratios of minerogenic indicating X-ray fluorescence tested elements should

help to identify this change. Previous research in California has revealed a notable

change in the proportions of elements when the natural erosion of the top soil in a

catchment is accompanied by erosion of sub soil linked to human activity (Plater et al.

2006). A number of relationships between elemental concentrations revealed by XRF

can be examined to identify this point.

Increased sedimentation will affect the distribution of marsh environments. Infilling

of accommodation space leads to decreased tidal prism, an increase in the advance of

the shore line seaward and therefore a local transgression across the environment suite

model to more landward conditions. A marsh environment may change due to

sediment infill alone. This could be established if a change in XRF and LOI data was

correlated with an environmental change seemingly not driven by any identifiable

source.

Tectonic activity: should be a distinctive factor to resolve if its impact is present as by

its nature dramatic changes are implied. Tectonic sequences have been frequently

described in the coastal wetlands of California and elsewhere (Willis 1996, Koehler et

al.2005, Williams 2003, Nelson et al. 1996, Stewart & Vita-Finzi (eds)1998).

Tectonic uplift is the predominant theme on the California coast (Pirazzoli 1994) over

geological time scales however in the context of an estuarine life span and the

35
physical size of the study site it is possible that local subsidence may be the dominant

tectonic theme encountered in the study (Mazzoni 2003).

Tectonic events of either uplift or subsidence may be recorded in the sediment at

Pescadero Marsh. With the sedimentary environments either side of the proposed

tectonic event established. A rapid transgression along the environmental suite should

be observed in either direction as relative sea level would be realigned quickly relative

to gradual sea level change or sedimentary in-fill/erosion.

During a lagoonal period tectonic events could be confused with or even prompt a

barrier breach which under the right preliminary conditions may result in a similar

effect to tectonic subsidence. It is likely that tectonic events may be associated with

subsequent Tsunami deposits which could help to distinguish a tectonic driver

(Nelson et al. 1996). It is also possible that there will be only Tsunami deposits to

suggest tectonic activity or no discernable trace. However previous research on

Pescadero Marsh suggests that tectonic evidence may be found. From the results of

Willis (1996) and Abram et al. (2005) it appears that different tectonic effects are

exerted on either side of Pescadero Creek implying that the Frijoles Fault has dictated

its course to some extent.

Storms and Tsunami: Characteristic high energy deposits interrupting homogenous

sediment sections can be easily recognised (Viles & Spencer 1995). However

explicitly linking such deposits to storms, tsunamis or past channel beds is more

difficult. Were a suspected tsunami deposit found distinctive patterns of sedimentation

should be found (Dawson & Shi 2000) along with distinctive diatom assemblages

(Hemphill-Haley 1996).

36
Were tsunami or storm deposits found it is possible that storms / Tsunamis may have

resulted in significant changes to the local system (Dyer 1986) i.e. changes in barrier

status or re-routing of tidal channels. Terrestrial storm deposits should see small

pebbles graded upwards to fine sand following the text book pattern of a swiftly

attained peak flow followed by a gradual loss of energy. The size of a storm deposit

would depend on the severity of the storm, subsequent erosion and the conditions in

the catchment. Marine storms are more likely to affect the barrier system and deposit

unsorted sand and wood. It is likely that some storm deposits encountered at

Pescadero will be related to the El Nino Southern Oscillation. However due to the

loose cyclicity and uncertain effects of the ENSO (Kirby et al. 2005) along with the

likely sparse chronology for the core and the similar deposits caused by other forces it

is un likely to be possible to isolate these events.

Evidently some of the factors discussed above will prove to be irrelevant to the study

and some important factors will have been neglected. In such a complex environment

the majority of interpretation will have to be made after carefully considering the

results generated.

37
Chapter 5: Methodology

Field work took place in April 2006. Two sediment cores were recovered from

Pescadero Marsh along with numerous samples of contemporary surface sediments.

Both cores were taken using a gauge coring device. Sampling continued until further

penetration could no longer be achieved.

5.1. Sediment description:

For the purpose of the project the two cores were required to be taken from different

environments on the contemporary marsh surface. One core site was predominantly

seaward, the marine core, while the other was landward, the terrestrial core. When a

suitable location was identified a core was extracted and described in homogenous

sections according to the Troels-Smith sediment classification scheme (1955). This

technique assumes that sediment deposits are almost exclusively mixtures of a limited

number of components. Another immediately adjacent master core was then

extracted, packaged and labelled for laboratory analysis on return to The University of

Liverpool. The exact location of each master core was recorded using a Global

Positioning System (GPS) for reference to previous and further research. Once in the

laboratory each core was thoroughly described and recorded using the Troels-Smith

scheme. Each core was drawn up and digitised, using Corel Paint, with some similar

zones being merged into major sedimentary units. The recorded sedimentary units

would reveal information about the past environments at the core site and provide

constrained zones for further analytical techniques.

38
5.2. Field levelling:

Data to calculate the relative elevations of both core sites were collected using ranging

poles and an electronic levelling device. Both sites were levelled relative to fixed

monuments of known heights. This information would allow more accurate

correlation between both cores and other sediment cores from the same site.

5.3. Contemporary environments:

Surface sediments were sampled across the marsh from all observed differing

environments. Samples were taken using a trowel and stored in labelled sample bags.

A description of each environment was recorded and a photograph taken for

reference. A sub set of these samples was later selected to represent the major

environments encountered across the marsh from the seaward to the landward end.

These contemporary environments are listed below:

Pescadero Marsh Contemporary diatoms 1 (PMCD1)

Pickleweed marsh surface close to marine core.

PMCD2
Saltpan/pond on pickleweed marsh.

PMCD3
Channel ridge or raised platform in pickleweed marsh.

PMCD4
Small drainage ditch cut into pickleweed marsh.

PMCD5
Rush and potentilla peaty reed mat.

PMCD6
Main channel margin vegetation includes dispersed grasses and bulrushes, but
mostly muddy.

PMCD7
Bullrush reedbed on outer bend of channel.

PMCD8
Bullrush reedbed in sheltered blind channel south of embanked walkway.

39
PMCD9
Main fluvial channel margin tule reedbed.

PMCD10
Sand ripples on sandflat/shoreline from main channel just landward of barrier.

PMCD11
Mid-channel shoal in fluvial creek by terrestrial core.

PMCD12
Channel margin mud surface layer on bank of fluvial creek.

PMCD13
Marsh creek near terrestrial core. Tule vegetation in creek, potentilla and pickleweed
on marsh surface.

PMCD14
Desiccated saltpan/lagoonal mud in pickleweed marsh orange surface mud sampled.

PMCD15
Organic surface mat of bullrush reedswamp.

PMCD16
Algal-covered lagoon/pan mud in Pescadero lagoon.

PMCD17
As PMCD19 but not so algal covered. Shallow water covering on lagoonal mud.

PMCD18
Channel sediment bottom sediment from outer channel in close proximity to
barrier.

PMCD19
Pickleweed marsh underwater by c.5cm.

PMCD20
Lagoon in pickleweed marsh.

5.4 Diatom counts:

Thumbnail sized samples were taken from each of the recorded sedimentary units and

from some distinctive horizons in both cores. The larger the unit the more samples

were taken. These samples along with the selected contemporary environment

samples were prepared using standard procedures (Bates et al 1978, Scott & Medioli

40
1980, Batterbee 1986) and mounted on slides in Naphrax medium. Slides were

selected for counting with the aim of producing one count for each contemporary

environment and for each major sedimentary unit in both cores. This was not entirely

possible resulting in several problems which are discussed later. A complete count

was to consist of at least 100 frustules, the distinctive silica shell preserved in

sediment, of assigned species excluding those of clearly dominant species. 1000x

magnification was used to study the slides with species identification largely coming

from Van der Werff and Huls (1976) and Hendey (1964).

5.5. X-ray Fluorescence:

For non-destructive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) samples were taken from

all of the major stratigraphic zones in both cores, the larger the zone the more samples

were taken. XRF involves photoelectric fluorescence of characteristic secondary x-

rays from a sample. These secondary x-rays are stimulated by irradiation with primary

photons. This stratigraphically constrained array of samples would adequately

represent the changing relative abundance of certain elements down core.

Each sample was freeze dried before being disaggregated then individually sub

sampled into a spectro-certified polypropylene film lined sample holder and

compacted with a brass plunger. All samples were measured in sequence over a 250

second period by both the 109Cd and 55Fe sourced probes of a Metorex Xmet920

system. This instrument contains radioisotopes that emit photons in the x-ray source

systems, which provides primary photons. Energies of the secondary x-rays, generated

within the sample, are characteristic for the elements present, and the rate of emission

is a reflection of the element concentration and outgoing x-ray absorption by the

sample. The minimal handling and excellent precision of XRF make it highly suitable

41
for the analysis of sediments (Boyle 2001). The instrument was calibrated periodically

during analysis using standard samples of known elemental concentrations.

Overlapping photon energies were resolved and absolute geochemical concentrations

determined by the PASCAL computer program DECONV (Boyle 2000). The output

for the elements K, Fe, Ti, Ca, Mn, Zr, Rb, Sr, S, Si, Al, Br, Cl and Zn was

maintained for analysis. The output for the other elements measured (Pb, Cr, Ni, Y,

Cu and Nb) was not of sufficient quality to be of use.

5.6. Loss on ignition:

The organic component of the sediment was measured using the loss on ignition

(LOI) method. Sediment which had been prepared for XRF testing was used to

establish the down core LOI. This allowed genuine LOI figures to be entered in to the

DECONV program for each XRF measurement. With the samples already freeze-

dried and disaggregated an aliquot of each was placed into a crucible. All were then

oven dried and accurately weighed. The crucibles were next put in a furnace at 4500C

for four hours. The subsequent weight recorded allowed for the calculation of a

standardised LOI figure using the following equation:

((oven-dry weight weight loss in furnace) / oven-dry weight) x 100 = LOI

5.7. Salinity index:

An expression of the overall salinity displayed by each diatom assemblage was

calculated by scoring the percentages of tolerance groups on a scale of 1 to 7 in

accordance with the classifications of Van der Werff and Huls (1976). A salinity

percentage was calculated from a possible score of 700 and plotted down core for

each site. As the salinity rankings (1-7) do not reflect the environmental changes in

42
salinity tolerated by the Van der Werff and Huls (1976) groupings the indexes can be

used to emphasise broad changes in salinity but not to accurately comment on specific

environments.

43
Chapter 6: Results

In this chapter all of the data used in the final analysis is presented, largely in the form

of zoned charts and graphs. In the following chapter the results are described in detail

in terms of progressive up core sections rather than by individual data sources, hence

the lack of integration between figures and text. All of the results charts have been

divided in to the same up core zones with the exception of the X-ray fluorescence data

which is zoned differently and therefore described separately.

* Unfortunately in the PDF version of Chapter 6 some of the down core chart labels

have been blacked out due to the small font used. The obscured labels for figures 9,

10, 15, 16, 17, 18 & 19 should read Depth (cm). The labels for figures 11 & 12

should read contemporary environments in cluster analysis order.

44
Figure 4: sediment stratigraphy of the terrestrial and marine cores.

45
Figure 5: contemporary environment clusters.

The contemporary environment diatom assemblages were ordered and separated into

7 groups by cluster analysis using the CONISS facility in the Tilia Graph program.

The groupings are listed and briefly described below:

Cluster A: PMCD 12 and 14: Frequently submerged but mainly dry marsh/lagoonal
mud.

Cluster B: PMCD 17, 11, 16, 18 and 5: Predominantly submerged mud and peat.

Cluster C: PMCD 13 and 15: Surface vegetation mats sheltered by dense vegetation,
periodically submerged.

Cluster D: PMCD 19 and 20: Marsh vegetation submerged by lagoon water.

Cluster E: PMCD 2, 1 and 10: Dry marsh surface vegetation.

*PMCD10 evidently shares some characteristics with environments 1 and 2 however
it is perhaps best considered alone as the only beach sand environment sampled.*

Cluster F: PMCD 4, 3, 8 and 6: Periodically submerged, densely vegetated, channel

margin.

Cluster G: PMCD 9 and 7: Often submerged, reed vegetated, main channel margin.

46
 D e p th

650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Ach
C y c n an t
C y ml o t e l h e s l
M e b e l a a ntine a r
M e l os ir aa af fi iq u a is
lo d n

20
N s ir a is t a is
A icthz s c h s u lc n s v a
A c h n an ia li a t a r li r
B a c n an t h e n ea at a
Fresh

C y mi l a rt h e s a f r is
D i p b e ia p s l a nin is
F r alo nel a Pa ra d c e o
g i

20
G o i la ri as o vrao s t orax a la t a
N a n p h o pin lis t a
N a v ic u n e m n a t a
N a v ic u ll a c i a c

20
v ic u a h n t a o n
s
N i tz l a p uu sn g a r tr i c tu
N i tz s c h i l a ic a m
N i tz s c h ia p
S t e s c h ia p a le a
S p h ia s e
Fresh/Brackish

S yu nri re al no sd u b ruod o fo
C o e dr a o vis c u s t r an t ic
N a c c ona a c a t a s a s t a o la
N a v ic u l e is u s tr a e
N i tzv ic u a m p e d a
N s c l a u t ic u
N ii ttzz s c hh ia mf ru t iicc a lu s
N i tz s c h ia h u s t u v a a
N i tz s c h ia leu n g lu mr c o
N s c ia v i a r h n
N ii ttzz s c hh ia ps a rdv eu n sicia i
A c h s c h ia s ig m ala s
A c h n an ia t rp e c
A n t h y b ta b
Brackisk/Fresh

C am p haon t h ee s d lei o n eil is

lo r s l l a

20
C n e i a s a h a ui c a t v a
D ey c l o t e s w e lsin a c k i ua lna r le v id

20
n l ti a e n
F r a t ic u l aa s tri i s is
G y g i la r s u b at a
N a r os ig i a s t il is
v c

20
N a ic u l am a bhaul z i
N a v ic u d ig it l ti c
N a v ic u ll a e l or a du m
v a e i
N a ic u l a h a l go an s at a
v p p

20 20
N i tz ic u l a e re ghrii la
Brackish

R h s c h s a li n n a

20
o p a ia a ru
R h lod n a v m
N a o p a ia g ic ul
N i tzv ic u llod ia ib bea ris
N i tz s c h a c r m u r u la
N s c ia u c s c
Oiptz s c hh ia oli n k eic u lau l u s
e p h ia b tu i
20 40 or ap u n s a
p arc t a t
Syn va a
C o e dr
C o c c ona t a
C o c c on e is b u la
20

c c o e is p e t a
Brackish/Marine

n l
C o e is ss c utot eide s
s c in p ec l u m
20 40

o d i i os a
scu
Di p se
G y lo n e xce
N a r os ig i s d nt ri
v
N a ic u l m a idy m
c us
N a v ic u a a r s tr i a
20

v ic u l a f e n g le
N i tz l a l a na a ria
R h s c h fo r c i ti c a
R h a p h ia a pa ta
Marine/Brackish

T a p on c u
C ah a l ahs on ee iis ammin a
C y mm p ys io s s s u p h ita
N a lo s ir a rir e c e
N iatzv ic utol s ir iara cdye c ilpla r o s
a
20

O p s c h ia c a nbce lgmi b eiel in s

P la e p h o s o c e l ac a f o rm
P le g io g r a m i a li s t a i s
T h au r os ra m a ri
l a s i g m m a na
s io a v a
T h a n e mf ao rm on h eu
s r
20 40 20

l as
C s n it z u m c k i
Marine

Gyym b e io s ir a s c h io i
r
P os a ro l de
S le u r ig m s p t ul a s
S yt anu r oosni g ma s p
F r e e dr e i s a s p
s a s
F re h s p p
s h/
B ra
Unknown

B ra c k i s h
cki
B ra s h/
c k i Fr e
sh sh
20 20 40 20 20 40

B ra
cki
s h/
Ma
r in e
Ma
ri ne
/B r
ac k
i sh
Ma
ri ne
20 40 60 20 40 60 20 40 60

Un
k
T o t n ow n
al a
Figure 6: Marine core: diagram of down core diatom occurrence. Species are grouped by salinity tolerance and down core sections shown.

ssi
g ne d
d ia
20 50 100 150 200

to m
s
47
Zones

Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7
 D e p th

650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Cym
C y m b el
F ra b e l a a f fi n
F ru gi la ri a h eb is
M e s t u li aa c ap r id ic a
M el o s ira r h omu c in a
N i l o s ira d is t a b o id
N i ttzz s c h i s u lc n s v ae s
A c s c h iaa ig n oat a r li r a Fresh

A c hh n a nt li n e ar a ta t a
B ac n a nt he s a ris
i h f

20
C y m l a ria eps l anin is
Di a b e a ra c e o
t
D i p o m l a v d o x lat a
D i p lo n ea v u en t a
lo i l r i

20
F ra n ei ss o vgaar ec ov s a
N a gi la r o v a lis a r l
v
N a ic u l i a p lis v a in e a
N a v ic u a c i in na r o b ris
N i tzv ic u ll a g rn t a t a lo n
s a a

20
ge l
N i tz c h ia p u sci i lis la
N i tz s c h pa lel a
P in s c h ia p a
Fresh/Brackish

S u r n u l a ia s s e u d
S i r e r ia ig m o
C oy n e dlra o vb o reoidfeo nt ic
N a c c o na a c at a a l is a ola
N v ic e i u s
N iatzv ic uu ll a ms pe d
s a u ic

20
N c h ia m ut ic a u lu s
N ii ttzz s c h hu tnic a v
N i tz s c h ia le g a ri ar c
N i tz s c h ia p v ide c a o h ni
A c h s c h ia s ia r v u n s is
n ia g l

20
A c h a nt h t r y bm aa
Brackish/Fresh

A m n a n e s d li on e
A ph t h e li l a
C m ph o r a e s h c a t u v a r
C yaclon eo r a cs o f f eaau c k la le v id
D l o is a l i e i an e ns i
F eran t ict uel awse sntia fo rmais s
G y gi la rl a s tr i a ti
N a r o s ig i a s u b t il a
N a v ic u m a c h u l is
N a v ic u ll a d i b al t z i
N a v ic u l a e leg it o ri c u m
v a a
N a ic u l a h a l og a nsd i a t a

20 20
v ic u p e r p hi
e la
N i tz l a s a l g rina
s in

20
Brackish

N i tz c h ia a ru m
R h s c h c om
o ia m

20
R h p a lo d na v u ta ta
N a o p a ia g ic u l a
N i tzv ic u llo d ia ib b e ris
s a ru

20
N i tz c h ia c r umc u s c la
O p s c h ob tuic u lau l us
e ia s
20 S p h o pu a
A y ne ra p nc t a
A cc th n ad nra t a a rv a t a
A in o t h b u
C oc t in o pc y celus l olant a
Brackish/Marine

C o c c o nt y c hs oc g ip e
c e t s
20

C o c o ne iis pues s eonn a riu

C o c c o n s s c l to id a riu s
s c in e is u t e es s
o di s p e l um
scu ci o
s e sa
Na xce
v ic u nt ri
Na l a c us
a
20 40 60 20 20

v ic u r e
N a l a ari n
N i tzv ic u l c r uc a
R s c a ic u
Marine/Brackish

R hh a p hh ia foc rc ip a lo id e s
C o a p h oo ne ilo s te ta
C s c ne s a r iu
C oo s c iinn o disis s um p h mi
D rus c in oo dis c u s rire l cl e ro
N rid d c u n it a s
N aa v ic ug e aiscc u ss n o did us
T hav ic u ll a c a o m pra d iau l if e
l as a c anc e res t us r
s io rin l at s a
n e m if e r a
20 40 60

a na
T ha it z s
T ric l a s c h io
P e r s io i de
s
Marine

F lree ur oastu ms ira r

s h i gm f a v ot u l
F re a u s a
s h/ p s
B ra
20 20 40

cki
B ra sh
20
Unknown

cki
B r a h / Fr es
cki sh
sh
B ra
20 40 60 20

cki
M a s h/ M a
r i n e r in
/B r e
ac k
ish
Ma
ri ne
20 40 60 20 40 60

U
T notk n o w
al a n
ssi
gn e
dd
ia to
50 100 150

ms
Zone

Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7

Figure 7: Terrestrial core: diagram of down core diatom occurrence. Species are grouped by salinity tolerance and down core sections shown.

48
 Ach

20
na
A nt he
A cc hhn an s d eli
A c hn ant he c at u

20
A c hn antt hhee ss he x igu la
A c t n an s l aauc ka
A in t h n i
A mm phoippt y ec hs l inec e olaant aa
A m ph orro r aus s ar is
B acph or aa ov aalla taen ar iu

20 20
B r e i l a r ia s al inisa s
C b pa
C oa clonisesion ia r adox a
C o c c ons w e bo e

20
C o c c onee iiss dsisti i c k i
C o c c on pedc u lo
C o c c one is p ic ulid es
C ce u
C oo sc c oonne iiss pleal cto idess

20
c in e is s c u en
C y c o dis csuublt iet l tuumla
l ot e s e to r a
l a s x c enlis

20 40 60
tr i at t r ic u
a s
Cyc
C y ml ot e
D e n b e ll a m

20
D i p t ic ul aa v enetne gh
D i plo ne s ubt r ic o in ia
D i plo nei s d il is s a n a
F r alo nei s o idy m
F gi i s v a
F rr uagi llaarr i a scmai ltihs
G ons t uli i a s ons t i
G y r p hoa r hc hul r ue n
Go no z s
G yy rr oss iigg meam am cb oiid e
N a vos ig m a bal tion s s
N a v ic ul amaa ss ctr i g lceumtr i c tu m
a
N a v ic ul a c ren alrpiaroid
N a v ic ul a c anc e l a es

20 20 20 20
ic u ru t a
N a v l a d ig ci ic u la
N a v ic ul t or a
N a v ic ul a d i di at

20
ic u a c s t a a
N a v l a e luesgpindsa
N a v ic ul an s t a
N a v ic ul a fo

20
ic u a g r c ip
N l a h rac i a ta
N aa vv ic ul al oplhisi
N a v ic ul aa mh un g la
N a v ic ul a p ut icaar ic a
20 20 20
ic u er v ar
20 N a v l a p rote gr ina c oh ni
ic u r ac
N a v l a pus t a
ic ul i l a
a sa
li na
rum
50 100 150

Na v
N i tz ic ul a
N i tz s c h ia s im p
N i tz s c h ia ac u ml e x
N i tz s c h ia c lo s ina ta
N i s c h f ru te riu
N i ttzz s c h iiaa hu ns gt ulu mm
N i s c h le v a r ic
N i ttzz s c h iiaa li neiade ns isa
20

s c li n r is
N i tz h ia nakvei
s c h ic u l
20 40

ia o aris
b
Figure 8: Contemporary environments: diatom assemblages grouped by CONISS cluster analysis.

N i tz tu s a
N i tz s c h
N s ia
N ii ttzz s cc hh ia ppaa lea
s c h ia ps r v u
ia e la
N i tz pu ncutd o fo
s c h a t a n t ic o
ia s
ig m la
20 40 20 40 60

N i tz a
N i tz s c h
N i tz s c h ia s ig
N i tz s c h ia s m o
o
O pes c h iiaa st ubc iraliisd ea
20 20

p ho ry blios t r
P ra on at a
R le ur p ar e l a
R hh oa phosoi gm v a v ar le v
R p na id
R hh oo paa lloodeiais af mor m os e ns is
S t a pa l d ia gib phi c u m
S ur ur o nod ia gib ba er o
S i r e m be s
T yhaneedlraa iosv sap iucs c ruul la
T hal as s ac ut a ul a us
l as s io ne s
io s i m a
Zone

r a r n it z
ot ul s c h
Cluster G (9 & 7)
Cluster D (19 & 20)
Cluster C (13 & 15)
Cluster A (12 & 14)

Cluster F (4,3,8 & 6)

Cluster E (2,1 & 10)

a io i d
Cluster B (17,11,16,18 & 5)

es
CONIS S

Total sum of squares

200 400 600 800 1000120014001600

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
Chapter 7: results description

7.1. Diatom data, core stratigraphy, loss on ignition and salinity index:

The diatom species counts from both cores were entered in to the Tila graph computer

program to produce diagrams displaying the down core occurrence of different

species grouped on the basis of their salt tolerance (Figures 6 & 7). Graphs for each

core displaying the occurrence of particular types of diatom life form were also

produced (Figures 9 & 10). These results are described together with sediment

stratigraphy (Figure 4), loss on ignition (see Figures 15 & 17) and down core salinity

index (Figure 13).

7.1.1. Core 1: Marine

The results for the core from the marine end of the marsh are best described in seven

discrete sections:

Section 1: only includes the lowest diatom count from the core. This section runs from

the bottom of the core, at 628cm below the modern marsh surface and ends

somewhere before the next diatom count which is at 603cm. The change in sediment

from clay to clay with coarse silt and sand at 612cm appears to indicate a change in

sedimentary environment. The section is dominated by fresh and fresh brackish

species along with a relatively high proportion of marine diatoms. Those diatoms with

tolerances in between are not well represented in the context of the rest of the core.

In terms of life form, benthic diatoms dominate this section along with a substantial

proportion of euplanktonic frustules. Tychoplanktonic diatoms of various origins are

also prominent while epontic and epontic/benthic diatoms are sparse.

62
Section 2: the next section is overwhelmingly dominated by marine/brackish diatoms

along with a high proportion of marine diatoms. Tychoplanktonic diatoms are not well

represented throughout the core however in relative terms tychoplanktonic diatoms of

all origins show their most significant increase in section 2. Benthic and epontic

diatoms are most abundant with benthic showing a steady decline moving up through

the section whereas epontic diatoms initially increase before also declining. There is a

notable presence of euplanktonic diatoms through out the section.

Section 2 begins with clay, coarse silt and fine sand. The section appears to gradually

change between diatom counts at 515cm and 435cm ending in lower energy clay with

some silt and shell fragments present. Loss on ignition (LOI) remains unchanged from

section 1 and throughout section 2 while the salinity index displays a significant

increase followed by an almost instant decrease before settling at a higher level than

indicated at the bottom of the core.

Section 3: Diatom preservation was poor in this section of the core with only one

count completed and the sediment stratigraphy was largely unchanged. In context of

the zones above and below this section appears to primarily indicate a reduction in

marine and marine/brackish diatom species which are largely replaced by

brackish/marine and to a lesser degree brackish species. Also of note is a decline in

the already small population of fresh water diatoms.

Numbers of epontic, benthic and epontic/benthic diatoms appear to significantly rise

while tychoplanktonic and euplanktonic diatoms all but disappear. This section was

exclusively composed of clay with some silt and displayed an upward fining. Salinity

appears to gradually decline moving up through section 3 whereas LOI is slightly

63
higher than that of section 2 but remains almost constant throughout. The section ends

at 392cm.

Section 4: extends up to at least 200cm below the marsh surface including the diatom

count at 226cm. Some fluctuations are apparent in this section however an overall

pattern observed. It appears that the more extreme tolerance diatoms, fresh and

marine, are least abundant with abundance increasing toward the middle of the

spectra. The brackish/fresh diatom curve is the only one deviates, albeit slightly, from

this pattern. Brackish diatoms are dominant throughout with their dominance

gradually growing up core.

The influence of euplanktonic diatoms along with tychoplanktonic diatoms of all

origins initially becomes prominent at the bottom of the section before waning up

core. Epontic and benthic diatoms dominate relatively steadily throughout. The

sediment stratigraphy changes periodically between silt with clay and clay with silt

and often features organic matter or peat and sandy intrusions. LOI again has a higher

base level than the section below and twice builds to notable peaks in the lower and

upper quarters of the section. Salinity decreases to a new low at around 350cmand

remains close to this level throughout.

Section 5: begins at around 200cm and ends before 125cm below surface, initially

marine/brackish and marine diatoms increase while the other groups decline. Here

benthic and epontic diatoms also decline while tychoplanktonic and euplanktonic

populations increase. The sediment however is still clay with silt.

This phase is followed by a dramatic increase in marine diatoms which

overwhelmingly dominate this level of the core. Benthic and epontic diatoms continue

64
their decline. Tychoplanktonic diatoms increase markedly with the exception of those

with epontic and benthic origins which are entirely absent and remain so for the rest

of the core. Euplanktonic diatoms now account for over 50% of all frustules counted.

The sediment here is entirely coarse sand.

The final count in this section sees a massive decline in the number of marine diatoms

with their numbers now approaching the base level of section 4. Marine/brackish

diatoms also revert to previous low levels, if not lower, while a pulse of

brackish/marine diatoms and a recovery in brackish diatoms sees these two groups

dominate the assemblage. Proportions of epontic and benthic diatoms recover while

euplanktonic and tychoplanktonic diatoms decline. Tychoplanktonic diatoms of

benthic origins are also now absent. This count came from slightly organic silt with

clay just above the sand deposit.

The section is characterised by a drop in LOI to its lowest point in the core at 160cm

before a rapid recovery. The salinity index almost mirrors the LOI curve by building

to its largest peak at 160cm before swiftly declining.

Section 6: begins below 125cm and extends into the top 50cm of the core. Here

brackish diatoms dominate making up around 50% of all assemblages counted.

Marine, marine/brackish and brackish/marine diatoms have all sunk to a base level

whereas brackish/fresh and particularly fresh/brackish diatoms have become more

prominent and exhibit some fluctuation. The presence of fresh diatoms is largely

unchanged.

Tychoplanktonic diatoms of epontic origins are present at a low level as are

euplanktonic diatoms at a lower level still. Benthic and, to a lesser extent, epontic

diatoms now dominate with a prominent spike of epontic/benthic diatoms early in the

65
section. The substrate is silt with clay and peat becoming more organic up core.

Salinity is low and gradually declines throughout. LOI peaks then declines before

settling at a level similar to that in the middle of section 3.

Section 7: the final section is constrained by the silty peat of the modern marsh

surface which extends 13cm down core. Here some of the dominant brackish diatoms

are replaced by brackish/fresh and, to a greater extent, fresh/brackish diatoms.

Tychoplanktonic diatoms of benthic origin reappear significantly in this section which

serves to slightly reduce the dominance of benthic diatoms.

The salinity index declines to its lowest level of the core while LOI dramatically rises

to at least double its previous largest peak.

7.1.2. Core 2: Terrestrial

The core from the terrestrial end of the marsh appears to also have seven distinct

zones however this is not necessarily related to the zonation of the marine core. The

sections are described below:

Section 1: extends from the bottom of the core to 486cm below the surface of the

modern marsh. The zone is completely dominated by marine and marine/brackish

diatoms with marine diatoms being slightly more numerous. Diatoms of other salinity

tolerances are very rare if present at all. Euplanktonic and tychoplanktonic epontic

origin life forms are dominant. Tychoplanktonic diatoms of both benthic and epontic

and benthic origins are also present in numbers of significance relative to the rest of

the core while epontic and benthic populations begin to rise toward the upper limit of

the section.

66
The sediment in this section is predominantly indistinctly laminated silt with clay or

clay with silt although there is a distinct sand section between 625 and 585cm. LOI

gently rises towards the top of this zone while salinity is indicated to be much higher

than at any other point up the core.

Section 2: continues upwards until 406cm. Diatom counts are only from the upper and

lower ends of the zone but clearly demonstrate a change from marine to brackish

domination. After persisting in the lower 15cm of the section marine and

marine/brackish species rapidly decline as fresh/brackish, brackish/fresh, brackish and

brackish/marine diatom populations all begin to grow. There is a significant and

steady population of fresh diatoms throughout the whole of the section. Euplanktonic

and tychoplanktonic life forms also persist in the lower region of this section before

rapidly disappearing as epontic and benthic populations rise, only tychoplanktonic

species with epontic origins remain in small numbers.

LOI initially drops in this section before resuming a now fluctuating rise while

salinity decreases from bottom to top. The first two diatom counts come from a zone

of coarse silt with clay. The sediment then goes through a succession of rapid changes

from silty sand to sand, clay with silt, sand, clay with silt and clay with peat before

ending in silt with some clay, organic matter and shell fragments which fines

upwards. This upper section is where the third diatom count was sampled from.

Section 3: has an upper limit of 335cm. Brackish diatoms are dominant becoming

more so towards the top of the section. There is a prominent and steady population of

fresh/brackish diatoms and a sizeable amount of fresh diatoms which declines toward

the top. The other groups remain comparatively low throughout. Euplanktonic life

67
forms are poorly represented but appear to begin a gradual rise in this zone as do

tychoplanktonic diatoms of benthic and of epontic origins, however these are more

numerous. Already significant populations of epontic and epontic/benthic diatoms

begin to decline as benthic diatoms increase in numbers to become clearly dominant.

This zone is characterised by silty clay and clay with silt. The zone is peaty at the

bottom, where shell fragments were found, becoming less organic towards the top

where no plant remains are found. The bottom 8cm of the section is stained black with

Substantia humosa. The LOI initially continues to rise before rapidly dropping to a

significantly lower level between 385 and 370cm. Salinity in this section appears to

start from a low level and rise throughout however the final level attained is still

significantly lower than that of section 1.

Section 4: In this area of the core successful diatom counts were very sparse making

zonation difficult. A pronounced change in then LOI data occurs between 222cm and

202cm therefore the boundary is set by a stratigraphic change occurring at 216cm.

This boundary is in keeping with the trends suggested by the limited diatom data.

Here the brackish population rapidly declines before beginning a slow increase toward

section 5 and the marine/brackish population rapidly increases before decreasing

towards section 5. Marine, brackish/marine, brackish/fresh and fresh/brackish diatom

populations are largely stable and at relatively low levels while the small fresh diatom

population initially sees an increase. The relative proportion of benthic diatoms falls

as does that of tychoplanktonic species with benthic origins. The other

tychoplanktonic diatoms increase in this section as do epontic/benthic diatoms and, to

a lesser extent, euplanktonic diatoms. Epontic species remain fairly constant.

68
The lower reaches of the section are made up of silt and sand becoming silt with clay

higher up however the section finishes with another band of silt and fine sand which

fines upwards. From the available information it appears that salinity initially increase

slightly before declining slowly into section 5. LOI stays almost constant throughout

at the relatively low level reached in section 3.

Section 5: again is sparse in terms of diatom counts. The section ends before a diatom

count at 136cm and appears to be unconstrained by stratigraphy. The entire section is

made of silty clay with an increasing organic component toward the top and a

Substantia humosa stained section near the bottom. This section is nominally

suggested to end at 150cm. There are sizeable populations of fresh/brackish,

brackish/fresh, brackish, brackish/marine and marine brackish diatoms. Brackish and

brackish/marine species appear most prominent and marine /brackish diatom numbers

are declining. Populations of marine and fresh water diatoms are small but present.

Benthic and epontic life forms dominate the assemblage. Numbers of epontic/benthic

species are low with euplanktonic and tychoplanktonic/epontic populations even

lower. Both tychoplanktonic/benthic and tychoplanktonic/epontic/benthic species

make small but significant appearances. LOI initially increases before levelling off

while salinity gradually declines.

Section 6: extends to 4cm down core. Brackish and fresh/brackish diatoms dominate

while the brackish/fresh population gently rises and the brackish/marine population

gently falls. There is a small population of marine/brackish diatoms and a smaller still

marine population while fresh water diatoms are all but absent. Benthic, and to a

lesser degree, epontic/benthic diatoms are now dominant while epontic species

69
decline greatly. The other life forms are increasingly poorly represented except for a

subtle and a less subtle recovery of tychoplanktonic/benthic and

tychoplanktonic/epontic species at the top of the section.

The sediment in this section is initially silty clay with peat and shell fragments which

becomes more organic up core and eventually becomes highly organic clay with silt

and peat laminations. Salinity shows an overall decline towards the top of the section

while LOI remains stable until roughly 1m below surface when it fluctuates between

the steady level and some much higher measurements.

Section 7: comprises of the top 4cm of the core which is composed of peat. Marine

diatoms remain at a very low level whereas marine/brackish, brackish/marine,

brackish/fresh and to a larger extent brackish species decline. Fresh/brackish diatoms

also decline but remain dominant in this section and fresh diatom numbers rise

significantly. Benthic, epontic/benthic and to a lesser extent epontic diatoms dominate

the section with other life forms persisting in small numbers. LOI is high in this

section while salinity is low.

7.2. Contemporary environments and past assemblages

The majority of the paleo-environment clusters appear logical in terms of the

environments from which the samples were taken. The contemporary groups and

individual environments were assessed along with the core sections and individual

slides to see if any similarities could be used to infer the nature of paleo-environments

encountered down core:

70
The marine core

Section 1: this section does not closely resemble any specific cluster of contemporary

environments. The most evident similarities are with both PMCD (Pescadero Marsh

Contemporary Diatoms) 12 and 19 in terms of salinity tolerance species groups and

the salinity index. As these samples both come from markedly different environments

it is most likely that the environment in section 1 of the marine core is not similar any

of the major environments in the contemporary survey.

Section 2: again appears to have no direct parallels with the sampled contemporary

environments. Similarities exist with PMCD 14 in terms of species salinity tolerance

and salinity index however the major life form similarities are with PMCD 11. The

characteristics of these environments are also contradictory.

Section 3: has a reasonably close similarity to PMCD 18 in all available variables.

And, to a lesser extent some similarities exist with the other contemporary

environments in this cluster group. The evidence is not conclusive alone but may be

useful when considered along with the whole data set.

Section 4: close similarities are apparent in terms of saline tolerance, salinity index

and, to a slightly lesser extent, life form distribution with contemporary samples 19

and 20. As the similarities are close and the modern environments were grouped

together by cluster analysis it is likely that this section of the marine core came from a

similar environment to these contemporary assemblages.

71
Section 5: encompasses a series of rapidly changing environments rather than

representing a period of settled conditions. Therefore each diatom count must be

considered individually. The lowest count, from 180cm, displays similarities with

PMCD 11 in terms of salinity tolerances and salinity index however the life form data

does not correlate. There are no close life form analogues for this slide. The highest

slide in this section, from 145cm, is similar to environment 11 in terms of life form

and salinity but is most similar to environment 20 in terms of species saline tolerance.

The count from 160cm is markedly dissimilar to any of the modern environments

being more saline and featuring considerably more marine and euplanktonic diatoms.

Section 6: similarities are apparent with PMCD 13, 19 and 20 in terms of species

salinity tolerance and with 17, 19 and 20 in terms of life forms. The salinity indexes

of these environments are also similar to that of section 6. As previously stated,

PMCD 19 and 20 form a cluster and the environments in 13 and 17 are also that of

vegetated marsh surface.

Section 7: is very similar, when all variables are considered together, with PMCD 5

and 13.

The terrestrial core

Section 1: is dissimilar to all of the contemporary environments in all variables. The

section is more saline and features much more marine, marine/brackish,

tychoplanktonic and epontic diatoms than any of the PMCD counts.

72
Section 2: is a transition rather than a specific environment. The environment changes

from that of section one to a distinctly different environment by the sections upper

limit. This new environment shares characteristics with various contemporary

environments. However the matching characteristics all come from different

environments suggesting that the core environment is not truly similar to any of the

modern environments.

Section 3: shows very similar characteristics to the PMCD cluster of environments 19

and 20 in terms of all the assessed variables. The environment in section 3 changes

subtly up core. Section 3 is initially most similar to environment 20 becoming closer

to 19 at the top.

Section 4: is another seemingly transitional environment. Diatom counts here were

sparse and of the two completed neither satisfactorily matched any characteristics of

contemporary environments to merit noting.

Section 5: only features one diatom count. This count is most similar to PMCD 13 but

is not overwhelmingly so. Similarities also exist with environment 15, the other

environment clustered with 13. It is plausible that the paleo-environment may have

been similar to that of this contemporary group if supported by other data sources.

Section 6: correlates reasonably well in all variables with the modern environment

cluster of 7 and 9 as well as displaying characteristics of some other environments.

73
Section 7: is well matched to PMCD 13 in terms of salinity index, saline tolerance and

life forms of diatom species.

7.3. X-ray fluorescence

The data produced by the XRF testing appears to have suffered due to the low

sampling resolution. The graphs appear noisy as there are evidently trends present

occurring over smaller intervals than the sampling density. The issue of sampling

density was to be expected as studies of local lake sediments have revealed subtle

small scale catchment trends when analysing short cores at high resolution i.e. Plater

et al. (2006) and Stroud (2001). However with the studied sediment coming from an

estuarine environment it is unlikely that such patterns would have been coherently

preserved regardless of sampling resolution. The XRF data is therefore most likely to

of use in revealing large scale fundamental changes in the Pescadero Creek

catchment.

Of all the elements measured by the XRF equipment the results for K, Fe, Ti, Ca, Mn,

Rb, Sr, S, Si, Al, Br and Cl were deemed to be of sufficient quality for use in further

analysis. Graphs of the relative proportions of these elements down core were

produced for both the marine and terrestrial sites (Figures 15, 16, 17 & 18 shows

those retained for analysis). A correlation matrix was also produced for each site

showing the relation ships between each individual element and every other element

in the data set (Figure 14). Relationships are represented by pearson product moment

correlation coefficient values (r) and regression values (r2).

The correlations shown by the matrix for each core revealed two main groups of

associated elements in the sediment from Pescadero Marsh. S, Cl and Br along with

LOI which are all connected with the organic fraction of the core material and K, Ti,

74
Si and Zr which to some extent represent the mineral fraction. Other associations exist

between elements however these will be the most important in assessing erosion

trends, and therefore a human impact phase, within the catchment.

7.3.1. The marine core:

These graphs were divided vertically in to nine distinct zones. The minerogenic

element curves all show a fluctuating gradual decrease in the lowest part of the core,

sections A and B. A brief peak is apparent in section C, although it is less apparent in

the Ti curve, before the fluctuating decrease continues throughout sections D, E and F

becoming more dramatic in section F. Section seven sees a gentle increase in all four

followed by a small trough in section H before the decrease continues after a small

step up in section I with levels falling fastest between the top two points.

The organic matter associated elements are relatively consistent though section A as is

the LOI curve. LOI, Br and Cl continue this trend in section B while S jumps to a

higher level around 500c. Section C sees little change in LOI and Br while S and Cl

increase. In section D S initially steps up before dramatically reducing, Cl, Br an LOI

are all significantly enriched in this section. Cl, Br, S and LOI all gradually decrease

through sections E, F and G although a peak in each is evident in section F this peak is

strongest in S. Section H sees a peak in each curve. Section I sees Br and Cl remain

reasonably stable before declining towards the top. Levels of S are already low and

now gradually decline towards the surface whereas LOI increases gradually and

finally rapidly in the upper 10cm.

7.3.2. The terrestrial core:

The record here is not as busy as that of the marine core. Only five zones are were

required. The minerogenic indicators show a fluctuating gradual decrease through

75
section A which becomes slightly quicker in section B for K, Si and Zr while Ti falls

swiftly and follows this low peak with a slight gradual rise. This rise begins at the top

of section B for Zr, Si and K, it continues into section C before a steady decline

resumes in all four curves. This decline continues in section D. However section D of

the Ti curve sees another rise in its top half while this is mirrored by The Si curve

which initially rises. Each curve sees a stepped increase at the start of section E which

is followed by a fluctuating rise in Ti and K and a fluctuating fall in Zr and Si.

The zonation of the organic matter indicating elements was so distinctive in the

terrestrial core that patterns displayed by these elements were used to zone all of the

XRF graphs. In section A Cl and S gradually decline while LOI and Br gradually

increase. Section B sees a bulge in all charts. Section C sees all curves fall to low

levels and remain almost constant, if anything a very slight decline is evident. Section

D sees a pronounced bulge in the curves of S, Cl, LOI and to a lesser extent Br. A

dramatic fall in the levels of S and Cl is apparent at the top of section D while Br and

LOI exhibit large peaks. Section E sees S and Cl remain at very low levels. Br and

LOI return to the levels prior to their peaks, both then continue a fluctuating decline.

Down core ratio charts for K/Ti and Si/K are also shown for both cores (Figure 19)

along with a scatter plot of K/Ti for the terrestrial cores (Figure 20). There is little

point in describing the patterns observed in these charts without any interpretation.

These patterns are discussed in the following chapter.

76
Chapter 8: Discussion

The pattern of results from all of the data sources has been described in detail. This

chapter addresses the possible environmental changes which could have caused these

patterns. However prior to this it is necessary to discuss some of the problems

apparent with one of the main data sources, the diatom assemblages, and how these

have been resolved or accounted for.

8.1. Problems presented by diatom counts: total assigned diatoms and problem

species

Total assigned diatom curves are included in the diatom assemblage charts and along

with the salinity index graphs. These data provide a crude guide to the robustness of

the information collected from each sample. Ideally assemblages consisted of at least

100 frustules (excluding any dominant species). However this was not always

possible particularly with slides made from the terrestrial core. Due to poor

preservation or scarcity of diatoms some counts of less than 100 were required to be

included to avoid large gaps in the data sets. Where such counts correspond to

apparent spikes in the diatom data the inferred environmental change should be

considered carefully against the data set as a whole. It is possible that these spikes

may be a product of the sparse data rather than evolutional processes.

Specific diatom species can be problematic to assemblage studies such as the well

documented Melosira (Paralia) sulcata problem discussed by Hemphill-Haley

(1996). While this was not a prominent issue with the sediments sampled from

Pescadero Marsh two other species, Coscinodiscus excentricus and Thalassionema

nitzschioides, appeared problematic. Whilst these species, C. exentricus in particular,

77
were two of the primary indicators of predominantly marine influenced estuarine

environments they also appeared to be have the frustules best designed for

preservation often being the only identifiable species in sparse or poorly preserved

samples. Sparse slides found to almost exclusively contain these two species were not

included in the assemblage diagrams. However several slides with more abundant

diatoms were also dominated by C. excentricus and T.nitzschioides. Caution must

therefore be exercised to avoid confusing slides where all other species have been

degraded beyond identification with slides genuinely representing more marine

influenced past environments. Rough percentages of identifiable versus unidentifiable

frustules were noted which allowed for more objective reasoning but problems still

remain.

It would appear logical that diatom frustule preservation should be lower in higher

energy environments. Therefore sediment accreted in the lower littoral zones would

be prone to contain less well preserved diatoms than the higher littoral zones which

are not as exposed to the energy of the ocean. This point is supported by the closest

surface count to the open ocean PMCD10 (Pescadero Marsh Contemporary Diatoms

environment 10) which was performed on a sample taken from sand ripples on a sand

flat/shoreline of the main channel just landward of the barrier. Here diatoms were

very sparse and preservation was poor with only ~15% of encountered frustules

identifiable to species level. Frustule preservation was worse here than in any of the

other contemporary environments sampled, all of which were more landward. Had a

further sample been recovered from an even more marine influenced site it is probable

that preservation would have been even poorer. However while PMCD10 contained

significant numbers of C. excentricus and T. nitzschioides (to a lesser extent) over

twenty other species were also recorded including Opephora parva which was present

78
in greater numbers than both of the above. O. parva is a brackish/marine species

which was notably abundant in the two most saline contemporary environments

(PMCD10 and PMCD11) along with C.excentricus. The absence of O. parva from the

heavily degraded C. excentricus and T. nitzschioides dominated samples taken from

the cores could indicate that this species, along with other species with less robust

frustules, is not preserved long term in higher energy environments. However the

increasing presence of T. nitzschioides, a fully marine species, is likely to indicate a

transition to a higher energy environment where preservation is worse still. While this

could explain the increasingly poor preservation encountered in the less landward

contemporary samples it is still unlikely that the most degraded samples encountered

at depth in both cores were like this solely due high energy conditions. Degradation of

frustules over time is another factor to consider. However the superior preservation of

the diatom species which indicate more marine conditions, encountered at Pescadero

Marsh, means that the influence of this factor may well indistinguishable from the

expected overall evolutionary trend of open estuarine to marsh conditions. In short a

great deal of objective thought is required to identify the environmental information

which is present but may be distorted.

It is also possible that within the down core diatom data there are some low counts

included which have not been queried as they appear to fit well with the trends

displayed above and below them. Here the problem may be that potentially important

data is not displayed due to the low count in an opposing scenario to low counts

producing spurious trends. While one problem can cause misleading spikes in a data

set, the other can easily go undetected. Low counts can seriously compromise the

integrity of paleo-ecological data as can absent counts. As a full set of counts at the

required resolution is a rarity the decision of how to proceed in this situation comes

79
down to the individual author. In this case low counts are included but highlighted and

dealt with extremely carefully.

8.2. Discussion of diatom data, core stratigraphy, loss on ignition and salinity
index:

Being aware of the problems associated with diatom counts, environmental

interpretations are liable to be better informed when multiple variables are considered

together. The data set will be discussed as a whole, with the exception of XRF, as this

way a more accurate interpretation of past environments will be possible. XRF

interpretation will be informed by these tentative findings but may not support them.

This discussion begins in the bottom zone, section 1, of the marine core. We shall

start here as this is believed to be the oldest sediment section retrieved. It is within the

bounds of possibility that sediment has accreted faster at the lower site of the marine

core (Dyer 1986). Although both cores are very similar in length the marine core is

thought to represent a longer time period. Therefore the environments represented by

section 1of the terrestrial core are believed not to be recorded in the marine core.

Drowned valley/open estuary

Section 1 of the terrestrial core appeared to be overwhelmingly under marine

influence. This section seemed stricken with a number, if not all, of the diatom data

problems discussed previously, along with the problem of sparse counts. Coupled

with the fact that this section of the terrestrial core appeared under considerably

more marine influence than any part of the marine core, as indicated by the salinity

index, this pattern initially seemed dubious.

However after careful consideration of the diatom counts present, and of the lowest

two counts in section 2 which indicate a similar environment, a genuine

80
marine/brackish to marine environment must be concluded. Three of the five counts

considered were full. The diatom life form data also suggested a potentially stressed

marine environment with high percentages of euplanktonic and tychoplanktonic

species. While a rise in benthic and epontic species up core supported by increasing

LOI implied organic matter signifies a gradually more protected or proportionally less

marine influenced estuarine environment.

This section is suggested to represent a drowned valley open estuary with little

sediment infill which has become increasingly protected. Increasing protection is

likely to have come from the initial growth of a barrier across the drowned valley

mouth (Roy et al 1994) and also from sediment infill reducing the tidal prism (Dyer

1986). Mid Holocene rising sea level is likely to have initially drowned the valley

however it appears that sea level was still fluctuating at this point.

The sediment stratigraphy reveals interchanging silts and clays interrupted by a sand

section. All of these sediments were indistinctly laminated. It is likely that the site of

the terrestrial core was in the lower energy landward end of the estuary. Sea level

fluctuations maybe represented by the sediment changes particularly that of the

sizeable sand section. It seems likely that this environment persisted whilst sea level

fluctuated and marine influence was gradually reduced. There were no close

analogues to this section among the contemporary diatom assemblages all of which

were less saline and less indicative of predominantly marine conditions. This

sediment section is likely to have come from an open estuarine tidal mud/sand flat.

Major closing event

Moving up the terrestrial core to consider section 2, with diatom counts limited to the

upper and lower limits of this section it is difficult to comment on what is happening

81
in the middle. However it is clear that this section is in essence a transition between

the environments encountered in terrestrial core sections 1 and 2. The initial diatom

counts are very similar to those of section 1 in terms of salinity tolerance and life form

with the salinity index slightly decreasing as LOI rises.

By the upper limit of this section the average salinity tolerance of the diatom species

present has fallen greatly as fresh to brackish/marine species now dominate where

marine/brackish and marine species previously did. The emergence of epontic and

benthic species in place of euplanktonic and tychoplanktonic species suggests that the

environment is now a lot calmer perhaps due to the emergence of a barrier or the

increasing emergence of the area due to sedimentation.

The pattern of sediment accretion is perhaps the most revealing factor with regard to

the whole transition. It appears that depositional energy steadily increases from the

top of section 2 in to section 3 and continues to do so. This may well be due to on

going sea level rise on a scale smaller than that which initially formed the estuary.

The site of the terrestrial core sees a progression from clay to silt then coarse silt,

sandy silt, silty sand and then sand. Such a pattern is at odds with the classic upward

fining of an infilling basin. The pattern is then further confused by a reduced energy

deposit of clay with silt. This is topped by another sand intrusion which is then

covered by clay and eventually clay with peat and some shell fragments. These bands

of sediment are all thin signifying a rapidly changing environment in the estuary.

Given that the environment up core appears to be lagoonal it is probable that on going

sea level rise and the wave dominated regime of Americas Pacific coast resulted in

greater substrate delivery to the forming barrier (Roy et al 1994) which eventually

closed at around 466cm down core before briefly opening and then closing again.

82
The evidence from the upper part of this section suggests a calmer, less marine

influenced and more organic environment. The environment appears to become more

so in section 3. It may be the case that rather than being fully closed in section 2 the

observed effects are instead due to the increasingly restricted exchange of water with

the ocean and the estuary. It may also be the case that once the barrier closed there

was a time lag before stable lagoonal conditions were reached. However, either way,

it is clear that section three represents a distinctly lagoonal environment. The

contemporary diatom assemblages provided no good modern analogues for the

various zones of section 2. It seems likely that the environment changed rapidly from

sand/mud flat to emerging marsh before becoming submerged in lagoon water in

section tree.

Closed barrier lagoon

Here brackish and fresh/ brackish diatoms dominate the assemblage. This suggests

that the area is now submerged in brackish lagoon water as the freshening trend from

the previous section has been replaced by a central trend in terms of species salinity

tolerance. This is most likely due to a closed barrier impeding the departure of fresh

fluvial water whilst allowing mixing with ocean water which percolates rather than

flows through the closed barrier. The lagoon water level will match that of the new

higher sea level which contributed to the barrier closure. Instead of reflecting the

previous balance between in puts of two sources the site of the terrestrial core now

appears to be firmly brackish. The closer proximity to the fluvial input is possibly

reflected by the high proportion of fresh/brackish diatoms but that aside a similar

environment is likely to be present throughout the newly formed lagoon.

83
The protected lagoon waters see an increase in deposited fines which are no longer

delivered to the ocean. An increase in biological productivity is also reflected by peat,

organic matter and Substantia humosa stains in the deposited silts and clays. However

it would appear that soon after lagoonal conditions are established continuing sea

level rise instigates further environmental change. Towards the upper limit of the

lagoonal section an imminent change is indicated. Average salinity begins to rise as

fresh water diatoms all but disappear and LOI suddenly falls suggesting productivity

is reduced. This trend is confirmed by the diatom life form data which shows the

initial dominance of benthic and epontic species waning as euplanktonic and

particularly tychoplanktonic species begin to grow in number. It appears that the

barrier is gradually degrading or being drowned.

Sea level rise seems to be the most likely causal factor due to the gradual transition

observed. A tectonic or storm driven barrier breach would instigate an immediate

change. This conclusion is supported by the correlation of this core section with a

cluster of contemporary environments. The cluster (PMDC 19 and 20) is

representative of marsh vegetation under lagoonal water. The data points in the core

section correlate more closely up core with the more deeply submerged contemporary

sample which suggests that the past environment was under deepening lagoon water.

As this suggested past environment is well supported by all of the data sources it can

be tentatively suggested that during sections 1 and 2 the location of the terrestrial core

significantly in filled with sediment to a point in section three where despite rising sea

level it was only shallowly submerged by lagoon water.

84
Sea level rise and barrier breach

The bottom of section four of the terrestrial core appears be from the same time period

as the bottom of the marine core. This can be quickly demonstrated by looking at the

shapes of the diatom salinity tolerance curves which clearly match well above these

points. Marine core section one (MC1) is similar in many respects to the upper most

diatom count in section 3 of the terrestrial count (TC3) in terms of diatom life form

and salinity tolerance. However the brackish contingent is notably smaller and the

marine population higher suggesting that sea level has risen further or had a greater

effect at this location. MC1 is probably best described in terms of what comes above

it in the core. The clay of MC1 is replaced by sandy silty clay which fines upwards. In

MC2 tychoplanktonic diatoms become more significant while benthic and epontic

diatoms dominate but to a decreasing extent while the sizeable population of

euplanktonic species drops to a lower level. Overall salinity initially increases and

marine/brackish and marine diatoms dominate the assemblage. LOI began low and

remained so. In the context of the lagoonal environment which had previously existed

in the terrestrial core this change would appear to be driven by a sea level rise or pulse

which has breached the barrier significantly and created a barrier estuary with higher

energy, more saline and more stressed conditions. The location of the marine core at

this point displays characteristics of an estuarine sand or mud flat. Unfortunately the

contemporary diatom assemblages were not able to help pass comment on this series

of past environments.

It would appear that the site of the terrestrial core was affected similarly by this

suggested sea level rise. TC4 as the lagoonal traits of TC3 continue their transition.

The relative influence of benthic and epontic diatoms falls as tychoplanktonic

populations become significant and euplanktonic numbers increase. Marine/brackish

85
diatoms overwhelmingly dominate while fresh numbers recover and fresh/brackish

diatoms remain significant, marine populations stay low. This strong representation of

the fresher end of the scale is likely due to the more terrestrial location closer to the

fluvial and further from the marine input. The sediments in this section are mainly silt

and clay with some fine sand again reflecting the more terrestrial and lower energy

environment than that of the marine core. It is likely that this site was a tidal estuarine

mud flat. Again contemporary diatom assemblages were of little use in classifying the

environments of either core.

Closing barrier estuary

TC5 and MC3 appear to represent almost the opposite of the sections below them in

their respective cores. A transition from an open barrier estuary toward a more closed

lagoonal environment is evident in both. And both sections are topped by lagoonal

sediments.

TC5 and MC3 both see benthic and epontic diatoms re-establish firm dominance

while the other life forms only persist in very small numbers suggesting a calmer

environment. LOI remains largely unchanged in MC3 but shows an increase in TC5

while overall salinity decreases slightly in both. TC5 sees the decline in

marine/brackish species continue as the other brackish groups become more important

whereas MC3 sees a switch in dominance from marine/brackish to brackish/marine.

Although both cores represent the change slightly differently due to their respective

locations it seems that marine input to the estuary is gradually becoming more

impeded. MC3 is entirely represented by silty clay which fines upwards suggesting

energy level are being reduced, either due to the increasing protection of a closing

barrier or due to sediment infill. TC5 is also composed of one sediment type,

86
indistinctly laminated silty clay with an increasing organic component towards the

top. MC3 appears to be an increasingly protected or emergent tidal mud flat in a

barrier estuary. However it may well have been a tidal channel bed as suggested by

correlations with contemporary diatom assemblages. It seems likely that TC5, due to

strong correlations with contemporary diatom assemblages was an emergent mud flat

which became vegetated marsh during this section. A vegetated marsh environment is

also supported by the rise in LOI.

Re-established closed barrier lagoon

This stage dominates the upper two thirds of the marine core and the top quarter of the

terrestrial core. Zones TC6, MC4 and MC6 are all indicative of this type of

environment leading up to the modern environments found at both core sites today.

The environment at the marine core site is however briefly interrupted by a significant

marine input event, MC5, which will be discussed later.

TC6, MC4 and MC6 all seem to represent an environmental progression from the

closing barrier estuary period found below. It appears that the barrier is again

predominantly closed creating brackish lagoonal conditions across the study site.

Brackish diatoms dominate all three sections with fresh/brackish diatoms becoming

slightly more numerous up core. The extreme tolerance groups of fresh and marine

diatoms are poorly represented suggesting both sites were submerged in a well mixed

body of fluvial and ocean water. There are fluctuations in the data regarding these

sections of core however the overall pattern is clear.

Benthic and epontic diatoms dominate these sections suggesting a sheltered and calm

lagoonal environment. Other life forms are noted in the lower reaches of MC4 as the

transition from MC3 is concluded. Brown clays and silts with organic matter make up

87
the three sections implying a low energy environment becoming terrestrialised by

encroaching vegetation. The organic matter increases up core. MC6 and

predominantly MC4 feature some sand intrusions which are likely to be small scale

wash over events which have not affected the overall environment at the site. LOI

remains at a relatively consistent and moderate level in these sections with an overall

gradual rise towards the top. Salinity levels are low throughout.

The sections from both the marine and terrestrial cores correlated well with the

contemporary environment cluster PMCD 19 and 20. These environments are

indicative of marsh vegetation submerged in lagoon water. Some similarities were

also apparent with lagoonal mud and surface marsh vegetation. In light of all of the

evidence it seems safe to suggest that during these sections of core the study sites

were submerged in the well mixed brackish water of a protected barrier lagoon.

In-wash event

MC5 appears to be a staggered marine in-wash event which has a large impact on the

site of the marine core but does not greatly affect the terrestrial core record. As the

lagoon environment persists after MC5 and is not periodically effected in the

terrestrial core it seems apparent that this was an in-wash rather than a breaching

event. The event is represented by an initial increase in marine/brackish and marine

diatoms while the less salt tolerant groups decline. Tychoplanktonic and euplanktonic

life forms increased as benthic and epontic became less dominant. A major marine

and euplanktonic/tychoplanktonic spike followed accompanied by a band of coarse

sand and a salinity peak.

For the diatom assemblages to change before the major sand intrusion, or indeed any

sand intrusion at the marine end of the marsh, a mechanism for increasing ocean water

88
input with out wash over is required. As MC5 is a sizeable section the event in

question is unlikely to be a large storm. It would seem sensible to suggest that a

continuing gradual sea level rise increased the infusion of marine water through the

barrier for a period before the main marine spike occurred. A rising sea level would

have left the barrier vulnerable in any storm events. The significant increase in

tychoplanktonic life forms before and during the marine spike suggests a stormy

period. With sea level high a major wash over event, probably associated with a sea

storm, appears to have occurred affecting the site of the marine core. The site then

quickly reverted back to lagoonal conditions in terms of sediment, salinity, LOI,

diatom life forms and salinity tolerances after a brief period of brackish to

brackish/marine conditions. It appears that the storm had served to re align the barrier

without a major breach and off set sea level rise as illustrated by Cooper (1994).

Re-alignment of the barrier without breach allows for the swift and localised impacts

recorded at the marine core site in close proximity to the modern barrier. With

lagoonal conditions surviving the impact of the in-wash has been dispersed causing

little impact in the farther reaches of the lagoon. There is a noticeable rise in salinity

in the middle of TC6 which could be associated with the in-wash event however it is

clear that no major effects of the in-wash were felt this far in land.

The modern marsh

Both MC7 and TC7 are peat sections representative of the modern marsh conditions

found in the barrier estuary which persists at Pescadero Marsh today. A freshening in

terms of salinity and salinity tolerance of diatom species is apparent with brackish to

fresh/brackish diatoms now dominating in the marine core and brackish to fresh

diatoms dominating in the terrestrial core. Benthic and epontic diatoms dominate both

89
sections. The significant number of tychoplanktonic diatoms in MC7 along with the

low number of fresh diatoms demonstrates the spatial variation between the two

modern environments. The environment at the marine core site is still affected to

some extent by marine input and disturbance while the terrestrial core site appears to

be largely unaffected by the ocean. The lagoonal conditions which gave both sites a

similar environment are now gone. It seems likely that a prolonged period of such

conditions has led to sediment infill behind the barrier and the emergence of marsh

above the water level. The opening of the barrier has not resulted in more marine

conditions. Therefore the most recent opening was probably down to fluvial drainage

rather than ocean intrusion. The estuary seems to be at an advanced stage in the text

book evolution of the Lucke model (1934) with much of the drowned valley now

terrestrialised again.

Salinity is now at or around its lowest level for both sites while loss on ignition

approaches a high. The modern environments appear to be emergent fluvial marsh.

The terrestrial core site displays close similarities with PMCD 13, an area of densely

vegetated and rather dry marsh surface. Similarities between PMCD 13 and MC7 also

exist as do similarities with PMCD 5 a wetter muddier peaty area of exposed marsh

vegetation. This is in keeping with the more seaward location along the Pescadero

Marsh environmental suite.

8.3. X-ray fluorescence discussion:

The major associations between the elements measured by XRF have already been

stated to aid description of the down core charts. A combination of positive and

negative associations between specific elements (shown in the correlation matrices

Figure 14) allowed groups of minerogenic indicators, K, Ti, Si and Zr, and a group of

90
organic indicators, S, Cl and Br, to be recognised. K, Ti and Na (which is not

measured by The University of Liverpool equipment) are firmly established as

minerogenic/terrigenous indicators (Mackareth 1966, Wedepohl 1970, Engstrom &

Wright 1984). These elements provided a solid basis for the groupings. Visible

correlations between the organic indicators and down core loss on ignition supported

this grouping as did negative correlations with K and Ti. Another prominent

association in the data set is that of Fe and Mn which is consistently high between

both sites. However this correlation is a depositional association rather than an

environmental indicator.

Some initial observations from the data set can be made. The zonation of the organic

indicators was so pronounced in the terrestrial core that patterns displayed by these

elements were used to zone all of the other elements present. However zonation using

the organic indicators left the marine core, which could easily have been divided into

more zones still, looking very busy. The trend here appeared to be that a coherent

trend was absent due to interchanging input from marine and terrestrial sources. This

is demonstrated by the Si/K ratio (figure 20) which rises and falls very frequently. Si

becomes more strongly associated with the mineral fraction in the marine core as

evidenced by the correlation matrices (figure 14).

Si and K can respectively indicate marine and terrestrial sediment sources when Si

becomes more important in the marine core it is likely that this represents an

increased marine input. Therefore this ratio could be considered to imply a change in

the source of input from land to sea. Assuming that this is the case the geochemical

data from the marine core becomes difficult to interpret as it responds so frequently to

such changes rather than those within the catchment. The XRF data from the

terrestrial core was considered preferentially to that of the marine core as it appeared

91
to reflect a more coherent trend of terrestrial sedimentation patterns which would

reveal more about catchment erosion while still having the capacity to reveal

significant marine events. A marine versus terrestrial record like that shown by the

marine core had already been satisfactorily established using the diatom data.

Using the Si/K ratio as a marine versus terrestrial input indicator it appears that the

terrestrial core became more marine influenced during lagoonal periods. This was at

odds with the diatom data. The Si/K curve for the marine core showed a similar

pattern to the organic indicating element curves by bulging during lagoonal periods.

During these periods fluvial sand would be trapped and deposited in the lagoon rather

than the ocean. This explains why these periods could be interpreted as more marine

from the Si/K curve as the marine indicator in this relationship is sand which can

equally be of terrestrial origin.

Section 1 of the terrestrial core XRF results covers roughly the same section of the

core as section 1 of the diatom and stratigraphy data. Here a gradual increase in the

organic indicator curves is matched by a gradual decrease in the minerogenic

indicators. This is in keeping with the suggested slowly ameliorating environment of

an open estuary gradually becoming more protected from the ocean. During this

period conditions for in situ organic production appear to have steadily improved.

Section 2 from the diatom and stratigraphy based data set runs from the top of section

A into section B of the terrestrial core XRF charts. The suggested rapid environmental

change resulting in a close lagoonal environment is supported by initial fluctuations in

both the organic and minerogenic indicators before the organics rise rapidly mirrored

by a minerogenic fall. Section 3, the first suggested closed lagoonal period, extends

up core in to the lower reaches of section C here the reverse is true. A bulge in the

organic curves initially persists before rapidly declining at the top of section 3 as the

92
mineral indicators quickly recover. It appears that following closure of the barrier

considerably more organic matter was preserved in the sediment relative to mineral

matter. This is in keeping with the protected lagoonal environment envisaged.

The barrier was then suggested to be breached, possibly due to a continued sea level

rise. Section 4 covers the majority of XRF section C. This part of the core is very

similar to section A in terms of slowly rising organic indicators and falling mineral

elements which again supports the suggested environment of an increasingly more

protected estuary. A more pronounced rise in the organic indicators throughout

section D while the minerogenic indicating elements decline supports the

interpretation that sections 5 and 6 represent a closing barrier estuary and a second

closed lagoonal period. With the organic bulge in section 6 being similar to that of

section B. However there is a disturbance to the pattern of the organic indicators

mirroring the mineral indicators in this section with Ti beginning to increase at around

150cm in depth while levels of the other elements in the minerogenic group continue

to fall.

There is no strict boundary drawn between section 6 and the upper section of the

terrestrial core, number 7, as the emergence of the modern marsh is likely to have

been a gradual process however section E of the XRF data roughly corresponds to this

period. In this section the minerogenic indicating elements with the exception of Zr

increase while the organic elements decrease except for LOI which seemingly

perversely remains high. This will be discussed in greater detail later.

The striking initial observation from the zoned terrestrial graphs was that the organic

indicators all rose to significantly higher levels in zones 2 and 4 which directly

corresponded to periods of brackish diatom dominance. These core sections were

thought to be representing lagoonal environments. This data was strongly in keeping

93
with that of the other techniques. These sections were suggested to represent sheltered

calm periods, by diatom life form data, which would likely have supported increases

in the production of organic matter. These sections also corresponded to increases in

the Si/K ratio of the terrestrial core (Figure 19). An increase in the silica proportion

accompanying that of the organic indicators is likely to be due to an increase in

diatom productivity as diatoms are silica based life forms. This would further support

the interpretation of these periods as protected lagoonal environments.

The zonation of the minerogenic indicators is not as obvious as that of the organic

indicators but the pattern is still clear. Though the rises and falls are not as

pronounced the minerogenic indicators almost mirror the curves of the organic

indicators. This also supports the pattern of evolution interpreted from the other data

sources with the minerogenic/organic shifts seemingly confirming changes from

sand/mud flat to emerging marsh/lagoon environments. The only real deviation to this

pattern comes in the top zone of the core, section 5.

Here the pattern is confused Ti clearly rises as Zr falls, K and Si fluctuate wildly but

exhibit an overall rise and fall respectively. The organic fraction all appears to fall in

this section except LOI which whilst fluctuating remains higher than it was in section

4. The organic indicators would be expected to remain high as this section of core was

suggested to be emergent vegetated marsh but only LOI follows this pattern. It

appears contradictory that LOI should remain high as the organic indicators fall. This

could be explained by a significant rise in the minerogenic indicators which would

make it appear as though the organic indicators were decreasing when no actual

change was taking place.

The trend observed in section 5 is likely to reflect an increase in catchment erosion

caused by the arrival of a Euro-American population and their land use, agriculture

94
and industrial practices (Mayers 2001). One further piece of supporting evidence can

be taken from the XRF out put for Pb. The output for this element was deemed of

insufficient quality to be used for further analysis however it was still plotted

graphically and revealed a particularly large lead spike in the top 50cm of the core an

order of magnitude larger than anything seen in this rest of the core. This is highly

likely to be connected with the development of local infrastructure and industry

(Mayers 2001). A Pb spike was also apparent in the top 20cm of the marine core.

Of the minerogenic indicators K correlated best with LOI in the terrestrial core (-0.8 r)

suggesting that it was the best single record of mineral input. The impact of human

activity on soil erosion is well documented in central coastal California. A key

relationship to help distinguish this is that of the K/Ti ratio. Under natural conditions

of erosion the top soil provides the matter which is delivered to water bodies. When

human activity impacts on the landscape the effects of agriculture, mining and land

clearance result in the sub soil being eroded and an increased delivery of Ti to

sediment sinks (Barr 2005).

Such an increase can be identified by comparing the down core K/Ti ratio to the down

core plot of Ti. The relationship between these two curves clearly changes in section 4

of the XRF graphs Ti begins to increase as the K/Ti ratio declines. This indicates an

increase both physically and proportionally to levels of K. The curves begin to

diverge slowly from a depth of around 150cm. This divergence increases in the upper

50cm. A similar pattern is present in the ratio curve from the marine core again

divergence begins at 150cm down core before intensifying at around 75cm. However

at this site there is a convergence in the upper 10cm suggesting a brief and recent

reduction in deep catchment erosion.

95
These patterns do not necessarily connect to the large scale population history of the

area but most likely reflect specific activities in the catchment which have impacted

on erosion patterns. Examples of such events are discussed by Boyle (2006) who

explicitly links the construction of a road and a sluice, dated by aerial photographs, to

changing down core elemental ratios at Schwann Lagoon, central Coastal California.

A detailed history of the construction of infrastructure around Pescadero Marsh could

likely be linked to the XRF data from the upper regions of the studied. This could

potentially provide a loose chronology for the upper section of the cores where the

K/Ti ratio begins to change. An educated guess in light of the known human history

of the wider area would place the beginning of this deviation in the mid to late 1800s

as the Euro-American era began. The construction of Pescadero Creek Road and the

Cabrillo Highway Bridge are two events which would likely have impacted on the

more recent sedimentary record with various locations across the marsh showing

slightly differing affects. Explicitly linking such events to known levels in the

sediment column would allow the calculation of sedimentation rates.

The K and Ti data from the terrestrial core were plotted in a scatter graph with the

data points from the upper 50cm of the core forming a separate series to the rest

(figure 20). The two series do not form clearly different populations representing the

dissimilarity of the top 50cm to the rest of the core. However two different yet

associated populations are observed in the chart. The upper 50cm data points are

found to in the lower right of the main group but still clearly associated with it. This is

due to the fact that at several previous periods down the core the K/Ti ratio has

diverged. This past divergence was not to the same extent of that in the upper 50cm

but serves to indicate that natural forces or pre-Euro American human activity have at

times prompted sub-soil erosion in the earlier part of the late Holocene. While these

96
earlier erosional periods can be clearly identified from the K/Ti ratio chart and the

down core K curve it is apparent that the deep catchment erosion associated with the

human impact period was of a much greater magnitude.

97
Chapter 9: Conclusions

Having considered all of the data available conclusions can be drawn in light of the

original hypotheses. A tentative evolutionary history of Pescadero Marsh was

suggested after considering the results of the diatom assemblages and sediment

stratigraphy. These conclusions were supported by the XRF and LOI data. Various

statistical manipulations of the data available were also supportive. The major features

of this suggested progression are displayed in the table below:

Environment Marine core site Terrestrial core site Forcing factor

In-filled barrier Emergent muddy Emerged fluvial Sediment in-fill
estuary marsh still marsh and terrestrially
significantly forced barrier
Human Impact affected by the tide opening
evident
In-wash event As below but Marsh vegetation Continuing gradual
periodically more submerged in sea level rise and
saline and subject lagoon water / potential storm.
to sand in-wash emergent marsh Possible slight
vegetation barrier realignment
Closed barrier Marsh vegetation Marsh vegetation Barrier closure
lagoon submerged in submerged in
lagoon water / lagoon water /
Human impact lagoonal mud emergent marsh
evident at top vegetation
Closing barrier Increasingly Emergent tidal mud Sediment delivery
estuary protected emergent flat becoming to the barrier, in-fill
tidal mud flat vegetated marsh of accommodation
space and stable
sea level
Barrier breach Tidal estuarine Tidal estuarine Sea level rise
sand/mud flat mud flat
Closed barrier Vegetated marsh Closing of barrier
lagoon submerged in
lagoon water
Major closing Tidal sand/mud flat Gradual sea level
events and emerging rise and increased
marsh sediment delivery
to the valley mouth
Drowned valley / Tidal mud/sand flat Valley previously
open estuary drowned by large
scale sea level rise

Figure 21: summary table of environmental progression conclusions.

98
It should be clearly stated that this progression is not believed to be a definitive

account of the evolution of Pescadero Marsh. The successive stages listed are merely

suggestions of past environments which could be represented by the data from both

cores and appear to fit a logical progression in keeping with known estuarine

evolutionary trends.

Definitive conclusions can be made with respect to the original hypotheses. The main

hypotheses were all supported:

(1) A record of gradual terrestrialisation was recorded in the sediment retrieved

from Pescadero Marsh. A transition from an open estuarine environment to a

protected marsh has taken place.

(2) While the overall pattern was one of terrestrialisation the transition was not a

text book progression as factors such as sea level rise and barrier status

complicated the series of environmental change at times causing environments

to become progressively more marine influenced.

(3) Near surface changes in sediment geochemistry revealed a period of human

impact which had affected patterns of erosion in the Pescadero Creek

catchment.

It appears that Pescadero Marsh is now relatively close to achieving full

terrestrialisation as in the Lucke model (1934). However with the most

detrimental period of human activity now seemingly over in central coastal

California, in terms of increased catchment erosion, (Mayers 2001) and the host of

natural factors liable to cause a land ward marine transgression, with particular

regard given to Pescadero Marshs potentially perilous tectonic location, the future

evolution of the site is still uncertain.

99
Chapter 10: Further work

10.1. A more holistic and higher resolution approach

As is generally the case, on finishing a project a number of ways to improve the

completed work become apparent. These improvements are discussed below:

Time allowing LOI testing would preferentially be undertaken at two temperatures

rather than simply at 4500C. The implicit assumption that LOI weight changes reflect

the organic component is not strictly true as many commonly occurring environmental

materials change their weight when heated, due to a combination of dehydration,

oxidation or degassing (Boyle 2004). LOI can be measured at 3500C and again from

350-5500C. These two oven temperatures can be applied were there is a lack of prior

knowledge about the thermal properties of the material studied. They roughly

represent the upper limits of two broad thermal steps discussed by Boyle (2004). LOI

at 3500C can under represent the organic component by excluding more humified

matter where as LOI at 5500C may over represent the organic component due to

mineral dewatering. A comparison of both results would allow the selection of the

more appropriate temperature applicable to sediment with the composition of that

found beneath Pescadero Marsh. LOI is often regarded as a crude estimation

technique however it can be both accurate and precise if sufficient care is taken.

In order to more rigidly identify the onset of non indigenous human activity in the

Pescadero Creek catchment it could have been possible to identify exotic pollen

marker species in the core known to have arrived in this part of California at

reasonably well constrained dates. Species and years are quoted in Mudie and Byrne

(1980) from studies either side of Pescadero Lagoon along the Pacific Coast. Rumex,

100
Plantago, Eucalyptus, Acacia and Pinus are all possible markers for various stages of

the human impact period however species utilised would depend on presence.

Eucalyptus was successfully used for this purpose by Plater et al. (2006) at Pinto Lake

in the Monterey Bay area. If the arrival of a species is identified in the core then a

rough sedimentation rate may be calculated. It is also possible given sufficient

funding that earlier sedimentation rates could calculated by established by radio

carbon dating horizons of saltmarsh sediments. These rates could be compared to

those derived from pollen markers and even extrapolated into the future to comment

on the potential life span of Pescadero Marsh before it becomes completely

terrestrialised. Although full terrestrialisation may yet be averted due to the impact of

natural forces i.e. sea level rise or tectonic subsidence.

The need for expensive radio carbon dating could be eradicated by utilising dates

from previous University of Liverpool projects on the same site. These salt marsh

horizons could be correlated with those found in the two cores used in this study. Had

time allowed, the levelling data collected along with the detailed sediment description

recorded should have allowed associations to be made. Again if time had allowed it,

full grain size analysis of both cores would have aided the study greatly. Providing a

higher resolution record of depositional energy at each site than that recorded in the

Troel-Smith sediment description.

The salinity index figures calculated from the diatom species salinity tolerances were

entirely arbitrary. They were useful to demonstrate the proportion of marine influence

down core but did not comment on the actual salinity of the past environments. Using

the same transfer function but with averaged chlorine figures for each tolerance group,

instead of a salinity rank from 1 to 7, would have generated real environmental

parameters. Environmental chlorine figures for each group proved elusive until the

101
final stages of the project when the arbitrary salinity index figures had been fully

analysed. Any future work of this nature would utilise these data.

To fully complete desired the data set from the study site higher resolution XRF

testing could have revealed more about the natural sedimentation conditions of the

site and the effects of the human impact period. The terrestrial core would have been

the better candidate for such testing as the record of terrestrial sediment delivery

revealed here was less impacted by marine events.

10.2. Effects of deviating human histories: Baja versus Alta California

Figure 22: Map from 1847 showing Old/Baja and New/Alta California.

With a full data set compiled, as described above, a relatively accurate impression of

processes within the marsh catchment during different periods of human habitation

could be constructed. Further research of a similar nature could be conducted in

Mexican California, or Baja California as it is more commonly known. A comparison

of the differing effects of human impact on estuarine environments in Alta

102
(American) and Baja California would be of interest due to the well documented

deviation in human population histories following the end of the Mexican-American

war in 1848 (Mayers 2001). With two similar environments in close proximity the

impacts of differing human histories should be clearly expressed in the sedimentary

record.

103
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