Counterpoint

In music, counterpoint is the relationship between voices that are harmonically

interdependent (polyphony) yet independent in rhythm and contour.[1] It has been
most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing
during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, especially in
the Baroque. The term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning
"point against point".

Contents
1 General principles

2 Development

3 Species counterpoint

3.1 Considerations for all species

3.2 First species

3.3 Second species

3.4 Third species

3.5 Fourth species

3.6 Fifth species (florid counterpoint)

4 Contrapuntal derivations

5 Free counterpoint

6 Linear counterpoint

7 Dissonant counterpoint

8 See also

9 References

10 Further reading

11 External links

General principles
Counterpoint generally involves musical lines with strongly independent identities.
[citation needed] Counterpoint has been used to designate a voice or even an entire
composition.[2] In each era, contrapuntally organized music writing has been
subject to rulessometimes strict ones. Chords are the simultaneous soundings of
notes; whereas harmonic, "vertical" features are considered secondary and almost
incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element.[citation needed]
Counterpoint focuses on melodic interactiononly secondarily on the harmonies
produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn:

It is hard to write a beautiful song. It is harder to write several individually beautiful

songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole.
The internal structures that create each of the voices separately must contribute to
the emergent structure of the polyphony, which in turn must reinforce and comment
on the structures of the individual voices. The way that is accomplished in detail
is ... 'counterpoint'.[3]

Development

Some examples of related compositional techniques include: the round (familiar in

folk traditions), the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention:
the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint.

Species counterpoint

Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other
types of counterpoint and therefore is called a "strict" counterpoint. Species
counterpoint was developed as a pedagogical tool in which students progress
through several "species" of increasing complexity, with a very simple part that
remains constant known as the cantus firmus (Latin for "fixed melody"). The student
gradually attains the ability to write free counterpoint (that is, less rigorously
constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the given
rules at the time.[4] The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria
Lanfranco described a similar concept in his Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533). The
16th-century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on the idea in his influential Le
institutioni harmoniche, and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by
Lodovico Zacconi in his Prattica di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a
few extra contrapuntal techniques, such as invertible counterpoint.
In 1725 Johann Joseph Fux published Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps to Parnassus), in
which he described five species:

Note against note;

Two notes against one;

Four (modified by others to include three, six, etc.) notes against one;

Notes offset against each other (as suspensions);

All the first four species together, as "florid" counterpoint.

A succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fux's seminal work, often with
some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules.

Considerations for all species[edit]

The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part:

The final must be approached by step. If the final is approached from below, then
the leading tone must be raised in a minor key (Dorian, Hypodorian, Aeolian,
Hypoaeolian), but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode
on D, a C is necessary at the cadence.[5]

Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the
major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The
ascending minor sixth must be immediately followed by motion downwards.

If writing two skips in the same directionsomething that must be only rarely done
the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and
the third note may not be dissonant. The three notes should be from the same triad;
if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do
not write more than two skips in the same direction.

If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in
the other direction.

The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided (for example, an

ascending melodic motion FAB)[citation needed] as is the interval of a seventh in
three notes.
There must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This
usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong
beat.

An outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same

direction.

And, in all species, the following rules govern the combination of the parts:

The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance.

Contrary motion should predominate.

Perfect consonances must be approached by oblique or contrary motion.

Imperfect consonances may be approached by any type of motion.

The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between two adjacent parts unless
by necessity.

Build from the bass, upward.

First species[edit]

In first species counterpoint, each note in every added part (parts being also
referred to as lines or voices) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus. Notes in
all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously.
Since all notes in First species counterpoint are whole notes, rhythmic independence
is not available.[6]

In the present context, a "step" is a melodic interval of a half or whole step. A "skip"
is an interval of a third or fourth. (See Steps and skips.) An interval of a fifth or
larger is referred to as a "leap".

A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given
in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues,[citation needed] are as follows.

Begin and end on either the unison, octave, or fifth, unless the added part is
underneath, in which case begin and end only on unison or octave.

Use no unisons except at the beginning or end.

Avoid parallel fifths or octaves between any two parts; and avoid "hidden" parallel
fifths or octaves: that is, movement by similar motion to a perfect fifth or octave,
unless one part (sometimes restricted to the higher of the parts) moves by step.

Avoid moving in parallel fourths. (In practice Palestrina and others frequently
allowed themselves such progressions, especially if they do not involve the lowest
of the parts.)

Avoid moving in parallel thirds or sixths for very long.

Attempt to keep any two adjacent parts within a tenth of each other, unless an
exceptionally pleasing line can be written by moving outside of that range.

Avoid having any two parts move in the same direction by skip

Attempt to have as much contrary motion as possible.

Avoid dissonant intervals between any two parts: major or minor second, major or
minor seventh, any augmented or diminished interval, and perfect fourth (in many
contexts).

In the following example in two parts, the cantus firmus is the lower part. (The same
cantus firmus is used for later examples also. Each is in the Dorian mode.)

Short example of "First Species" counterpoint (About this sound play MIDI
(helpinfo))

Second species[edit]

In second species counterpoint, two notes in each of the added parts work against
each longer note in the given part.

Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in

addition to the considerations for first species:

It is permissible to begin on an upbeat, leaving a half-rest in the added voice.

The accented beat must have only consonance (perfect or imperfect). The
unaccented beat may have dissonance, but only as a passing tone, i.e. it must be
approached and left by step in the same direction.
Avoid the interval of the unison except at the beginning or end of the example,
except that it may occur on the unaccented portion of the bar.

Use caution with successive accented perfect fifths or octaves. They must not be
used as part of a sequential pattern.

Short example of "Second Species" counterpoint (About this sound play MIDI
(helpinfo))

Third species[edit]

In third species counterpoint, four (or three, etc.) notes move against each longer
note in the given part.

Short example of "Third Species" counterpoint (About this sound play MIDI
(helpinfo))

Three special figures are introduced into third species and later added to fifth
species, and ultimately outside of the restrictions of species writing. There are three
figures to consider: The nota cambiata, double neighbor tones, and double passing
tones. Double neighbor tones: the figure is prolonged over four beats and allows
special dissonances. The upper and lower tones are prepared on beat 1 and
resolved on beat 4. The fifth note or downbeat of the next measure should move by
step in the same direction as the last two notes of the double neighbor figure. Lastly
a double passing tone allows two dissonant passing tones in a row. The figure would
consist of 4 notes moving in the same direction by step. The two notes that allow
dissonance would be beat 2 and 3 or 3 and 4. The dissonant interval of a fourth
would proceed into a diminished fifth and the next note would resolve at the interval
of a sixth.[7]

This is an example of a double passing tone in which the two middle notes are a
dissonant interval from the cantus firmus. A fourth and a diminished fifth.

This is an example of a descending double neighbor figure against a cantus firmus.

This is an example of an ascending double neighbor figure against a cantus firmus.

Fourth species[edit]

In fourth species counterpoint, some notes are sustained or suspended in an added

part while notes move against them in the given part, often creating a dissonance
on the beat, followed by the suspended note then changing (and "catching up") to
create a subsequent consonance with the note in the given part as it continues to
sound. As before, fourth species counterpoint is called expanded when the added-
part notes vary in length among themselves. The technique requires chains of notes
sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates syncopation.
Also it is important to note that a dissonant interval is allowed on beat 1 because of
the syncopation created by the suspension.

Short example of "Fourth Species" counterpoint (About this sound play MIDI
(helpinfo))

Fifth species (florid counterpoint)[edit]

In fifth species counterpoint, sometimes called florid counterpoint, the other four
species of counterpoint are combined within the added parts. In the example, the
first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, the fourth
and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species, and the final bar is first
species.

Short example of "Florid" counterpoint (About this sound play MIDI (helpinfo))

Contrapuntal derivations[edit]

Since the Renaissance period in European music, much contrapuntal music has
been written in imitative counterpoint. In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices
enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some
version of the same melodic element. The fantasia, the ricercar, and later, the
canon and fugue (the contrapuntal form par excellence) all feature imitative
counterpoint, which also frequently appears in choral works such as motets and
madrigals. Imitative counterpoint spawned a number of devices that composers use
to give their works both mathematical rigor and expressive range.[citation needed]
These devices include:
Melodic inversion

The inverse of a given fragment of melody is the fragment turned upside downso
if the original fragment has a rising major third (see interval), the inverted fragment
has a falling major (or perhaps minor) third, etc. (Compare, in twelve tone
technique, the inversion of the tone row, which is the so-called prime series turned
upside down.) (Note: in invertible counterpoint, including double and triple
counterpoint, the term inversion is used in a different sense altogether. At least one
pair of parts is switched, so that the one that was higher becomes lower. See
Inversion in counterpoint; it is not a kind of imitation, but a rearrangement of the
parts.)

Retrograde

Whereby an imitative voice sounds the melody backwards in relation the leading
voice.

Retrograde inversion

Where the imitative voice sounds the melody backwards and upside-down at once.

Augmentation

When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are extended in
duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.

Diminution

When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are reduced in
duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.

Free counterpoint[edit]

See also: Free Composition

From a historical perspective, the didactic strict counterpoint was used for musical
training purposes from the Renaissance to the present day, but was never employed
in practice.[citation needed] Broadly speaking, due to the development of harmony,
from the Baroque period on, most contrapuntal compositions were written in the
style of free counterpoint. This means that the general focus of the composer had
shifted away from how the intervals of added melodies related to a cantus firmus,
and more toward how they related to each other.

Nonetheless, according to Kent Kennan: "....actual teaching in that fashion (free

counterpoint) did not become widespread until the late nineteenth century."[8]
Young composers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, such as Mozart,
Beethoven, and Schumann, were still educated in the style of "strict" counterpoint,
but in practice, they would look for ways to expand on the traditional concepts of
the subject.

Main features of free counterpoint:

All forbidden chords, such as second-inversion, seventh, ninth etc., can be used
freely in principle of harmony[clarification needed]

Chromaticism is allowed

The restrictions about rhythmic-placement of dissonance are removed. It is possible

to use passing tones on the accented beat

Appoggiatura is available: dissonance tones can be approached by leaps.

Linear counterpoint[edit]

Linear counterpoint from Stravinsky's Octet[9] About this sound Play (helpinfo).
Note the C major ostinato and frequent dissonances and accidentals, including F.

Linear counterpoint is "a purely horizontal technique in which the integrity of the
individual melodic lines is not sacrificed to harmonic considerations. "Its distinctive
feature is rather the concept of melody, which served as the starting-point for the
adherents of the new objectivity when they set up linear counterpoint as an anti-
type to the Romantic harmony." [10] The voice parts move freely, irrespective of the
effects their combined motions may create."[9] In other words, either "the
domination of the horizontal (linear) aspects over the vertical"[11] is featured or the
"harmonic control of lines is rejected."[12]

Associated with neoclassicism,[11] the first work to use the technique is

Stravinsky's Octet (1923),[9] inspired by Bach and Palestrina. However, according to
Knud Jeppesen: "Bach's and Palestrina's points of departure are antipodal. Palestrina
starts out from lines and arrives at chords; Bach's music grows out of an ideally
harmonic background, against which the voices develop with a bold independence
that is often breath-taking."[9]

According to Cunningham, linear harmony is "a frequent approach in the 20th-

century...[in which lines] are combined with almost careless abandon in the hopes
that new 'chords' and 'progressions,'...will result." It is possible with "any kind of
line, diatonic or duodecuple."[12]

Dissonant counterpoint[edit]

Dissonant counterpoint was originally theorized by Charles Seeger as "at first purely
a school-room discipline," consisting of species counterpoint but with all the
traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint must be all dissonances,
establishing "dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule," and consonances
are "resolved" through a skip, not step. He wrote that "the effect of this discipline"
was "one of purification." Other aspects of composition, such as rhythm, could be
"dissonated" by applying the same principle (Charles Seeger, "On Dissonant
Counterpoint," Modern Music 7, no. 4 (JuneJuly 1930): 25-26).

Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to
theorize and promote it. Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if
not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include Ruth Crawford-
Seeger, Carl Ruggles, Henry Cowell, Henry Brant, Dane Rudhyar, Lou Harrison,
Fartein Valen, and Arnold Schoenberg.[13]

See also[edit]

Music portal

Counter-melody

Hauptstimme

Polyphony

Voice leading

References[edit]

Jump up ^ Laitz, Steven G. (2008). The Complete Musician (2 ed.). New York, NY:
Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-19-530108-3.

Jump up ^ Klaus-Jrgen Sachs and Carl Dahlhaus. "Counterpoint." The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
Jump up ^ Rahn, John (2000). Music Inside Out: Going Too Far in Musical Essays.
intro. and comment. by Benjamin Boretz. Amsterdam: G+B Arts International. p.
177. ISBN 90-5701-332-0. OCLC 154331400.

Jump up ^ Jeppesen, Knud (1992) [1939]. Counterpoint: the polyphonic vocal style
of the sixteenth century. trans. by Glen Haydon, with a new foreword by Alfred
Mann. New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-27036-X.

Jump up ^ Felix Salzer and Carl Schachter. Counterpoint in Composition:The Study

of Voice Leading. New York: Stanley Persky, City University of New York. p. [page
needed]. ISBN 023107039X.

Jump up ^ "Species Counterpoint" (PDF). Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Victoria,

Canada. Retrieved 17 January 2015.

Jump up ^ Felix Salzer and Carl Schachter. Counterpoint in Composition:The Study

of Voice Leading. New York: Stanley Persky, City University of New York. p. [page
needed]. ISBN 023107039X.

Jump up ^ Kennan, Kent (1999). Counterpoint (Fourth ed.). Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall. p. 4. ISBN 0-13-080746-X.

^ Jump up to: a b c d Katz, Adele (1946). Challenge to Musical Tradition: A New

Concept of Tonality (New York: A.A. Knopf), p.340. Reprinted New York: Da Capo
Press, 1972; reprinted n.p.: Katz Press, 2007, ISBN 1-4067-5761-6.

Jump up ^ Carl Dahlhaus, "Counterpoint", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London:
Macmillan Publishers, 2001).

^ Jump up to: a b Ulrich, Homer (1962). Music: a Design for Listening, second
edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World), p.438.

^ Jump up to: a b Cunningham, Michael (2007). Technique for Composers, p.144.

ISBN 1-4259-9618-3.

Jump up ^ Spilker, John D., "Substituting a New Order": Dissonant Counterpoint,

Henry Cowell, and the network of ultra-modern composers, Ph.D. dissertation,
Florida State University, 2010.

Further reading[edit]

Kurth, Ernst (1991). "Foundations of Linear Counterpoint". In Ernst Kurth: Selected

Writings, selected and translated by Lee Allen Rothfarb, foreword by Ian Bent,[page
needed]. Cambridge Studies in Music Theory and Analysis 2. Cambridge and New
York: Cambridge University Press. Paperback reprint 2006. ISBN 0-521-35522-2
(cloth); ISBN 0-521-02824-8 (pbk)
Prout, Ebenezer (1890). "Counterpoint: Strict and Free". London, Augener & Co

Spalding, Walter Raymond (1904). "Tonal counterpoint; studies in part-writing".

Boston, New York: A. P. Schmidt.

External links[edit]

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica article

Counterpoint.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica article

Contrapuntal forms.

An Introduction to Species Counterpoint

ntoll.org: Species Counterpoint by Nicholas H. Tollervey

Principles of Counterpoint by Alan Belkin

Orima: The History of Experimental Music in Northern California: On Dissonant

Counterpoint by David Nicholls from his American Experimental Music: 1890-1940

Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary: Dissonant counterpoint examples and

definition

De-Mystifying Tonal Counterpoint or How to Overcome Your Fear of Composing

Counterpoint Exercises by Christopher Dylan Bailey, composer at Columbia
University

Counterpointer:Software tutorial for the study of counterpoint by Jeffrey Evans

"Bach as Contrapuntist" by Dan Brown, music critic from Cornell University, from his
web book Why Bach?

"contrapuntal - a collaborative arts project by Benjamin Skepper"

[show] v t e

Counterpoint and polyphony