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Active filters

Active filters are a distinct family of filters. They take their name from the fact
that, aside from passive components, they also contain active elements such
as transistors or operational amplifiers. Just like passive filters, depending on
the design, they retain or eliminate a specific portion of a signal.

These types of filters are an advantage over passive filters, mainly because
bulky inductors at low frequencies can be avoided and higher quality factors
can be obtained.

Active filters can be implemented with different topologies:

1. Akerberg-Mossberg
2. Biquadratic
3. Dual Amplifier BandPass (DABP)
4. Fliege
5. Multiple feedback
6. Voltage-Controlled Voltage-Source (VCVS) and Sallen/Key
7. State variable
8. Wien

Active filters also come in different varieties:

1. Bessel
2. Butterworth
3. Chebyshev
4. Elliptic or Cauer
5. Gaussian
6. Legendre-Paupolis
7. Butterworth-Thomson or Linear phase
8. Linkwitz-Riley
9. Synchronous
10. Transitional or Paynter

The Butterworth filter has the flattest response. The Elliptic or Cauer filter has
the steepest response. The Linkwitz-Riley filter is often used in audio
applications (crossovers).

Note that Cauer is the name of an active filter but its also the name of a
passive topology. The two are different concepts.

1 www.ice77.net
Sallen/Key topology

The Sallen/Key topology was invented by R. P. Sallen and E. L. Key at MIT


Lincoln Laboratory in 1955.

It is a degenerate form of a Voltage-Controlled Voltage-Source (VCVS) filter


topology. It features an extremely high input impedance (practically infinite)
and an extremely low output impedance (practically zero). These two
characteristics are provided by the op-amp and they are often desired in
circuit design for signal integrity.

The network for the Sallen/Key topology includes an op-amp, often in a buffer
configuration, and a set of resistors and capacitors. The op-amp can
sometimes be substituted by an emitter follower or a source follower circuit
since both circuits produce unity gain. Cascading two or more stages will
produce higher-order filters.

Sallen/Key generic configuration for 0dB gain (unity-gain)

Unlike passive filters, where only one pole is present in the circuit so that the
response drops by 6bB/octave or 20dB/decade at the cutoff frequency, the
Sallen/Key circuit topology has two poles so the response drops by
12bB/octave or 40dB/decade at the cutoff frequency.

Considering two signals with magnitudes A1 and A2, the definitions for octave
and decade are

A 1
20 log10 1 = 20 log10 = 6dB / octave
A2 2
and
A 1
20 log10 1 = 20 log10 = 20dB / decade
A2 10

where octave means twice the magnitude and decade means ten times the
magnitude.

2 www.ice77.net
Low-pass

The low-pass filter blocks high-frequency signals while leaving low-frequency


signals untouched.

C1

-797.3uV
1n

V+ V+ V-

7
R1 R2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V

V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 10k 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V
- OS1

V-
V1 C2 10Vdc
1Vac AD741
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V

4
1n
V- 0 0
0V 0V
-1.575mV
0
0

Sallen/Key low-pass filter


1.0V

(15.910K,500.000m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 15.915kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 10k 10k 1nF 1nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 10k 10k 1nF 1nF


Q= = = 0 .5
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 1nF (10k + 10k )

This circuit is critically damped.

3 www.ice77.net
-0

(16.094K,-6.1371)

-20

-40

(160.941K,-40.508)

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The gain drops to 6dB at 15.915kHz and it decreases by


40dB/decade.

4 www.ice77.net
High-pass

The high-pass filter blocks low-frequency signals while leaving high-frequency


signals untouched.
R1

-778.0uV
10k

V+ V+ V-

7
C1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V

V+
0V -797.3uV + OS2 V2
V
220n 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V
- OS1

V-
V1 R2 10Vdc
1Vac AD741
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V

4
10k
V- 0 0
0V 0V
-778.0uV
0
0

Sallen/Key high-pass filter


1.0V

(72.334,500.000m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz 100MHz
V(C1:1) V(R1:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1mHz to 100MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 72.34 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 10k 10k 220nF 220nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 10k 10k 220nF 220nF


Q= = = 0 .5
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 10k(220nF + 220nF )

This circuit is critically damped.

5 www.ice77.net
-0

(71.969,-6.1226)
-20

-40

(7.2718,-40.000)

-60

-80
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz 100MHz
20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(C1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 100MHz

The gain drops to 6dB at 72Hz and it decreases by


40dB/decade.

6 www.ice77.net
Band-pass

The band-pass filter blocks low and high frequency signals. It peaks at the so-
called center frequency.
R3

-782.6uV -1.565mV
10k

V+ V+ V-

7
R1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V

V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V

V-
R2 - OS1 10Vdc
V1
1Vac C1 AD741 Ra
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V

4
20k
220n V- 10k 0 0
0V
0V
-1.575mV
0 0 0 Rb

20k

Sallen/Key band-pass filter


1.0V

(72.287,1.0000)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is

1 R3 + R1 1 10k + 10k
fc = = = 72.34 Hz
2 C1C 2 R1 R2 R3 2 220nF 220nF 10k 20k 10k

The gains are

Ra 10k G 1.5
G = 1+ = 1+ = 1 + 0 .5 = 1 .5 A= = =1
Rb 20k 3 G 3 1.5

where G is the internal gain and A is the external gain.

The value of G should be below 3 to avoid oscillation.

7 www.ice77.net
The previous is a Sallen/Key circuit as long as the value of Rb is twice the
value of Ra. If A turns out to be more or less than unity, the circuit provides
amplification and becomes a VCVS filter.
R3

-285.5uV -571.0uV
10k

V+ V+ V-

7
R1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V

V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V

V-
R2 - OS1 10Vdc
V1
1Vac C1 AD741 Ra
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V

4
20k
220n V- 1Meg 0 0
0V
0V
-1.575mV
0 0 0 Rb

20k

VCVS band-pass filter I


1.2V
(66.069,1.0625)

0.8V

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

If Ra>>Rb, the frequency response is rather flat.

Ra 1M G 51
G = 1+ = 1+ = 1 + 50 = 51 A= = = 1.06
Rb 20k 3 G 3 51

This circuit will oscillate because G is greater than 3.

Note that the magnitude of the output is 6% higher than the input.

8 www.ice77.net
R3

-748.5uV -1.497mV
10k

V+ V+ V-

7
R1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V

V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V

V-
R2 - OS1 10Vdc
V1
1Vac C1 AD741 Ra
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V

4
20k
220n V- 1k 0 0
0V
0V
-1.575mV
0 0 0 Rb

1Meg

VCVS band-pass filter II


1.0V

(72.287,500.734m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is

1 R3 + R1 1 10k + 10k
fc = = = 72.34 Hz
2 C1C 2 R1 R2 R3 2 220nF 220nF 10k 20k 10k

If Ra<<Rb, the frequency response drops to a gain of at the center


frequency.

Ra 1k G 1
G = 1+ = 1+ = 1+ 0 = 1 A= = = +0.5
Rb 1M 3 G 3 1

The minimum gain attainable by this circuit is 0.5.

Connecting the op-amp in the buffer configuration would produce the same
frequency response.

Note that the magnitude of the output at the center frequency is 50% lower
than the input.

9 www.ice77.net
-0

(72.444,-718.738u)

-20
(1.0000,-33.667)

-40
(100.000m,-53.667)
(10.000K,-39.293)

-60

(100.000K,-59.369)

-80
1.0mHz 10mHz 100mHz 1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Sallen/Key band-pass filter: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is at 72Hz. The magnitude decreases by


20dB/decade to the left and right of the center frequency.

(66.069,526.810m)

-40

-80
1.0mHz 10mHz 100mHz 1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

VCVS band-pass filter I: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz

The response is rather flat.


-0

(72.444,-6.0081)

-20
(1.0000,-37.181)

-40
(100.000m,-57.180)

(10.000K,-42.805)

-60

(100.000K,-62.833)

-80
1.0mHz 10mHz 100mHz 1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

VCVS band-pass filter II: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is at 72Hz with 6dB. The magnitude decreases by


20dB/decade to the left and right of the center frequency.

10 www.ice77.net
Biquadratic topology

The biquadratic topology takes its name from the fact its transfer function is
the ratio of two quadratic functions. It can be implemented in two ways:
single-amplifier biquadratic or two-integrator-loop.

An example of this filter topology is the so-called Tow-Thomas circuit. This


circuit consists of three op-amps and can be used as a low-pass or band-pass
filter, depending on where its output is taken.
R2

1k

R3
V+ V-

1k
C2 R6
C1 V2 V3
1u
1k
1u
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-

V-
U1 0 0
uA741
V-
4

R1 uA741 U2
2 1
V-

- OS1
4

R4 uA741 U3
1k
6 2 1
V-

V OUT - OS1

4
R5
1k
V1 3 5 6 2 1
V+

V-
+ OS2 V OUT - OS1
1Vac
1k
0Vdc band-pass 3 5 6
V+

+ OS2 OUT
7

3 5

V+
+ OS2 V
low-pass
7

V+
0
7
V+
0
0 V+
0

Biquadratic filter
1.2V
(158.489,1.0007)

0.8V

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz
V(R1:1) V(R2:2) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 10MHz

R4
The band-pass gain is G BP = .
R2

R2
The low-pass gain is G LP = + .
R1

The output for the band-pass option is shown in red. The output for the
low-pass option is shown in blue.

11 www.ice77.net
The cutoff/center frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 159.15Hz
2 R2 R4 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 1F 1F

The quality factor is

R32 C1 1k 31F
Q= = = 0.03
R2 R4 C 2 1k 1k 1F

The circuit is overdamped.

The bandwidth is approximately given by

2f c 2 159.15Hz
BW = = 33.33kHz
Q 0.03
100

(87.096K,65.256)

50

(158.489,5.8272m)

0
(15.963,-19.929) (1.5963K,-19.979)

(15.963K,-39.358)

-50
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(R2:2))
Frequency

Bode plots from 1Hz to 10MHz

The cutoff/center frequency for low-pass is at 159Hz at 0dB. The magnitude


decreases by 20dB/decade to the left and right of the center frequency.

The response for band-pass grows linearly by +20dB/decade until it reaches


the right side of the bandwidth at about 33kHz.

12 www.ice77.net
Multiple feedback topology

The multiple feedback topology takes its name from the fact it has positive
and negative feedback.

R3 C2
1k 1n V+ V-

V- U1

4
R1 R2 AD741
2 1 V2 V3

V-
- OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc
1k 1k
V
6
OUT
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V
V1 C1
1Vac
1n
0Vdc

7
V+ 0 0

0 0
0

Multiple feedback filter


1.0V

0.5V
(151.741K,333.257m) (159.224K,316.568m)

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 10MHz

The transfer function for the circuit is

Vo K o2
H (s ) =
1
= 2 =
Vi As + Bs + C o
s2 + s + o2
Q

where

A = R1 R2 C1C 2 = 1k 1k 1nF 1nF = 1 ps


RRC 1k 1k 1nF
B = R2 C 2 + R1C 2 + 1 2 2 = 1k 1nF + 1k 1nF + = 3s
R3 1k
R 1k
C= 1 = =1
R3 1k

13 www.ice77.net
R3 1k
K = = = 1
R1 1k

R2 R3C1C 2 1k 1k 1nF 1nF


Q= = = 0.333
(R
3 + R2 + K R2 )C 2 (1k + 1k + 1 1k )1nF
1 1
fc = = = 159.15kHz
2 R2 R3C1C 2 2 1k 1k 1nF 1nF

o = 2f c = 2 159.15kHz = 999.968kHz

where K is the DC voltage gain, Q is the quality factor, fc is the cutoff


frequency and o is the angular frequency.

The circuit is overdamped.

Note that cutoff frequency and quality factor are a function of each other but
do not exactly define a single point. Yet, they two points that are obtained are
reasonably close and in the same neighborhood as shown in the AC sweep.
40

(160.456K,-10.060)

(1.6046M,-38.113)

(16.046M,-61.581)
-40

-80
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz 100MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 100MHz

The gain drops to 10.060dB at 160.456kHz and then it decreases in a


nonlinear fashion past the cutoff frequency.

Several stages can be cascaded to obtain high-order multiple feedback filters.

14 www.ice77.net
First-order filters

First-order filters are very simple. They have only one capacitor which in turn
produces a single pole. The 3dB frequency is given by

1
f 3dB =
2RC

First-older filters come in 4 versions: non-inverting, inverting, low-pass and


high-pass. All the filters presented here have unity-gain.

Non-inverting low-pass

This circuit lets the low frequencies through without inverting the input.

V+

V+ V-
7

R1 U1
3 5
V+

+ OS2 V2 V3
V 2k 6 3.6Vdc -3.6Vdc
OUT
2 1 V
V-

- OS1
V1
1Vac C1 AD741
0Vdc
4

47n
0 0
V-

0 0

First-order non-inverting low-pass filter

The 3dB frequency is given by

1 1
f 3dB = = = 1.693kHz
2RC 2 2k 47nF
1.0V

(1.6930K,707.101m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The 3dB frequency for the filter is at 1.693kHz.

15 www.ice77.net
10

(1.6853K,-2.9899)
-0

(16.853K,-20.004)

-20

(168.526K,-40.039)

-40

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The gain drops to 3dB at 1.693kHz and then it decreases by


20dB/decade.

16 www.ice77.net
Non-inverting high-pass

This circuit lets the high frequencies through without inverting the input.

V+

V+ V-

7
C1 U1
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V 47n 6 3.6Vdc -3.6Vdc
OUT
2 1 V

V-
- OS1
V1
1Vac R1 AD741
0Vdc

4
2k 0 0
V-

0 0

First-order non-inverting high-pass filter

The 3dB frequency is given by

1 1
f 3dB = = = 1.693kHz
2RC 2 2k 47nF
1.0V

(1.6933K,707.101m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The 3dB frequency for the filter is at 1.693kHz.

(1.6853K,-3.0304)

(168.526,-20.084)
-40

(16.853,-40.041)

-80
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The gain drops to 3dB at 1.693kHz and then it decreases by


20dB/decade.

18 www.ice77.net
Second-order filters

Second-order filters have two poles which are given by two capacitors.

The cutoff frequency is

1
fc =
2 R1 R2 C1C 2

Depending on low-pass or high-pass configurations, the quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2
Q= low-pass
C 2 (R1 + R2 )
R1 R2 C1C 2
Q= high-pass
R1 (C1 + C 2 )

where C2 is the shunt capacitor for the low-pass configuration and R1 is the
bridging resistor in the high-pass configuration (consistency is important).

The quality factors for 2nd-order and higher filters are summarized here:

Butterworth 0.7071
Linkwitz-Riley 0.5
Bessel 0.577
Chebyshev (0.5dB) 0.8637
Chebyshev (1dB) 0.9565
Chebyshev (2dB) 1.1286
Chebyshev (3dB) 1.3049
Transitional or Paynter 0.639
Butterworth-Thomson or Linear phase 0.6304

Every type of filter is designed to retain a portion of a signal for a specific


range of frequencies while eliminating other undesired frequencies. The major
difference among filters is in the mathematical framework that lies behind
them. Every filter has difference ratios among resistors and capacitors and
this produces different shapes in the response for each filter.

Filters of second and higher orders come in unity-gain or in gain versions. If


they are in the unity-gain configuration, the op-amp is in buffer mode. If gain is
needed, then two additional resistors are used to provide the proper gain.

The trick behind designing 2nd-order filters is to set up a system of two


equations in two unknowns. The first equation sets the frequency. The second
equation sets the quality factor. It is necessary choose specific values for
frequency and quality factor while leaving two passive components unknowns.
By using software like Maple it is possible to force a convergence and
calculate the two unknowns.

20 www.ice77.net
Butterworth filter

The Butterworth filter was originally proposed by Stephen Butterworth in 1930.

This filter can be implemented with different orders. For every order, the filter
will drop by 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade in magnitude past the cutoff
frequency. Increasing the order of the filter will produce a sharper drop in the
output response.

The Butterworth filter has a very flat response and does not present ripples in
the pass-band. It can be arranged for low-pass, bandpass, high-pass, notch
and band-pass purposes.

A band-pass Butterworth filter is obtained by placing a capacitor in series with


each inductor and an inductor in parallel with each capacitor to form resonant
circuits. The value of each new component must be selected to resonate with
the old component at the frequency of interest.

A band-stop Butterworth filter is obtained by placing a capacitor in parallel


with each inductor and an inductor in series with each capacitor to form
resonant circuits. The value of each new component must be selected to
resonate with the old component at the frequency to be rejected.

The Butterworth filter can be implemented with different topologies, including


Cauer (passive) and Sallen/Key (active).

For a Butterworth filter, the quality factor must be 0.707.

Second-order low-pass (different capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values do not match here. This is a second-order filter
because it has two capacitors.

C1

200n

V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7

R1 LM741
3 5
V+

+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-

1Vac
0Vdc
100n
4

V-
0 0
0 0

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that R1=R2 and C1=2xC2.

21 www.ice77.net
1.0V

(1.1253K,707.101m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 1.125kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.707
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )
20

-0

(1.1307K,-3.0528)

-20

-40

(11.307K,-40.148)

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1.125kHz and then it drops by 40dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

22 www.ice77.net
Second-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a second-order filter because it has
two capacitors.

C1

100n

V+ V+ V-
U1
R2

7
R1 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1

V-
1Vac
0Vdc
100n 4 R3

V- 586
0 0
0 0

R4
1k

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that R1=R2 and C1=C2.


2.0V

1.5V

(1.5950K,1.1191)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C1:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 1.5915kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF

23 www.ice77.net
The gain is

1 1
A = 3 = 3 = 1.5856 or +4dB
Q 0.707

where Q must be 0.707 for a Butterworth filter.

Therefore, the output resistors are given by

R3 + R4 586 + 1k
A= = = 1.586
R4 1k

Note that the capacitors here are matched and they do not set the quality
factor but they only set the frequency cutoff.
20

(100.000,4.0058)
(1.5849K,1.0335)

-0

-20

(15.849K,-35.993)

-40

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +4dB in the lower frequency range and then it
drops to +1dB at 1.5915kHz. It eventually drops to 35.993dB at 15.849kHz
(40dB below the lower frequency range).

24 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (different resistor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The resistor values do not match here. This is a second-order filter
because it has two capacitors.

R1

1k

V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
10n 10n 6
OUT
V1 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac R2 - OS1
0Vdc

4
2k
V-
0 0
0 0

Butterworth filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that C1=C2 and R2=2xR1.


1.0V

(11.247K,707.101m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) V(U1:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 11.253kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF


Q= = = 0.707
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1k (10nF + 10nF )

25 www.ice77.net
40

(11.142K,-3.0893)

(1.1142K,-40.169)

-100

(111.424,-80.170)

-200
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/V(C1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 10Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at about 11.253kHz and then it drops by


40dB/decade past the cutoff frequency.

26 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (same resistor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The resistor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a second-order filter because it has
two capacitors.

R1

2k

V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
10n 10n 6
OUT
V1 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac R2 - OS1
0Vdc R3

4
2k
V- 586
0 0
0 0
R4

1k

Butterworth filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that C1=C2 and R1=R2.


2.0V

(39.811K,1.5524)

1.5V

(7.9767K,1.1243)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 7.957kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 2k 2k 10nF 10nF

27 www.ice77.net
The gain is

1 1
A = 3 = 3 = 1.5856 or +4dB
Q 0.707

where Q must be 0.707 for a Butterworth filter.

Therefore, the output resistors are given by

R3 + R4 586 + 1k
A= = = 1.586
R4 1k

Note that the resistors here are matched and they do not set the quality factor
but they only set the frequency cutoff.
40
(8.0545K,1.0978)

(39.811K,3.8199)

(793.102,-36.050)

-100

-200
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 10Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of about +4dB in the higher frequency range and
then it drops to +1dB at 7.957kHz. It eventually drops to 36dB at 795Hz
(40dB below the lower frequency range).

28 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a third-order filter because it has
three capacitors. This circuit has a gain of 6.848dB and it cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R3

7
R2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
2294 1059 476 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1

V-
1Vac
0Vdc
150n 150n 150n R4

4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0

R5
1k

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)

Note that C1=C2=C3.


3.0V

(10.000,2.1999)

2.0V
(1.0029K,1.5710)

1.0V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C2:1)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The gain is given by the output resistors:

R4 + R5 1.2k + 1k
A= = = 2 .2 or +6.848dB
R5 1k

29 www.ice77.net
50

(10.000,6.8481) (1.0000K,3.9619)

(10.000K,-53.006)

-50

-100
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C2:1)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +6.8481dB in the lower frequency range and
then it drops to +3.9619dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops to 53.006dB one
decade later.

30 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading a


simple low-pass filter after a second-order filter. For the second-order block
the quality factor must be 1 whereas the quality factor for the low-pass filter is
not defined. This is a third-order filter because it has three capacitors. It cuts
off at 1kHz and it has an overall quality factor of 0.707.
C1

400n

V+ V+ V-
U1
R2

7
R1 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 R3 V2 V3
V
795 795 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
1.59k V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-

1Vac
0Vdc C3
100n
4

V- 100n
0 0
0 0
0

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)

Note that R1=R2 and C1=4xC2.


1.2V

(1.0000K,1.0009)

(1.0000K,708.091m)
0.8V

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT) V(R3:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = = = 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 795 795 400nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 = = = 1kHz
2R3C 3 2 1.59k 100nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 795 795 400nF 100nF


Q1 = = =1
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (795 + 795 )

31 www.ice77.net
20

(1.0000K,-2.9982)

-50

(10.000K,-60.083)

-100
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 60dB/decade past the
cutoff frequency.

32 www.ice77.net
Third-order high-pass (same resistor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a third-order filter because it has three capacitors. This circuit
cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 C3 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
47n 47n 47n 6
OUT
V1 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac R1 R2 R3 - OS1
0Vdc

4
2431 954 16.73k
V-
0 0
0 0
0

Butterworth filter (high-pass) (3rd-order)

Note that C1=C2=C3.


1 .0 V

(1. 00 00K ,7 07. 63 9m)

0 .5 V

0V
1. 0H z 10 Hz 1 00H z 1.0 KH z 1 0K Hz 10 0KH z 1. 0MH z
V( V1 :+) V( R2 :1 )
F re que nc y

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


100

(1.0000K,-3.0038)

(100.000,-60.007)
-100

(10.000,-120.007)

-200
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R2:1)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 60dB/decade past the
cutoff frequency.

33 www.ice77.net
Third-order high-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading a


simple high-pass filter after a second-order filter. For the second-order block
the quality factor must be 1 whereas the quality factor for the low-pass filter is
not defined. This is a third-order filter because it has three capacitors. It cuts
off at 1kHz and it has an overall quality factor of 0.707.
R1

750

V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 C3 V2 V3
V
106n 106n 6
OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V
100n V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-

1Vac
0Vdc R3
3k
4

V- 1.59k
0 0
0 0
0

Butterworth filter (high-pass) (3rd-order)

Note that C1=C2 and R2=4xR1.


1.2V
(1.0000K,0.9991)

(1.0000K,706.096m)
0.8V

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) V(R1:2) V(R3:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = = = 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 750 3k 106nF 106nF
1 1
f c2 = = = 1kHz
2R3C 3 2 1.59k 100nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 750 3k 106nF 106nF


Q1 = = =1
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 750 (106nF + 106nF )

34 www.ice77.net
200

(1.0000K,-6.9601)

-200
(100.000,-138.213)

-400

-500
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(C1:2)) 20*LOG(V(R3:2)/ V(C1:2))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 6.9601dB at 1kHz and then it drops to


138.213dB a decade later.

35 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (same resistor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The resistor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors. The gain is 3.1064dB and the cutoff is at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4

7
R3 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
212n 296n 214n 47n

4
V- 430
0 0
0 0 0
R6

1k

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (4th-order)

Note that all resistor values match.

(10.000,1.4299)
1.5V

(1.0009K,1.0385)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C1:1)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


20

(10.000,3.1064)
(1.0000K,343.421m)

-40

(9.3325K,-61.319)

-80
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C1:1)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +3.1064dB in the lower frequency range and
then it drops to +0.343dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops to 61.319dB at
9.3325kHz.

36 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors. The circuit has a gain of 3.7091dB and it cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4

7
R3 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
495 2.65k 1.08k 195 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
220n 220n 220n 220n

4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0
R6

1k

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (4th-order)

Note that all capacitor values match.


2.6V
(10.000,2.1999)

2.0V

(1.0005K,1.5311)

1.0V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(R5:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


20

(10.000,6.8481)
(1.0000K,3.7091)

-0

-20

-40

(8.7096K,-50.861)
-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +6.8481dB in the lower frequency range and
then it drops to +3.7091dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops to 50.861dB at
8.7096kHz.

37 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading two


second-order filters. The quality factors for the first and second block must be
0.5412 and 1.3065 respectively. This is a fourth-order filter because it has four
capacitors. It cuts off at 1kHz and it has an overall quality factor of 0.707.
C1 C3

120n 685n

V+
U1 V+
R2

7
R1 LM741 U2
3 5

V+
+ OS2 R4

7
R3 LM741 V+ V-
1.45k 1.45k 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 C2 2 1 V
610 610 6
V-

1Vac - OS1 OUT


0Vdc C4 2 1 V2 V3
V

V-
100n - OS1
4

V- 100n 5Vdc -5Vdc

4
V-
0 0
0 0 0
th
Butterworth filter (low-pass) (4 -order)
1.2V

(1.0063K,706.509m)
0.8V

(1.0000K,548.870m)

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C1:1) V(C3:1)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = = = 1001Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.45k 1.45k 120nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 = = = 997 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 610 610 685nF 100nF

The cutoff frequencies are close enough to 1kHz.

38 www.ice77.net
The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1.45k 1.45k 120nF 100nF


Q1 = = = 0.5477
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1.45k + 1.45k )
R3 R4 C 3C 4 1k 1k 685nF 100nF
Q2 = = = 1.3086
C 4 (R3 + R4 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )

The quality factors are reasonably close to 0.5412 and 1.3065.


40

(1.0000K,-2.9035)

-0

(1.0000K,-5.2106)
-40

-80

(10.000K,-80.232)

-120
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C1:1)/ V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(C3:1)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 2.9035dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 80dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

39 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (same capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors. The circuit has a gain of 3.6058dB and it cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 C3 C4 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 100n 100n 6
OUT
V1 R1 R2 R3 R4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
1195 850 1.2k 5.28k

4
V- 440
0 0
0 0 0
R6

1k

Butterworth filter (high-pass) (4th-order)

Note that all capacitor values match.


1.8V

(10.000K,1.4233)
1.5V

(1.0000K,1.0184)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) V(R3:1)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


40
(10.000K,3.0658)

(1.0000K,158.734m)

-100

(100.000,-76.834)

-200
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +3.6058dB in the higher frequency range and
then it drops to +0.158dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops by 80dB/decade past
the cutoff frequency.

40 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading two


second-order filters. The quality factors for the first and second block must be
0.5412 and 1.3065 respectively. This is a fourth-order filter because it has four
capacitors. It cuts off at 1kHz and it has an overall quality factor of 0.707.
R1 R3

1k 1k

V+
U1 V+

7
C1 C2 LM741 U2
3 5

V+
+ OS2

7
C3 C4 LM741 V+ V-
192n 100n 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 R2 2 1 V
23n 100n 6
V-

1Vac - OS1 OUT


0Vdc R4 2 1 V2 V3
V

V-
1.3k - OS1
4

V- 11k 5Vdc -5Vdc

4
V-
0 0
0 0 0
th
Butterworth filter (high-pass) (4 -order)
1.2V

(1.0094K,706.509m)
0.8V

0.4V (1.0000K,537.091m)

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(R1:2) V(U2:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = = = 1007 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1.3k 192nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 = = = 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 11k 23nF 100nF

The cutoff frequencies are close enough to 1kHz.

41 www.ice77.net
The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1.3k 192nF 100nF


Q1 = = = 0.5411
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1k (192nF + 100nF )
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 11k 23nF 100nF
Q2 = = = 1.2932
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1k (23nF + 100nF )

The quality factors are reasonably close to 0.5412 and 1.3065.


60
(1.0000K,-3.1741)

-0

(1.0000K,-5.3991)

-100

(100.000,-80.138)

-200

-300
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 80dB/decade past the
cutoff frequency.

42 www.ice77.net
Fifth-order low-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading a


simple low-pass filter after two second-order filters. For the second-order
blocks the quality factors must be 0.6180 and 1.6181 whereas the quality
factor for the low-pass filter is not defined. This is a fifth-order filter because it
has five capacitors. It cuts off at 1kHz and it has an overall quality factor of
0.707.
C1

C3
153n

1050n

V+
U1 V+ V+ V-
R2
7

R1 LM741 U2
3 5
V+

+ OS2 R4

7
R3 LM741
1.285k 1.285k 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2 R5 V2 V3
V1 C2 2 1 V 490 490 6
V-

1Vac - OS1 OUT


0Vdc C4 2 1 V 1.59k V 5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
100n - OS1
4

C5
V- 100n

4
V- 100n
0 0 0 0

0
0

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (5th-order)


1.3V

1.0V

(1.0033K,705.621m)

0.5V
(1.0033K,617.409m)

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:-) V(U2:-) V(R5:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = =
= 1001Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.285k 1.285k 153nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 = = = 1002 Hz
2 R3 R4 C 3 C 4 2 490 490 1050nF 100nF
1 1
f c3 = = = 1kHz
2R5 C 5 2 1.59k 100nF

The cutoff frequencies are close enough to 1kHz.

44 www.ice77.net
The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1.285k 1.285k 153nF 100nF


Q1 = = = 0.6185
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1.285k + 1.285k )
R3 R4 C 3 C 4 490 490 1050nF 100nF
Q2 = = = 1.6202
C 4 (R3 + R4 ) 100nF (490 + 490 )

The quality factors are reasonably close to 0.6180 and 1.6181.


50

(1.0000K,-2.9558)

-0

-50

-100

(10.000K,-100.244)

-150
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 100dB/decade past
the cutoff frequency.

45 www.ice77.net
Fifth-order high-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading a


simple low-pass filter after two second-order filters. For the second-order
blocks the quality factors must be 0.6180 and 1.6181 whereas the quality
factor for the high-pass filter is not defined. This is a fifth-order filter because it
has five capacitors. It cuts off at 1kHz and it has an overall quality factor of
0.707.
R1

R3
1.285k

1k

V+
U1 V+ V+ V-
7

C1 C2 LM741 U2
3 5
V+

+ OS2

7
C3 C4 LM741
207n 50n 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2 V2 V3
C5
V1 R2 2 1 V 48n 50n 6
V-

1Vac - OS1 OUT


0Vdc R4 2 1 V 100n V 5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
2.44k - OS1
4

R5
V- 10.475k

4
V- 1.59k
0 0 0 0

0
0

Butterworth filter (high-pass) (5th-order)


1.3V

1.0V

(1.0000K,703.322m)

(1.0000K,617.445m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) V(U1:OUT) V(R3:2) V(R5:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = = = 1001Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2.44k 207nF 50nF
1 1
f c2 = = = 1003Hz
2 R3 R4 C 3 C 4 2 1k 10.475k 48nF 50nF
1 1
f c3 = = = 1kHz
2R5 C 5 2 1.59k 100nF

The cutoff frequencies are close enough to 1kHz.

46 www.ice77.net
The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2.44k 207nF 50nF


Q1 = = = 0.6183
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1k (207nF + 50nF )
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 10.475k 48nF 50nF
Q2 = = = 1.6179
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1k (48nF + 50nF )

The quality factors are reasonably close to 0.6180 and 1.6181.


100

(1.0000K,-3.0569)

(100.000,-100.100)
-200

-400
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(C1:2)) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(C1:2)) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(C1:2))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 100dB/decade past
the cutoff frequency..

47 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order low-pass (same resistor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The resistor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a sixth-order filter because it has six
capacitors. The circuit has a gain of 6dB and it cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4

7
R3 R5 R6 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V 1k 1k 1k 1k 1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 2 1 V 5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R7
205n 465n 218n 212n 104n 36n

4
V- 1k
0 0
0 0 0 0
R8

1k

Butterworth filter (low-pass) (6th-order)

Note that all resistor values match.


2.6V

(10.000,1.9999)

2.0V

(1.0000K,1.4347)

1.0V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(C5:1)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


30

(10.000,6.0202)
(1.0000K,3.1353)

-40

(3.8019K,-65.177)
-80
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(C5:1)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +6dB in the lower frequency range and then it
drops to +3.1353dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops to 65.177dB at 3.8019kHz.

48 www.ice77.net
Linkwitz-Riley filter

The Linkwitz-Riley filter was invented by Siegfried Linkwitz and Russ Riley in
1978. This filter is alternatively called Butterworth squared filter (squared
because for the Linkwitz-Riley filter Q=0.5, for the Butterworth filter Q=0.707
and the square of 0.707 is 0.5). This filter is used in audio crossovers.

The Linkwitz-Riley filter can be implemented with different orders. For every
order, the filter will drop by 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade in magnitude past
the cut-off frequency. Increasing the order of the filter will produce a sharper
drop in the output response.

A 2nth-order Linkwitz-Riley filter can be obtained from cascading 2 nth-order


Butterworth filters (2 2nd-order Butterworth filters will produce a 4th-order
Linkwitz-Riley filter).

In a way, the Linkwitz-Riley filter is a superset of the Butterworth filter which in


turn exploits the Sallen/Key topology.

For a Linkwitz-Riley filter, the quality factor must be 0.5.

Second-order low-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors.

C1

100n
V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7

R1 LM741
3 5
V+

+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-

1Vac - OS1
0Vdc
100n
4

V-
0 0
0 0

Linkwitz-Riley filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that R1=R2 and C1=C2.

53 www.ice77.net
1.0V

(1.5915K,500.000m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(C1:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 1.5915kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF


Q= = = 0 .5
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )

This circuit is critically damped.


20

-0

(1.5849K,-5.9848)
-20

-40

(15.849K,-40.062)

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(C1:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 6dB at 1.5915kHz and then it drops by 40dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

54 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors.

R1

1.5k

V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
10n 10n 6
OUT
V1 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac R2 - OS1
0Vdc

4
1.5k
V-
0 0
0 0

Linkwitz-Riley filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that C1=C2 and R1=R2.


1.0V

(10.635K,501.385m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 10.61kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.55k 1.65k 10nF 10nF

The quality factor is

R1 R 2 C1C 2 1.5k 1.5k 10nF 10nF


Q= = = 0 .5
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1.5k (10nF + 10nF )

This circuit is critically damped.

55 www.ice77.net
40

(10.540K,-6.0746)

-0

(1.0540K,-40.197)

-40

(105.404,-80.113)

-80

-120
10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(C1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 10Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 6dB at about 10.61kHz and then it drops by


40dB/decade past the cutoff frequency.

56 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading two


identical second-order filters. The quality factors for the blocks must be 0.707
(equivalent to two cascaded Butterworth stages). This is a fourth-order filter
because it has four capacitors. It cuts off at 1.125kHz and it has an overall
quality factor of 0.5.
C1 C3

200n 200n

V+
U1 V+
R2
7
R1 LM741 U2
3 5
V+

+ OS2 R4

7
R3 LM741 V+ V-
1k 1k 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 C2 2 1 V
1k 1k 6
V-

1Vac - OS1 OUT


0Vdc C4 2 1 V2 V3
V

V-
100n - OS1
4

V- 100n 5Vdc -5Vdc

4
V-
0 0
0 0 0

Linkwitz-Riley filter (low-pass) (4th-order)


1.0V

(1.1254K,707.134m)

(1.1254K,500.000m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(R3:1) V(U2:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = f c 2 = = = 1.125kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF

The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF


Q1 = Q2 = = = 0.707
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )

57 www.ice77.net
30

(1.1316K,-3.0594)

-0

(1.1316K,-6.1196)

-40

-80

(11.316K,-80.323)

-120
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R3:1)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 6dB at 1.125kHz and then it drops by 80dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

58 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (same capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors. The circuit has a gain of 2.3198dB and it cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 C3 C4 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 100n 100n 6
OUT
V1 R1 R2 R3 R4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
1.125k 906 1.12k 5.623k

4
V- 320
0 0
0 0 0
R6

1k

Linkwitz-Riley filter (high-pass) (4th-order)

Note that all capacitor values match.


1.5V
(10.000K,1.3061)

1.0V

(1.0000K,662.007m)
0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


60

(1.0000K,-3.5828)
(10.000K,2.3198)

-100
(100.000,-77.614)

-200
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(C1:2))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +2.3198dB in the higher frequency range and
then it drops to 3.5828dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops by 80dB/decade past
the cutoff frequency.

59 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (cascaded)

This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading two


identical second-order filters. The quality factors for the blocks must be 0.707
(equivalent to two cascaded Butterworth stages). This is a fourth-order filter
because it has four capacitors. It cuts off at 11.253kHz and it has an overall
quality factor of 0.5.
R1

R3
1k
V+ 1k
U1 V+ V-
7 V+
C1 C2 LM741 U2
3 5
V+
+ OS2

7
C3 C4 LM741
10n 10n 6 3 5 V2 V3

V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 2 1 V
10n 10n 6
V-

1Vac R2 - OS1 OUT 5Vdc -5Vdc


0Vdc 2 1 V

V-
R4 - OS1
4

2k
V-

4
2k
V- 0 0
0 0
0

Linkwitz-Riley filter (high-pass) (4th-order)


1.0V

(11.245K,707.211m)

(11.245K,500.000m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) V(R1:2) V(U2:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = f c 2 = = = 11.253kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF

The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF


Q1 = Q2 = = = 0.707
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1k (10nF + 10nF )

60 www.ice77.net
60
(11.167K,-6.1380)

(11.167K,-3.0696)

(1.1167K,-80.261)

-200

-350
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(C1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(C1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 6dB at 11.253kHz and then it drops by 80dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

61 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order low-pass (cascaded)

For sake of illustration, a 6th-order low-pass Linkwitz-Riley filter is shown


below. The circuit is nothing more than a cascade of 3 2-order blocks like the
ones shown previously. All blocks cutoff at 1.591kHz. However, the first stage
must have Q=0.5, the second and the third stages must have Q=1.
C1

C3
100n
C5
V+ 200n
U1 V+ 200n
R2
7

R1 LM741 U2 V+ V-
3 5 V+
V+

+ OS2 R4

7
R3 LM741 U3
1k 1k 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2 R6

7
R5 LM741
V1 C2 2 1 1k 1k 6 3 5 V2 V3

V+
V
V-

1Vac - OS1 OUT + OS2


0Vdc C4 2 1 V 1k 1k 6
- OS1 OUT

V-
100n 5Vdc -5Vdc
4

C6 2 1 V
- OS1

V-
V- 50n

4
V- 50n

4
0 0
V- 0 0
0
0

Linkwitz-Riley filter (low-pass) (6th-order)


1.2V

0.8V

(1.5895K,501.939m)

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C1:2) V(R5:1) V(C5:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The plot shown above clearly demonstrates that increasing the order of the
filter will produce a sharper response at the output. Increasing the order of the
filter will produce a roughly vertical drop at the cutoff frequency.

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = = 1.591kHz =
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 = f c3 = = = 1.591kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 200nF 50nF

The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF


Q1 = = = 0 .5
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 200nF 50nF
Q2 = Q3 = = =1
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 50nF (1k + 1k )

62 www.ice77.net
50

(1.5898K,-5.9938)

-100

(15.898K,-120.259)

-200
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:OUT)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U3:-)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 6dB at 1.591kHz and then it drops by 120dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

63 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order high-pass (cascaded)

For sake of illustration, a 6th-order high-pass Linkwitz-Riley filter is shown


below. The circuit is nothing more than a cascade of 3 2-order blocks like the
ones shown previously. All blocks cutoff at 10.61kHz. However, the first stage
must have Q=0.5, the second and the third stages must have Q=1.
R1

R3
1.5k
R5
V+ 750
U1 V+ 750
7

C1 C2 LM741 U2 V+ V-
3 5 V+
V+

+ OS2

7
C3 C4 LM741 U3
10n 10n 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2

7
C5 C6 LM741
V1 2 1 10n 10n 6 3 5 V2 V3

V+
V
V-

1Vac R2 - OS1 OUT + OS2


0Vdc 2 1 V 10n 10n 6

V-
R4 - OS1 OUT 5Vdc -5Vdc
4

1.5k 2 1 V

V-
V- R6 - OS1

4
3k
V-

4
0 0 3k
V- 0 0
0
0

Linkwitz-Riley filter (high-pass) (6th-order)


1.2V

0.8V

(10.616K,501.939m)

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) V(U1:-) V(U2:-) V(R5:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The plot shown above clearly demonstrates that increasing the order of the
filter will produce a sharper response at the output. Increasing the order of the
filter will produce a roughly vertical drop at the cutoff frequency.

The cutoff frequencies are

1 1
f c1 = = 10.61kHz =
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.5k 1.5k 10nF 10nF
1 1
f c2 = f c3 = = = 10.61kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 750 3k 10nF 10nF

The quality factors are

R1 R2 C1C 2 1.5k 1.5k 10nF 10nF


Q1 = = = 0 .5
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1.5k (10nF + 10nF )
R1 R2 C1C 2 750 3k 10nF 10nF
Q2 = Q3 = = =1
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 750 (10nF + 10nF )

64 www.ice77.net
100
(10.638K,-5.9403)

-200 (1.0638K,-119.853)

-400

-600
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(C5:1)/V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 6dB at 10.61kHz and then it drops by 120dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

65 www.ice77.net
Bessel filter

The Bessel filter is named after Friedrich Bessel, a German mathematician


who studied the mathematics behind the filter before it was implemented. This
is also known as Bessel-Thomson filter. W. E. Thomson was responsible for
actually using the theory and putting it to work.

For a second-order Bessel filter, the quality factor must be 0.577.

Second-order low-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors.

C1

133n

V+
U1 V+ V-
R2
7

R1 LM741
3 5
V+

+ OS2
1k 1k 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
V-

1Vac - OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc


0Vdc
100n
4

V-
0 0
0 0

Bessel filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that R1=R2 and C1=1.336xC2.


1.0V

(1.3791K,576.923m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(C1:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 1.38kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 133nF 100nF

66 www.ice77.net
The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 133nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.577
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )
20

-0

(1.3804K,-4.7854)
-20

(13.971K,-40.118)

-40

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(C1:2)/ V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 4.78dB at 1.38kHz and then it drops by 40dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

67 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors.

R1

1k

V+
U1 V+ V-

7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2
100n 100n 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V

V-
1Vac - OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc
0Vdc
1.33k

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Bessel filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that C1=C2 and R2=R1x1.336.


1.0V

(1.3807K,576.923m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(R1:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 1.38kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1.33k 100nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R1R2C1C2 1k 1.33k 100nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.577
R1 (C1 + C2 ) 1k (100nF + 100nF )

68 www.ice77.net
40

-0

(1.3834K,-4.7606)

-50

(138.337,-40.002)

-100 (13.834,-79.958)

-150
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 4.78dB at 1.38kHz and then it drops by 40dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

69 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (different capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values do not match here. This is a third-order filter
because it has three capacitors. The cutoff is at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R3

7
R2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
712 712 712 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1

V-
1Vac
0Vdc
218n 314n 56n

4
V-
0 0
0 0 0

Bessel filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)

Note that R1=R2=R3.


1.0V

(1.0006K,715.976m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


20

(1.0000K,-2.8984)

(10.034K,-51.006)

-50

-100
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 2.8984dB at 1kHz and then it drops to 51.006dB a


decade later.

70 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a third-order filter because it has
three capacitors. The circuit has a gain of 6.8478dB and it cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R3

7
R2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
3.05k 902 520 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R4
100n 100n 100n

4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0
R5

1k

Bessel filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)

Note that C1=C2=C3.


3.0V

(10.000,2.1998)

2.0V
(1.0000K,1.5651)

1.0V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


30

(10.000,6.8478)
(1.0000K,3.8909)

(10.000K,-44.399)

-50

-100
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +6.8478dB in the lower frequency range and
then it drops to +3.8909dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops to 44.399dB one
decade later.

71 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors. The circuit has a gain of 6.8478dB and it cuts off at 1kHz.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4

7
R3 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
640 4.41k 1.265k 333 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
100n 100n 100n 100n

4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0
R6

1k

Bessel filter (low-pass) (4th-order)

Note that all capacitor values match.


2.8V

(10.000,2.1998)

2.0V
(1.0000K,1.5627)

1.0V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C3:1)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


20
(10.000,6.8478)
(1.0000K,3.8777)

-0

-20

-40

(12.589K,-50.168)
-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C3:1)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is flat with a gain of +6.8478dB in the lower frequency range and
then it drops to +3.8777dB at 1kHz. It eventually drops to 50.168dB at
12.689kHz.

72 www.ice77.net
Chebyshev filter

The Chebyshev filter bears the name of Pafnuty Chebyshev, a Russian


mathematician who developed the theory behind the Chebyshev polynomials.

Chebyshev filters come in two variants: if the ripple is present in the


passband, they are called Type I otherwise, if the ripple is present in the
stopband, they are called Type II (also known as Inverted).

The filter can be designed to have different ripples that can vary from 0.5dB to
3dB and intermediate values (typically by 0.5dB increments).

Type I

This is the Chebyshev filter with the ripple in the passband. Its probably the
most common version of the filter.

For a second-order Chebyshev Type I filter, the quality factors must be 0.864,
0.956, 1.129 and 1.305 for 0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB versions of the filter
respectively.

Second-order low-pass (0.5dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 0.5dB ripple in the passband.

C1

298n

V+
U1 V+ V-
R2
7

R1 LM741
3 5
V+

+ OS2
1k 1k 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
V-

1Vac - OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc


0Vdc
100n
4

V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 0.5dB ripple filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 0.5dB ripple, R1=R2 and C1=2.986xC2.

73 www.ice77.net
1.2V

(922.189,862.722m)

0.8V

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 921.96 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 298nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 298nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.863
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )
20

(926.119,-1.3203)
-0

-20

(9.2612K,-40.123)

-40

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 1.3203dB at 926Hz and then it drops by 40dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.

74 www.ice77.net
2.0

1.0

(524.808,499.849m)

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Close-up of 0.5dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 524Hz with a 0.5dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.

75 www.ice77.net
Second-order low-pass (1dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 1dB ripple in the passband.

C3

366n
V+ V+ V-
U2
R4

7
R3 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V4 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc
100n

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 1dB ripple filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 1dB ripple, R3=R4 and C3=3.663xC4.


1.2V

(830.016,958.580m)

0.8V

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V4:+) V(U2:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 831.92 Hz
2 R2 R3C 2 C 3 2 1k 1k 366nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R 2 R3 C 2 C 3 1k 1k 366nF 100nF
Q= = = 0.957
C 3 (R 2 + R3 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )

76 www.ice77.net
50

(830.736,-863.103m)

-0

-50

(8.3074K,-92.129)

-100

-150
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V4:+) 20*LOG(V(U2:-)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 0.863dB at 830Hz and then it drops to 92dB a decade
past the cutoff frequency (much faster roll-off).
2.0

(562.341,1.0039)

1.0

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency

Close-up of 1dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 562Hz with a 1dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.

77 www.ice77.net
Second-order low-pass (2dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 2dB ripple in the passband.

C5

509n
V+ V+ V-
U3
R6

7
R5 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V 1k 1k 6
OUT
V5 C6 2 1 V 5Vdc -5Vdc
-

V-
1Vac OS1
0Vdc
100n

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 2dB ripple filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 1dB ripple, R5=R6 and C5=5.098xC6.


1.5V

(705.774,1.1272)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V5:+) V(C5:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 705.44 Hz
2 R5 R6 C 5 C 6 2 1k 1k 509nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R5 R6 C 5 C 6 1k 1k 509nF 100nF
Q= = = 1.128
C 6 (R5 + R 6 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )

78 www.ice77.net
20

(702.533,1.0863)

-0

-20

(6.9970K,-39.882)

-40

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V5:+) 20*LOG10(V(C5:2)/ V(V5:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is at +1.0863dB at 702Hz and then it drops by 40dB/decade past


the cutoff frequency.
3.0

(549.541,2.0010)

2.0

1.0

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V5:+) 20*LOG10(V(C5:2)/ V(V5:+))
Frequency

Close-up of 2dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 549Hz with a 2dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.

79 www.ice77.net
Second-order low-pass (3dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 3dB ripple in the passband.

C7

681n
V+ V+ V-
U4
R8

7
R7 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V6 C8 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc

V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc
100n

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 3dB ripple filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 1dB ripple, R7=R8 and C7=6.812xC8.


1.5V
(609.575,1.3047)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V6:+) V(U4:OUT)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 609.88Hz
2 R7 R8 C 7 C8 2 1k 1k 681nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R 7 R8 C 7 C 8 1k 1k 681nF 100nF
Q= = = 1.305
C 8 ( R 7 + R8 ) 100nF (1k + 1k )

80 www.ice77.net
20

(611.881,1.8548)

-0

-20

(6.1188K,-37.523)

-40

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V6:+) 20*LOG10(V(U4:OUT)/ V(V6:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is at +1.8548dB at 611Hz and then it drops by 40dB/decade past


the cutoff frequency.
4.0

(512.861,3.0052)

2.0

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V6:+) 20*LOG10(V(U4:OUT)/ V(V6:+))
Frequency

Close-up of 3dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 512Hz with a 3dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.

81 www.ice77.net
Second-order low-pass ripple comparison
1.5V

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT) V(V4:+) V(U2:OUT) V(V5:+) V(C5:2) V(V6:+) V(U4:OUT)
Frequency

0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB circuit response comparison

The one above is a comparison of the response for the low-pass circuits
previously presented. The peaks in the response are clearly not matching
because the circuits have been designed with the same resistor values so the
frequency cutoff moves to the left of the plot as the magnitude of the ripple
increases.
4.0
(512.861,3.0052)
(549.541,2.0010)
2.5
(562.341,1.0039)

(524.808,499.849m)

-2.5

-5.0
100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+)) V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(U2:OUT)/ V(V4:+)) V(V5:+)
20*LOG10(V(U3:OUT)/ V(V5:+)) V(V6:+) 20*LOG10(V(U4:OUT)/ V(V6:+))
Frequency

0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB ripple comparison

The plot shown above compares the ripples for every circuit previously
presented. It is clear that a higher amount of ripple will produce a sharper
cutoff.

82 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (0.5dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 0.5dB ripple in the passband.

R1

1k
V+
U1 V+ V-

7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2
100n 100n 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V
-

V-
1Vac OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc
0Vdc
2.98k

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 0.5dB ripple filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 0.5dB ripple, C1=C2 and R2=2.986xR1.


1.2V

0.8V
(921.668,862.722m)

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) V(R1:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 921.96 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2.98k 100nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2.98k 100nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.863
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1k (100nF + 100nF )

83 www.ice77.net
40

(925.642,-1.2459)

-0

(92.564,-39.902)

-40

-80

-120
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(C1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 1.2459dB at 925Hz and then it drops by 40dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.
2.0

1.0
(1.6218K,486.213m)

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(C1:1))
Frequency

Close-up of 0.5dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 1.62kHz with a 0.5dB


overshoot and then it decays rapidly.

84 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (1dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 1dB ripple in the passband.

R3

1k
V+
U2 V+ V-

7
C3 C4 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2
100n 100n 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V4 R4 2 1 V
-

V-
1Vac OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc
0Vdc
3.66k

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 1dB ripple filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 1dB ripple, C3=C4 and R4=3.663xR3.


1.2V

0.8V
(833.787,958.580m)

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V4:+) V(R3:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 831.92 Hz
2 R3 R4 C 3 C 4 2 1k 3.66k 100nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R3 R4 C 3C 4 1k 3.66k 100nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.957
R3 (C 3 + C 4 ) 1k (100nF + 100nF )

85 www.ice77.net
40

(830.736,-398.059m)

-0

(83.074,-39.986)

-40

-80

-120
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 0.398dB at 830Hz and then it drops by 40dB/decade


past the cutoff frequency.
2.0

(1.2303K,990.336m)

1.0

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency

Close-up of 1dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 1.23kHz with a 1dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.

86 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (2dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 2dB ripple in the passband.

R5

1k
V+ V+ V-
U3

7
C5 C6 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 6
OUT
V5 R6 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1

V-
1Vac
0Vdc
5.09k

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 2dB ripple filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 2dB ripple, C5=C6 and R6=5.098xR5.


1.5V

(705.088,1.1272)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C5:1) V(R5:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 705.44 Hz
2 R5 R6 C 5 C 6 2 1k 5.09k 100nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R5 R 6 C 5 C 6 1k 5.09k 100nF 100nF


Q= = = 1.128
R5 (C 5 + C 6 ) 1k (100nF + 100nF )

87 www.ice77.net
40

(700.870,985.793m)

-0

(70.087,-40.061)

-40

-80

-120
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C5:1) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/ V(C5:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is at +0.985dB at 700Hz and then it drops by 40dB/decade past


the cutoff frequency.
3.0

(912.011,1.9866)

2.0

1.0

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C5:1) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/ V(C5:1))
Frequency

Close-up of 2dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 912Hz with a 2dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.

88 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (3dB ripple)

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 3dB ripple in the passband.

R7

1k

V+ V+ V-
U4

7
C7 C8 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 6
OUT
V6 R8 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
-

V-
1Vac OS1
0Vdc
6.81k

4
V-
0 0
0 0

Chebyshev 3dB ripple filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that for a 3dB ripple, C7=C8 and R8=6.812xR7.


1.5V
(610.162,1.3047)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C7:1) V(U4:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The ripple in the passband is noticeable.

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 609.88Hz
2 R7 R8 C 7 C8 2 1k 6.81k 100nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R7 R8 C 7 C8 1k 6.81k 100nF 100nF


Q= = = 1.305
R7 (C 7 + C8 ) 1k (100nF + 100nF )

89 www.ice77.net
40

(609.867,2.3057)

-0

(60.987,-39.939)

-40

-80

-120
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C7:1) 20*LOG10(V(U4:-)/ V(C7:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is at +2.3057dB at 609Hz and then it drops by 40dB/decade past


the cutoff frequency.
4.0

(724.436,2.9916)

2.0

-1.0
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C7:1) 20*LOG10(V(U4:-)/ V(C7:1))
Frequency

Close-up of 3dB ripple

The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 724Hz with a 3dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.

90 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass ripple comparison
1.5V

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(R1:2) V(C3:1) V(U2:OUT) V(C5:1) V(R5:2) V(C7:1) V(U4:-)
Frequency

0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB circuit response comparison

The one above is a comparison of the response for the high-pass circuits
previously presented. The peaks in the response are clearly not matching
because the circuits have been designed with the same capacitor value so the
frequency cutoff moves to the left of the plot as the magnitude of the ripple
increases.
4.0
(724.436,2.9916)

(912.011,1.9866)

2.0
(1.2303K,990.336m)

(1.6218K,486.213m)

-2.0

300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz


V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(V1:+)) V(C3:1) 20*LOG10(V(U2:OUT)/V(C3:1)) V(C5:1) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(C5:1))
V(C7:1) 20*LOG10(V(U4:-)/V(C7:1))
Frequency

0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB ripple comparison

The plot shown above compares the ripples for every circuit previously
presented. It is clear that a higher amount of ripple will produce a sharper
cutoff.

91 www.ice77.net
Type II

This is the Chebyshev filter with the ripple in the stopband.

Fifth-order low-pass

This circuit is implemented with two notch filter blocks and a simple RC filter.
This is a fifth-order filter because the circuit contains five capacitors. It has a
gain of 1.2741dB and a very sharp cutoff at 1kHz.
C1

C3
10n

10n

R3

R8
92.3k

22.86k
V- V+ V-
U1 V-
4

R1 C2 LM741 U2
2 1
V-

- OS1

4
R6 C4 V2 V3
LM741
2398 10n 6 2 1

V-
V OUT - OS1 R11
V1 3 5 6184 10n 6 5Vdc -5Vdc
V+

+ OS2 V OUT
1Vac R2
0Vdc 3 5 777

V+
+ OS2 V V
R7
7

337k
V+ C5

7
23.36k 0 0
V+ 100n
0 0
R4 0
0
R9
670

R5 1.04k

R10
10k

1k

0
0

Inverted Chebyshev filter (low-pass) (5th-order)


1.5V

(10.000,1.1579)
(1.0004K,807.692m)

1.0V

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(R3:2) V(C3:2) V(R11:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The gain in the passband boosts the input from 1V to 1.15V. The filter drops
rapidly right before 1kHz. The ripple in the stopband is noticeable.

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0

(299.358,1.2741)

(1.0002K,-1.8478)

(10.000K,-21.079)
-20

-40
100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(C3:2)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(R11:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

Bode plot from 100Hz to 100kHz

The output is at +1.2741dB in the passband and +1.8478dB at 1kHz. The


output then drops to 21.079dB a decade later.

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Elliptic filter

The Elliptic filter, also known as Cauer filter, is the filter with the sharpest
cutoff of all filters. This filter is named after Wilheld Cauer, a German
mathematician who developed the theory behind the filter.

Third-order low-pass

This circuit is implemented with an asymmetrical twin-T notch filter (R1, R2, R3,
C2, C3, C4). This is a third-order filter with a gain of 12.669dB. It cuts off at
1kHz.

R6 V-

4.42k U1

4
uA741
2 1

V-
C1 - OS1 R7
6
OUT
3 5 2358

V+
20n + OS2 V
R5

C5

7
1k

100n
V+
0

R1 R2 0

V
6242 6242
V+ V-
C2 C3 C4 R4
V1
1Vac
0Vdc 10n 10n
44n 47.94k
5Vdc V2 5Vdc V3
R3

3111
0 0 0

0 0 0

Elliptic filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)


6.0V

(10.000,4.2998)

4.0V

(1.0011K,2.8047)

2.0V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C2:2) V(R7:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The gain in the passband boosts the input from 1V to 4.3V. The ripple in the
passband is barely noticeable. The filter drops rapidly right before 1kHz.

94 www.ice77.net
50

(10.000,12.669) (1.0098K,8.7278)

(10.000K,-29.254)

-50

-100
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C2:2) 20*LOG10(V(R7:2)/V(C2:2))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output is at +12.669dB in the passband and +8.7278dB at 1kHz. The


output then drops to 29.254dB a decade later.

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Synchronous filter

Synchronous filters are made up by a series of first-order filters cascaded


after each other. For each capacitor there is a pole. Resistors and capacitors
usually have all the same values and they are tuned to a specific cutoff
frequency.

Second-order low-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This circuit is equivalent to the Butterworth circuit discussed
previously (Q=0.707). This is a second-order filter because it has two
capacitors.

C1

200n

V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7

R1 LM741
3 5
V+

+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1125 1125 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-

1Vac
0Vdc
100n
4

V-
0 0
0 0

Synchronous filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that R1=R2 and C1=2xC2.


1.0V

(1.0003K,707.101m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(U1:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1125 1125 200nF 100nF

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The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1125 1125 200nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.707
C 2 (R1 + R2 ) 100nF (1125 + 1125 )
20

-0

(1.0000K,-3.0079)
-20

(10.000K,-40.051)

-40

-60
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 40dB/decade past the
cutoff frequency.

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Second-order high-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology. This circuit is equivalent to the Butterworth circuit discussed
previously (Q=0.707). This is a second-order filter because it has two
capacitors.

R1

1125

V+ V+ V-
U1

7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 6
OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1

V-
1Vac
0Vdc
2.25k
4

V-
0 0
0 0

Synchronous filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

Note that C1=C2 and R2=2xR1.


1.2V

(0.9995K,706.509m)
0.8V

0.4V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) V(U1:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

1 1
fc = = = 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1125 2.25k 100nF 100nF

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 1125 2.25k 100nF 100nF


Q= = = 0.707
R1 (C1 + C 2 ) 1125 (100nF + 100nF )

98 www.ice77.net
50

-0

(1.0000K,-3.0135)

-50
(100.000,-40.007)

-100 (10.000,-80.006)

-150
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(C1:2))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 40dB/decade past the
cutoff frequency.

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Third-order low-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology by cascading a simple low-pass filter after the op-amp. This is a
third-order filter because it has three capacitors. It cuts off at 1kHz and it has a
quality factor of 0.707.
C1

100n

V+ V+ V-
U1
R2

7
R1 LM741
3 5

V+
+ OS2 R3 V2 V3
V
810 810 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 810 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
1Vac V-
0Vdc C3
100n
4

V- 100n
0 0
0 0
0

Synchronous filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)

Note that all resistor and capacitor values match.


1.0V

(1.0021K,707.101m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C3:2)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


20

(1.0000K,-2.9990)

(10.000K,-42.932)

-40

-80
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C3:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops by 40dB/decade past the
cutoff frequency.

100 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass

In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key


topology by cascading two identical second-order filters. This is a fourth-order
filter because it has four capacitors. It cuts off at 1kHz and it has a quality
factor of 0.707.
C1 C3

100n 100n

V+
U1 V+
R2

7
R1 LM741 U2
3 5

V+
+ OS2 R4

7
R3 LM741 V+ V-
691 691 6 3 5

V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 C2 2 1 V
691 691 6
V-

1Vac - OS1 OUT


0Vdc C4 2 1 V2 V3
V

V-
100n - OS1
4

V- 100n 5Vdc -5Vdc

4
V-
0 0
0 0 0
th
Synchronous filter (low-pass) (4 -order)

Note that all resistor and capacitor values match.


1.0V
(1.0026K,840.896m)

(1.0026K,707.101m)

0.5V

0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) V(C1:1) V(U2:-)
Frequency

AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz


20

(1.0000K,-1.4979)

(1.0000K,-2.9961)

-50

(10.000K,-51.990)

-100
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C1:1)/V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The output drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it drops to 51.99dB a decade
later.

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Linkwitz-Riley crossover

The Linkwitz-Riley crossover is an audio application that stems from the work
of Linkwitz and Riley.

The crossover can be implemented with different orders. For every order, the
filter will drop by 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade in magnitude past the cut-off
frequency. Increasing the order of the filter will produce a sharper drop in the
output response.

The crossover can be designed to split the audible spectrum in 2, 3 or 4 ways.


A 2-way audio crossover splits the audible spectrum in two parts, it has a
single cut-off frequency and its implemented by cascoding two Butterworth
filters (low-pass and high-pass). For a 3-way crossover, there will be three
regions with a low cut-off frequency and a high cut-off frequency. This is
arguably the most popular configuration for crossovers in the market. The
reason why the audible spectrum is divided into 3 sections is explained by the
need for audio systems to handle each section more effectively through
speakers for proper sound reproduction. A 3-way system has 6 speakers (2
for each channel).

A 3-way 4th-order Linkwitz-Riley crossover can be designed with the following


expression:

1
f =
2 2 RC

First of all the designer needs to choose cut-off frequencies for the specific
regions of the spectrum. At that point, with a set frequency, a value for
capacitance (C) or resistance (R) is chosen and the other one is derived.

Assuming that the desired low cut-off frequency is 340Hz then C can be
chosen to be 100nF and R can be chosen to be 3.3k.

1 1
f = = = 341.029 Hz
2 2 RC 2 2 3.3k 100nF

Assuming that the desired high cut-off frequency is 3.5kHz then C can be
chosen to be 6.8nF and R can be chosen to be 4.7k.

1 1
f = = = 3.521kHz
2 2 RC 2 2 4.7k 6.8nF

102 www.ice77.net
E.S.P. Linkwitz-Riley Crossover Calculator screenshots for low pass and high pass

The values for the two sections of the crossover need to be arranged just like
shown above. The values of capacitance or resistance double depending on
the configuration of the specific section of the filter.

R4 R5

4.7k VCC 4.7k


7

U1 VCC U2
7

C1 R1 3 5 VCC
V+

+ OS2
7

3 5 C6 C7 U3
V+

+ OS2 C2 C3 6 3 5
V+

1u 2.2k
V
6 uA741OUT + OS2 R6 HIGH
6.8n
uA741OUT 2 1 6.8n 6
6.8n 6.8n
V-

R2 100k 2 1 - OS1 uA741OUT


V3
V-

1Vac - OS1 R3 R21 2 1 100 V


V-

9.4k -VCC 9.4k - OS1


0Vdc
4

-VCC R22
4

0 -VCC
4

1000k
0 0
0
0

C5
C4

13.6n VCC
7

13.6n VCC
R10 R9
7

U4 3 5
V+

3 5 +U5 OS2
V+

+ OS2 R7 R8 6
4.7k 4.7k 6 uA741OUT
uA741OUT 2 1
V-

C10 6.8n 2 1 4.7k 4.7k - OS1


V-

- OS1 C9 6.8n
-VCC
4

-VCC
4

0
0
R11 R12

3.3k 3.3k
VCC
C11 C12
7

U6
3 5 VCC
V+

+ OS2 C13 C14


7

U7
100n 100n 6 3 5 MID
V+

R19 uA741OUT + OS2 R13


6.6k 2 1 100n 100n 6
V-

- OS1 uA741OUT
R20 2 1 100 V
V-

-VCC - OS1
4

6.6k R23
0 -VCC 100k
4

0
0

C15

200n C16

VCC
R18 R17
7

200n VCC GND -VCC


3 5 VCC
V+

+U8 OS2 R16 R15


7

U9
3.3k 3.3k 6 3 5 V1 V2
V+

uA741OUT + OS2 R14 LOW 15Vdc -15Vdc


2 1 3.3k 3.3k 6
V-

C18 - OS1 uA741OUT


C17 2 1 100 V
V-

100n -VCC - OS1


4

100n R24 100k 0 0 0


-VCC
4

0 0 0

3-way Linkwitz-Riley crossover

103 www.ice77.net
The circuit shown previously is a cascode of 3 sections. The top provides the
high frequencies, the bottom provides the low frequencies and the central part
provides the mid frequencies. High and low sections are made up by a
cascade of 2 2nd-order Butterworth filters. The middle section is a high-pass
section followed by a low-pass section.

1.0V

High cut-off frequency

(3.5445K,501.188m)

0.5V

(340.041,503.457m)

Low cut-off frequency

0V
10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz
V(R22:2) V(R13:2) V(R24:2) V(V3:+)
Frequency

AC sweep from 20Hz to 20kHz

The frequency response for the 3-way Linkwitz-Riley crossover is shown


above. The low cut-off frequency is 340Hz. The high cut-off frequency is
3.5kHz.

A 3-way 4th-order crossover will drop by 24dB/octave or 80dB/decade in


magnitude past the cut-off frequency.

104 www.ice77.net

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