The Cartographic Journal Vol. 41 No. 2 pp.
101107 IGC Special Issue 2004
The British Cartographic Society 2004
INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL CONGRESS UK 2004, GLASGOW
Commercial Map Production in the Digital Age.
With Particular Reference to Experiences at HarperCollins
Publishers
Jim Irvine
Head of Digital Resources and Collins Newsroom, Collins Reference, World Atlases and Maps, HarperCollins
Publishers, Westerhill Road, Bishopbriggs, Glasgow G64 2QT, UK
Email: jim.irvine@harpercollins.co.uk
Website: www.collins.co.uk, www.bartholomewmaps.co.uk
INTRODUCTION
Commercial cartography has experienced massive techno-
logical change in recent years. This paper describes in
general terms the impact of this change on World Map and
Atlas production at HarperCollins Publishers (HCP).
There are two main business sectors within which com-
mercial cartography occurs. Firstly there are cartographic
publishers who operate production facilities to create
their own mapping for publication, and secondly there are
cartographic companies whose main business activity is the
creation of bespoke mapping on a contract basis for a range
of external customers. HCP operates in both these sectors so
what follows is likely to be typical of the experiences of many
commercial cartographers.
We start with a backward glance in order to understand
how we got to where we are today. Each stage in map
production is then examined before the more general
benefits accruing from the digital revolution are described.
THE HISTORY
Digital mapping systems were first introduced to
Bartholomew, the Edinburgh based map producers, in the
mid 1980s. In the late 1980s Bartholomew became part
of HarperCollins Publishers with the investment in new
technology continuing through to the present day.
Hindsight emphasizes the simple nature of these early
digital mapping systems, constrained as they were by both
the hardware and software available at the time. Technology
in this area has evolved considerably since and HCP now
employ a digital map production flowline based on a suite of
GIS databases and employing best of breed technology at
each stage of the process.
Despite the simplicity of these early systems, a digital
database of Great Britain at a scale of 1:250 000 was
captured and used to create the Bartholomew Road Atlas of
Great Britain in 1988, the first title to be produced using
digital techniques. This was followed four years later by the
DOI: 10.1179/000870404X12356
Collins Road Atlas of Britain, created from the same
database. While these two road atlases contained the same
information, they were targeted at different segments of the
market and contained very different mapping styles. This
was an early realization of one of the anticipated benefits
of digital map production, the ability to create different
products from the same basic data, thus reducing costs.
In 1995 the 7th edition of the Times Concise Atlas of the
World became the first world atlas published by HCP to
contain mapping wholly produced using digital technology.
To enable this a series of new overlapping and multi-scaled
databases covering the whole world was captured. The
Concise was joined in 1999 by the Millennium Edition of the
Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World. This completely
new edition of our flagship title contained entirely new
digitally produced mapping.
While the content of these atlases was created digitally,
they were still printed via output of colour separated film
for plate making. The introduction of digital computer to
plate technology into the printing industry in the last few
years completed the end to end digital map production
flowline. All HCP maps and atlases are now printed this way,
including the 11th edition of the Times Comprehensive Atlas
of the World, published in 2003 (see Figure 1).
THE DIGITAL FLOWLINE
The digital flowline in place at HCP starts with the mainte-
nance of digital cartographic databases and ends with digital
printing of finished maps and atlases. Between these two
extremes lie several intermediate stages, each using its own
unique technology mix and employing digital techniques
to achieve different ends. The approach taken has been to
ensure that the most appropriate tools and techniques are
used at each stage, and that the interfaces between these
stages are robust and sustainable. The next section describes
each of these stages, highlighting the role of new technology
in each case.
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Figure 1. The 11th Edition of the Times Comprehensive Atlas of the
World, created using an end-to-end digital map production flowline
Flowline Stage 1 Information and Research
This first stage in the flowline is sourcing the information
required for database maintenance. This continual process
is driven by the pace of change in the real world and is
therefore not directly related to publication schedules.
The Internet has revolutionized this work, with the world
wide web exponentially increasing the amount of freely
available information. The sheer scale can be bewildering
however, for example a recent web search for Three Gorges
Dam returned 45 800 results. Only a minority of these
results are likely to contain any information of interest to
cartographers requiring to map this feature, and of these
even fewer will contain trustworthy information. Skilled
Information professionals are clearly required to source
the reliable information required and to convert this into
the knowledge needed to keep our databases up to date. At
HCP a team of three with skills in geography, cartography
and information science are responsible for this important
task.
The Internet is also used as a delivery mechanism for
electronic versions of many reliable information sources
traditionally used by cartographic information editors in
hard copy format. Many journals and periodicals focussing
on transport issues, major infrastructure projects etc. as well
as census and other socio-economic data from national
statistical offices are now published on-line.
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In general the advent of the Internet means that informa-
tion editors are aware of real or potential change earlier than
they may otherwise have been. Normally however further
research is required before enough information is assimilated
for database update to take place. This may involve further
use of electronic or internet based sources, but is just as
likely to require acquisition of traditional paper sources as
well.
The email connectivity offered by the internet is also a
significant benefit for our information editors. A network of
authoritative contacts with individuals in a variety of organi-
zations has been built up over time, and means that specific
geo-political queries can often be quickly resolved via email
exchange.
A more direct benefit stems from the availability of much
authoritative information in electronic format which can be
used directly by commercial cartographers without the need
for further research. For example, HCP recently acquired an
up to date GIS dataset from the United States Geological
Survey containing information on earthquakes, which
allowed us to create a brand new thematic map for
publication in our World Atlases.
Flowline Stage 2 Database Maintenance
Once real world changes have been thoroughly researched,
the databases which underpin HCP maps and atlases are
updated. This database approach leads directly to more
efficient revision of products, as a single database edit will
be automatically propagated to all maps derived from that
database.
To support the variety of global mapping required for our
world atlases we maintain several overlapping databases at
different scales. These are stored in a hybrid data structure,
with graphical information (points, lines and polygons)
stored in ArcGIS from ESRI and a separate but linked
Oracle database storing all non graphic information place
names, populations etc. Each named feature is automatically
assigned a unique ID at time of capture, and this ties the
graphic and non-graphic databases together, with a single
record held in the non-graphic database for each feature
regardless of how many graphic databases it appears on
(see Figure 2). While graphical edits must be made to all
relevant scales, this structure means that non graphic edits
need only be made once. Over 25 000 features in our main
non graphic database were editing during the last year, so
it is clear that the hybrid data structure results in further
efficiency gains.
Flowline Stage 3 Initial Product Creation
The initial stage in map creation is to generate a first cut map
from data. This is a two part process.
First the appropriate data is extracted from the database,
ensuring that coverage, content, scale and projection are
all correct. This is achieved using standard ArcGIS tools.
Maplex, the automated text placement and cartographic
design application from ESRI, is then used to turn this raw
data into a map. This involves applying symbology to the
data and performing initial type placement. To do this
Maplex requires a rulebase to be developed for each different
specification of map to be created. Application of different
Commercial Map Production in the Digital Age
Figure 2. Graphic and non-graphic database editing screens
rulebases allows very different maps to be created from the
same database.
The ability to automate initial map creation, and in
particular first cut type placement, significantly lowers the
cost of map production and also allows us to quickly visualize
prototype map specifications when designing new products.
Flowline Stage 4 Finishing Map Pages
Output from Maplex requires further manual editing to
create a final print quality map. Experienced cartographers
103
at HCP use Adobe Illustrator for this task. Generally this
involves fine tuning the initial Maplex type placement as well
as adding marginalia, scale bars, alpha numeric references
and making any minor adjustments to the map specification.
Several stages of paper proofs are produced at this point,
and rigorous editorial quality control is carried out, as this
is the first time in the process that a final map image is
available.
Use of non-specialist industry standard software allows a
proportion of this activity to be outworked to external
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contractors. This augments in-house resources and helps to
smooth out the peaks and troughs of demand experienced
by any busy commercial cartography company. It does mean
however that this stage is disconnected from our databases.
Careful procedures are required to make sure that any
corrections or changes made at this stage are fed back to
the data, if appropriate. In a busy production environment,
with some work being done by contractors, this is a major
challenge.
Flowline Stage 5 Creating Indexes
Most maps and atlases include an index or gazetteer to
place names which can only be created once the maps are
complete. For large world atlases with multi-scaled overlap-
ping pages and complicated indexing rules this can be a
complex task.
HCP use a combination of standard commercial software
and in-house applications to create indexes. The unique ID
assigned to all named features in the database remains
attached to the feature throughout the map production
process. These IDs are used to identify which feature names
appear on each map and also to build up complete index
entries for each one. These full index entries are stored in a
product specific Oracle table, where overlapping and appli-
cation of any product-specific indexing rules are carried out.
When all index entries are complete, they are alpha sorted,
combined with type setting tags and extracted into a text
file, which in turn is flowed into page layout software
(Quark Xpress). Final tidying up of the index, adding alpha
breaks etc is done in Quark Xpress, and as with the previous
stage rigorous editorial checks are carried out.
This approach automates as much of the indexing process
as possible while retaining the flexibility inherent in manual
methods. Again however, this stage is disconnected from the
databases and any relevant changes made need to be fed
back.
Flowline Stage 6 Computer to Plate Printing
The end to end digital flowline has been completed in recent
years by the introduction of Computer to Plate (CTP) print-
ing. This involves transferring digital images straight onto
the printing plate, avoiding the output of colour separated
films.
Besides reducing cost through removing the need to
create, distribute and store film this increases supplier
location flexibility as digital files can be sent electronically
to printers, either on CD or DVD or sometimes over the
Internet using File Transfer Protocol (FTP). In addition
digital images do not deteriorate over time, and unlike film
result in better quality images time after time.
THE BUSINESS BENEFITS OF THE DIGITAL FLOWLINE
As can be seen, the introduction of new technology has
brought significant efficiency gains and resulting cost
reduction to the creation of traditional cartographic
products, and can be justified in these terms alone. Beyond
this however the digital revolution has created a range of
further benefits and new opportunities to the business of
commercial cartography. Some of these are described below.
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Benefit 1 Flexible Map Specifications
Database driven digital map production techniques allow
modern cartographers to create many different map images
from the same basic data. This is achieved by separating the
spatial geometry of features from the symbology applied
to these features to create a map. In general, digital map
databases store un-symbolized points, lines and polygons,
and adding symbology to these forms part of the map
creation process. The ability to select different sets of
features from the database and apply different symbology
filters to these gives the cartographer great flexibility over
the types of map produced. As well as varying the choice of
colours, symbols, line widths and fonts, it is also possible to
vary map projection and scale, further increasing the range
of mapping styles which can be produced (See Figure 3).
Benefit 2 Variety of Bespoke Mapping
The flexibility and cost effective nature of digital map pro-
duction allow HCP to provide a comprehensive bespoke
mapping service. Customers of commercial cartography no
longer have to choose from a range of pre-created maps,
now having the option of getting unique and specially
designed maps that better suit their needs. Using the digital
production flowline, prototype maps can be quickly gener-
ated in order to agree a final specification with the customer,
while the high level of cartographic design skill maintained
in-house allows us to advise on what works best.
Building our flowline around widely used GIS data
formats means that we can often source the data required for
customer work when we do not already have the appropriate
content or scale of data in our own databases. Indeed
customers also have the option of supplying their own GIS
data which can often be plugged straight into our flowline.
This is useful for those organizations who may have captured
GIS data for some other purpose, and now want to produce
print quality maps from it (see Figure 4).
Use of non-specialist standard graphics software as part of
the flowline provides limitless flexibility in the type of image
created. This allows us to create design-led maps and other
types of graphic for customers, which may or may not be
based on our digital map databases (see Figure 5).
Benefit 3 Foreign Language Co-editions
Digital production methods facilitate translation of existing
maps into foreign languages for co-edition partners. Place-
names can be extracted from the relevant index file and
supplied digitally, often in spreadsheet format, to our part-
ners for translation. Using the system of unique ID numbers
together with software developed in-house these transla-
tions can be automatically applied to both the map and
index in question.
HCP policy is to use local name forms in all but a few
cases. Provided that foreign language partners use the roman
alphabet and agree with our transliteration policy for
non-roman languages, it is normal for only a minority of
names to require translation. The methods employed do
however give foreign partners the flexibility to include many
more of their own nameforms if required.
Commercial Map Production in the Digital Age 105

Figure 3. On the left a world reference map including layer colouring and on the right the same area in road map specification. Both maps were
created from the same underlying database

Figure 4. A page from a bespoke road atlas created for the government of the Cayman Islands. In this case the customer already had GIS data
which was plugged directly into our digital map production flowline to create print quality maps
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Figure 5. Based on digital map data, this map of part of Greenland
created for a travellers magazine has been heavily modified using
desktop publishing tools
We are currently undertaking a project to translate one of
our atlases into a Cyrillic language. In this case every name
on the map and in the index has to be translated. This
together with the fact that we are working with unfamiliar
characters and fonts has been a major challenge. The basic
digital method outlined above has also worked well in this
case, and it is hard to imagine how this could have been
achieved in pre-digital days.
Benefit 4 New types of Digital Image
Storing digital representations of the earths surface to
support map production creates opportunities to visualize
the world in innovative ways. These rely on recent develop-
ments in GI software, and were perhaps not fully anticipated
at the time that digital map production technology was first
introduced.
Three-dimensional perspective views can be created at
the local, regional or continental level. Overlaying these
with map, air photo or satellite imagery creates new and
exciting ways to view the world. These models can be
animated to create fly-throughs, increasing the ways
in which we can interact with digital data to visualize the
world. In the future, as software and hardware continue
to develop and new data sources become available, the
capabilities of these applications are likely to increase, giving
us even more sophisticated ways of interacting with digital
representations of the world.
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Besides creating exciting interactive digital applications,
these techniques can also be used to create visually stunning
static images for inclusion in paper based products, thus
allowing users of these traditional cartographic products the
ability to share the benefits brought by this exciting new
technology.
Benefit 5 Internet Mapping
Today many maps are designed to be viewed on digital
devices; desktop PCs, hand held devices, TV screens etc.
Many of these maps are delivered to the end user over the
internet and displayed in standard browser windows.
There are two basic approaches to serving maps on the
Internet. The first involves rendering maps on the fly from
vector data, while the second delivers pre-created raster
maps to the users browser. While the first approach can pro-
vide a high level of interactivity to the user, professional
cartographers have often questioned the quality of the map
images delivered. The creation of pre-created raster maps for
display on the internet has created commercial opportunities
for cartographers, with organizations already skilled in
digital techniques well placed to exploit these. This creates a
new set of challenges, as both map design and the technical
attributes of the digital image need to be considered to
create effective solutions.
HCP have created a suite of seamless raster maps specifi-
cally for this purpose. These have been designed to maintain
the attractiveness and clarity of printed maps while at the
same time minimizing file size in order to facilitate fast
download over the internet. These maps are geo-referenced,
allowing application builders to overlay their own or their
customers spatial data. In this way internet mapping appli-
cations supporting a degree of interactivity together with
clear and attractive base maps are possible (see Figure 6).
Benefit 6 Specialist Applications.
Licensing digital map data or other GI content to developers
creating specialist mapping applications is a significant
revenue stream for many commercial cartographers. At
HCP it was envisaged at the outset that the adoption of digi-
tal techniques would add value to the business in this way.
This is particularly relevant at smaller continental and global
scales, where competition from National Mapping Agencies
and organizations providing street level data aimed at rout-
ing applications is less intense. A wide variety of commercial
applications continue to be built incorporating digital map
data supplied by HCP. These include:
The interactive atlas section of a French language
electronic encyclopaedia distributed on DVD.
A navigational application that allows you to plan trips
at home or monitor your progress in the field via a map
display on a hand held device combined with a GPS
receiver.
An interactive world atlas as part of a subscription based
online reference library system.
An application to create broadcast quality animated
maps used by television companies to illustrate breaking
global news stories.
Commercial Map Production in the Digital Age
Figure 6. A screen shot from MultiMap, displaying a section of a seamless raster based world map created by HCP to support a variety of internet
mapping applications
CONCLUSIONS
It is clear that adoption of digital technology into the world
of commercial cartography has delivered the two main
commercial benefits sought.
A more efficient production flowline reducing both
costs and time to market for traditional paper based
products.
New revenue streams based on licensing the digital
map databases on which the digital production flowline
depends.
Two further benefits are also apparent
107
The demand for digital maps to support internet and
other electronic mapping applications creating a new
market for commercial cartographers
The ability to create innovative and exciting ways of
visualizing and understanding the world we live in.
It is important to remember however that ultimately maps
are created by people, not by computers, and that good
maps are created by skilled and talented people. Perhaps
the biggest benefit of the digital revolution is the freedom
it has given cartographers to be truly creative, both in what
they produce and how they produce it.