Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Benjamin L. Lamptey,
Regional Maritime University
1 Introduction 11
3 Meteorological Observations 19
3.1 Recording and Reporting weather observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Observations aboard a ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Barometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 The first Mercury Barometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2 Barometers on board ship (Marine mercurial barometers) . . . . . . 22
3.3.3 Aneroid Barometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.4 Precision Aneroid Barometer (PAB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.5 Barographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.6 Station Level Pressure (QFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.7 Reduction of pressure to standard levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.1 Thermometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5 Moist Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7 A typical land station: Tema Harbour Meteorological Station . . . . . . . . 36
4 Atmospheric Thermodynamics 39
4.1 Ideal Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.1 Boyles law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.2 Charles law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.1.3 Gay-Lussacs or Pressure law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2 Daltons law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Van der Waals equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3
4 CONTENTS
6.3 Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.3.1 General Causes of Cloud and precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9 Fronts 81
9.1 Kinds of front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2 Types of Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10 Extra-tropical Depressions 87
10.1 Formation of frontal depression (on polar fronts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.2 The Occlusion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
10.3 Non frontal depressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
13 Ice 105
13.1 Main types of ice and their origins (Classification of ice) . . . . . . . . . . . 105
13.2 Coastal and Open Ocean Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13.3 Probable indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13.4 Precautions; Navigating in ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7
8 LIST OF TABLES
List of Figures
5.1 Geostrophic Wind Scale is shown inserted in the upper left corner of the chart 56
5.2 Circulation cells on a non rotating earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3 Circulation cells on a rotating earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4 Circulation cells on a rotating earth with names of the winds . . . . . . . . 62
5.5 (a) Ideal Zonal Pressure Belts, (b) Actual Zonal Pressure Belts . . . . . . 63
5.6 Wind in geostrophic balance flowing (A) along parallel and (B) curved isobars 63
5.7 Frictionless circulation around closed isobars in the Northern Hemisphere . 64
5.8 Frictionless circulation around closed isobars in the Southern Hemisphere . 64
5.9 Friction causing geostrophic wind to cross parallel isobars toward low pressure 65
5.10 Daytime development of sea breeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.11 Nighttime Development of land breeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9
10 LIST OF FIGURES
19.1 U.K. Met. Office Synoptic chart showing the present synoptic situation . . 123
19.2 U.K. Met. Office Synoptic chart showing the forecast synoptic situation
forty-eight hours ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Introduction
1. Instruments:
2. Storms: stages
3. Ice: basic forms, how they are formed, areas where they form
4. Depressions:
5. Wind: (1) Geostrophic wind and (2) Surface wind on weather charts, (3) Determine
1 and 2 at a given station, (4) Winds of the ocean
6. Ocean currents: Meditteranean, Atlantic, China sea (Japan), North Sea, Indian
Ocean
7. Forecasting
11
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
2.1 Composition
The atmosphere is a mixture of dry air, water vapour and a suspension of minute particles
of solid substances. The percentage by mass composition of dry air remains constant with
height up to about 80 km. If an air sample taken from any region within 80 km of the
Earths surface is analyzed , the relative proportions of its major constituent gases are
found to vary by no more than a few thousands of one per cent provided that any water
vapour is first removed. Water vapour is very important in cloud formation. It is the
most variable constituent. The composition of gases in the atmosphere are approximately
78% of Nitrogen, 21% of Oxygen and 1% of other gases (see table 2.1). The gases become
thinner until it gradually reaches space. Carbon dioxide, Ozone have peculiar radiative
characteristics. They absorb long-wave radiation.
13
14 CHAPTER 2. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Table 2.1: Fractional concentrations by volume of the major gaseous constituents of the
Earths atmosphere up to an altitude of 105km, with respect to dry air. (Source: Wallace
and Hobbs, 2006)
Constituent Molecular Fractional
weight concentration
by volume
Nitrogen (N2 ) 28.013 78.08%
Oxygen (O2 ) 32.000 20.95%
Argon (Ar) 39.95 0.93%
Water vapor (H2 O) 18.02 0-5%
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) 44.01 380ppm
Neon (Ne) 20.18 18ppm
Helium (He) 4.00 5 ppm
Methane (CH4 ) 16.04 1.75 ppm
Krypton (Kr) 83.80 1 ppm
Hydrogen (H2 ) 2.02 0.5 ppm
Nitrous oxide (N2 O) 56.03 0.3 ppm
Ozone (O3 ) 48.00 0-0.1 ppm
1. Troposphere
The lowest layer above ground to almost 10km. This layer is known as turning or
changing sphere as most of weather occurs here. In general, temperature decreases
with height. The rate of decrease of temperature with height is called Temperature
Lapse Rate. It is approximately 6.5C/km. The troposphere contains about 80% of
all water vapour hence clouds, precipitation. It is characterized by strong vertical
mixing. That is, thunderstorms, clear air turbulence, etc. Temperature may increase
temporarily with height in troposphere. This is a situation is known as Temperature
Inversion. The Tropopause: is the top of the troposphere. Its altitude varies over
the earth and is not continuous with 18km in tropics and about 8km in the high
latitudes. On average the atmosphere in the troposphere is unstable.
2.2. VERTICAL DIVISIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 15
The atmosphere is never completely free of Water Vapour but in varying concentrations
3% of mass of air over hot tropical coastal areas to negligible amount over deserts. Is it
not remarkable that such small quantities of water can cause such variations in weather?
Water enters the atmosphere through evaporation and evapotranspiration and returns as
dew, rain, snow, hail etc. The amount of water vapour decreases with height.
Carbon dioxide:- Enters the atmosphere by human/animal breathing, decay and
burning of carbon materials and volcanic activities. It is removed by plant life. Ninety-
nine percent is dissolved in oceans and depend on temperature. Concentration of CO2 is
variable. That is in cities.
Ozone Ozone is made of three oxygen atoms joining together to form a single molecule
O3 . Oxygen is more stable in its diatomic form. A single oxygen atom is unstable. O3
is less stable than O2 , because it wants to return to the diatomic state by giving up an
oxygen atom. About 90% of the ozone in the Earths atmosphere lies in the stratosphere.
Thus, occurs in minute amounts in the lower atmosphere.
Ozone can be found in both the stratosphere and troposphere. Where ozone is found
in the atmosphere determines whether it is good or bad. The ground level or bad ozone
(i.e. in the troposphere) is an air pollutant that damages human health, vegetation, causes
irritation to lungs and eyes and many other things. It is an important component of urban
smog. The good ozone found in the stratosphere protects life on Earth from the harmful
effects of the Suns ultraviolet rays. Thus, humans have a reason to be concerned about the
thinning of the ozone layer in the stratosphere and the buildup of ozone in the troposphere.
Production of ozone
When O2 molecules are split into atoms which recombine with other O2 molecules ,
they form O3 . Atomic oxygen is produced in the very upper atmosphere (much above the
stratosphere), but little ozone forms there because of low air density at those altitudes.
Relatively nearer the earths surface (but still high up in the atmosphere), the chances of
oxygen atoms colliding with oxygen molecules are greater, so the highest ozone values are
found there. Upon absorbing ultraviolet radiation, ozone splits into its constituent parts
(O + O2 ), which can then recombine to form another ozone molecule. Ozonosphere is
the region where ozone is found in the stratosphere. This layer is between 20km - 50km.
Ozone is more concentrated in this layer than anywhere else. Ozone (and oxygen) in the
stratosphere absorb ultraviolet radiation from the sun which can cause skin cancer. Thus
ozone acts as a shield that prevents this radiation from passing to the Earths surface.
Destruction of ozone
Ozone depletion is the steady decline in the amount of ozone in the earths atmosphere
(mainly in the stratosphere). One of the causes of the decline in the ozone amount is the
release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the earth. CFCs are used in refrigerations and air
conditioning, in the manufacture of plastic foams, and as solvents in the electronic industry.
The ozone molecules in the stratosphere continuously break apart into its oxygen atoms
and reforms as ozone molecules, so a particular ozone molecule does not last very long. The
shield changes constantly, but the atmospheric chemical processes maintain a dynamic
18 CHAPTER 2. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
equilibrium that keeps the overall amount of ozone constant - that is, if humans did not
contribute to the chemical processes. There is evidence that ozone is destroyed in the
stratosphere and that some human-released chemicals such as CFCs are speeding up the
breakdown of ozone in the atmosphere. The current effort towards the global elimination
of ozone-depleting chemicals from the atmosphere is the first time that we have tackled a
global environmental issue on a global scale.
CFCs do not easily react with other molecules in the lower atmosphere. They are
therefore able to travel to the stratosphere intact, where they break down and release free
atoms of chlorine (CI). First, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule to produce
O2 and chlorine monoxide (CIO). Next, an oxygen atom (O) reacts with CIO, creating
another O2 molecule while freeing the chlorine atom (CI). This CI atom has been formed
in addition to the original CI atom that first reacted with the ozone molecule. The fact
that the CI atoms are not consumed in these processes makes them able to repeatedly
break down ozone molecules.
Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that helps reg-
ulate the Earths temperature. Water vapour and greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons) among others, act like an insulating blanket,
trapping outgoing terrestrial radiation that would otherwise escape into space. Without
this natural greenhouse effect, temperatures would be lower than they are now, and
life as we know it today would not be possible. However, human activities, primarily the
burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have enhanced the natural greenhouse effect,
causing the Earths average temperature to rise
The greenhouse effect (in the atmosphere) refers to the fact that, incoming solar radia-
tion (short wave radiation) passes through the atmosphere quite freely, whereas terrestrial
radiation (long wave radiation) emitted upward from the Earths surface is absorbed and
reemitted in its passage through the atmosphere. Thus, the presence of such greenhouse
gases in a planetary atmosphere tends to warm the surface of the planet.
A Greenhouse (a term from agriculture) is made primarily of glass, which is transparent
to incoming shortwave radiation but opaque to outgoing longwave radiation. The glass
therefore allows in more radiation than is allowed to escape, causing the temperature
inside the structure to be warmer than outside.
Chapter 3
Meteorological Observations
3.3 Barometry
Barometry is the measurement of pressure. Pressure is simply the force exerted on a unit
area of a given surface. Pressure acts in all directions. Differences in pressure in the
19
20 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
atmosphere lead to air flow from high to low pressures. Atmospheric pressure is measured
in millibars (mb) but of late in hectopascals (hPa) (note that 1mb = 1hPa).
1 bar = 1000 millibars = 100 Newton/m2 . The length of mercury in the column depends
on temperature and gravity of the place. Hence meteorologist determine pressure at some
agreed standard conditions of 0o C and 9.80665m/sec2 1013.25 mb.
The barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure [Greek words,
baros (weight) and metron (measure)]. Two types of barometers are generally in use;
mercury (Hg) and aneroid. The mercury barometers include Fortins and Kew-pattern.
With Fortins there is the need to adjust to a pointer which is at zero point of scale. The
Kew-pattern does not have to be adjusted to any fixed point. Aneroid is derived from the
Greek a nexus (not wet) and the Suffix oid (like). It therefore has no fluid, in contrast
to a mercury barometer which uses the liquid, mercury.
Generally when barometers are read, corrections have to be made of any reading for (i)
Index, (ii) Temperature and (iii) Gravity errors.
variation), (iii) Apply a reduction to allow for height above mean sea level (MSL). This
reduction depends on the temperature and pressure of the outside air.
The 3 corrections and the reduction to MSL are combined in tables prepared specially
for each instrument and each station. That is, all what is needed for carrying out operations
(ii) and (iii) is included in the correction card which usually hangs alongside the barometer.
The corrections are made to the indicated reading of the scale in order to obtain a value
both accurate and comparable with those at other stations. The corrections are;
1. Correction for index error: There are usually slight imperfections of the instrument,
example in the graduations. The imperfections (e.g. readings of individual barom-
eters being different) may also be due to the capillarity of mercury. (A certificate
is provided with each instrument setting out the necessary corrections at different
points on the scale).
Other issues that could introduce error include the observation process.
2. Correction for temperature of the instrument: The height of the column of the Hg at
any pressure depends partly on its density which is governed by temperature. Ex-
pansion or contraction of materials comprising the instrument also affect the reading.
A thermometer is therefore incorporated and with the aid of tables the reading is
corrected to a temperature of 0o C. The instruments are almost completely compen-
sated for the temperature variations experienced in normal use, but if an instrument
is used under extreme conditions the necessary corrections may be obtained from the
test certificate.
When barometer is initially calibrated, the components (Hg, scales, glass tube, cistern
etc) are at 0o C. Any departure from this will cause changes in dimensions of the
components. The attached thermometer temperature is usually not identical with the
22 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
3. Correction for the local value of gravity: Allowance is made for the variation of
gravity with latitude by correcting to a standard value 980.665 cm/s2. A correction
or variation of gravity with height is also required but is negligible for heights up to
200 metres above mean sea level.
Reading of mercurial barometer at a given pressure and temperature depends on g
which also varies with latitude and altitude. Calibrations are to yield true pressure
readings at the standard g of 9.80665m/s2 . Reading at any other value must be cor-
rected. For any particular barometer used in a fixed position these corrections may be
conveniently combined in a single correction, which corresponds to the temperature
of the attached thermometer.
4. Reduction to Standard Level: When the previous corrections have been applied, the
reading gives the pressure at the level of the barometer Cistern. A further adjustment
is necessary to obtain the pressure at any other height, (for e.g. at aerodrome level
or sea level) and a correction table is available for this purpose. [To obtain corrected
pressure at mean sea level the four corrections are reduced to a single operation by
means of a table which is specially prepared for each instrument in its given situation.]
mercurial barometer, since its index error is liable to change slowly; it indicates accurately
changes of pressure, but the absolute value is liable to be wrong. The error may be found
accurately enough (by comparison with mercurial barometer) but may not stay constant.
For small corrections, a small screw at the back of the aneroid can be used to adjust the
pointer of the aneroid to the same reading as the mercurial barometer. Corrections larger
than 5 mb should be made by removing the glass face (see figure 3.3), lifting the pointer
off the pivot (to which it is only attached by friction), and replacing in approximately the
correct position.
In addition to the index error (which can be found by comparison with a corrected
mercurial barometer reading), the aneroid barometer reading should be corrected for height
above sea level before entering in a log or using it in a weather report. If, however, the
aneroid is kept in one place in the ship, the simplest procedure is to adjust it so that it
reads correctly for sea level when at mean draft (i.e. agrees with a corrected mercurial
barometer reading in the same locality); there is then no need to bother about corrections,
provided the ships draft does not change more than, say, six feet either side of the mean.
Sources of error here include (i) incomplete compensation for temperature. A weakening
of the spring may occur with increasing temperature. This will result in too high a pressure
being indicated by the instrument. (ii) Elasticity errors also occur. When an aneroid
barometer is subjected to a large and rapid change of temperature the instrument will not
immediately indicate the true pressure. This lag known as hysteresis, and a considerable
time elapse before this difference becomes negligible. (iii) Slow changes in the metal of the
aneroid chamber also occur. These are known as Secular changes and can only be allowed
for by comparisons at intervals with a standard barometer.
3. turning the knurled knob so that the thread of light in the indicator
(a) is continuous with the pressure increasing until thread just breaks
(b) is broken with the pressure decreasing until thread just becomes continuous
4. reversing and repeating step(c) ensuring that thread of light does not overshoot and
stopping when thread of light just breaks
5. releasing the black switch button and reading off pressure value from the readout
6. inserting a decimal point to the readings taken and where the tenths reading is equally
between two figures, taking the odd number
3.3.5 Barographs
It is a self-recording barometer (see figure 3.5), which makes a continuous record of pressure
measurements over a period of time. It usually employs an aneroid mechanism.
A number of aneroid cells are fixed together, so that there is more force to move
the pointer. By a suitable system of levers, the expansion or contraction of the cells is
magnified. This movement is transmitted to a pointer which moves in an arc over a paper
chart wrapped around the outside of a cylindrical drum. The drum is rotated once weekly
by a clockwork mechanism and so a continuous record of the atmospheric pressure at the
meteorological station is obtained.
The chart with its trace is known as a barogram. The barograph is used mainly
to indicate pressure changes, and is inferior to both the Hg and a good aneroid
barometer for measurements of pressure itself.
Table 3.1: Lapse rate, temperature, pressure associated with certain altitudes
MSL - In most countries, it is reduced to mean sea level and this is known as MSL
Pressure. These are hypothetical in most cases since most stations are land stations and
are above sea level.
To Reduce To Sea Level
First determine the QFE and add the weight column of air which will occupy a unit
area between station and the (MSL). Depends on temperature of column. Syn (together);
opsis (seeing) charts are plotted with pressures taken simultaneously and reduced to MSL.
In mountainous areas above (1 km), 850mb and 700mb charts are used instead of MSL.
Altimeter
The altimeter (see below) is essentially an aneroid with scale reading altitude instead
of pressure.
Variations in temperature with height may introduce difficulties in altimetry: It is
therefore necessary to assume some hypothetical atmosphere in which certain changes
occur in some elements.
Altimeter Settings
If set to QFE reach O metres (Zero Settings) on landing; Hence, giving height above
station level of aircraft. But this is meaningless if aircraft is away from station or even out
of country.
QNH Settings
This is used to offset the difficulty above.
a) Calculate the aerodrome pressure (QFE) b) Use ICAO standard atmosphere to
determine Zp corresponding to QFE. c) Subtract the elevation of the aerodrome (H) from
Zp that is (Zp -H) d) Use the ICAO standard atmosphere to determine QNH corresponding
to the altitude (ZP-H)
Examples Zp > H, Zp < H , Zp < O.
3.4 Temperature
Thermometry is the measurement of temperature. Of all meteorological elements, temper-
ature affects our daily lives more than any. We shall see how this temperature controls
largely wind and water vapour and hence formation of clouds.
26 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
Temperature is expressed by means of 3 scales: The fahrenheit (F), celsius (C) and
absolute (or Angstrom) scales. Conversion can be made from one form to the other. The
formulae for the conversion from celsius to fahrenheit and vice versa can be obtained from
the formula
C 0 F 32
= (3.1)
100 180
where the 100 is the number of divisions on the celsius scale and 180 is the number
of divisions on the fahrenheit scale. C is the temperature in degrees celsius and F is the
temperature in degrees fahrenheit.
Thus
5
C = (F 32) (3.2)
9
and
5
F = C + 32 (3.3)
9
The relationship between celsius and Kelvin (or Angstrom or absolute) is
K = 273 + C (3.4)
3.4.1 Thermometry
Thermometry is the measurement of temperature. Temperature is measured with a ther-
mometer. There are different types. The following are the principles of those commonly
used in meteorology:-
1. Liquid-in-glass type- Differential expansion of liquid with respect to its glass container
is measured. The change in volume is marked by charge in vertical column of the
liquid in the container. The type of liquid depends upon the range of temperature
being measured. Mercury-in glass/alcohol.
2. Mercury-in-Steel - Expansion of mercury alters shape of metal coil which either un-
rolls or rolls up more tightly. The coil and bulb are connected by 100 ft of thin steel
capillary tube enabling the reading at a considerable distance away.
3. Bi-metallic Strip: Two at times different metals are welded together so that their
difference in expansion is used as a mark of measurement.
5. Thermocouple: Two metals in a closed electrical circuit, the two joints being at
different temperatures and an electromotive force (EMF) set up in the circuit is
measured. This force varies with the temperature difference so that, if one joint is kept
at standard temperature, then varying temperature of the other can be calculated.
7. Thermistors: Some chemical substances which change their electrical resistance markedly
with temperature, the resistance decreasing with rising temperature. They are small
and robust and therefore used in radiosonde. As temperature varies, the resistance
of the electrical circuit varies thereby varying radio signals transmitted to a receiver.
The changes are converted into temperature at various levels.
1. The aspirator type, where air is drawn across a wet bulb thermometer by means of a
hand operated rubber bulb, or alternatively by a battery operated fan.
2. The sling psychrometer, a wet and dry bulb thermometer attached to a short chain
and handle. The reading is obtained by whirling the instrument through the air.
3. The simple wet and dry bulb thermometer which comprises two identical thermome-
ters set side by side. The bulb of one thermometer is enclosed in a small muslin
28 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
(cotton cloth) which is kept wet by means of a wick (a few strands of thick cotton)
dipping into a small vessel of distilled water.
Figure 3.6: Thermometers showing the Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
(source:http://www.stuffintheair.com/thermometerpictures.html)
32 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
3.6 Miscellaneous
The material in this section is from Mr. E.K. Lampteys hand out. It has been reproduced
here for convenience.
When observing and recording meteorological conditions, it is of the utmost importance
to proceed in a very careful and meticulous manner. An inaccurate observation can mislead
the forecaster and result in an inaccurate forecast. On the other hand, a reliable observation
can hold the key to an obscure or complex meteorological condition. Refer to the National
Weather Service Observing Handbook No. 1 for comprehensive definitions of the observed
elements and coding instructions. Some hints to remember.
Visibility
Because of the absence of suitable objects, it is generally not possible to make visibility
observations from ships as accurately as at land stations. Make use of targets on the radar
screen. On long ships, when visibility is low, objects of known distances on board should
be used. In coastal areas, the appearance of landmarks can be used as a guide. In the
3.6. MISCELLANEOUS 33
absence of other objects, use the appearance of the horizon, or mentally sub-divide the
known distance to the horizon. At night the appearance of navigation lights gives a useful
indication of the visibility.
Ice Conditions
There are three forms of ice encountered by ships at sea: 1) sea ice, from the freezing of the
sea surface; 2) river ice, in harbors and estuaries; and 3) land ice, or icebergs. The extent
of sea ice can vary greatly from year to year and has a great meteorological influence on
adjacent ocean areas and over large areas of the world. Icebergs and sea ice are dangerous
to shipping and impact navigation. Consequently, your ice reports are very important.
Temperature; Air (Dry Bulb), Dew Point (Wet Bulb), And Sea Surface
The sling psychrometer is the standard instrument used by National Weather Service VOS
to measure air and dew point temperatures. If your vessel has an accurate fan ventilated
psychrometer, this can also be used. To obtain accurate readings, psychrometers must be
exposed in a stream of air, fresh from the sea, which has not been in contact with, or passed
34 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
over the ship. The instrument must also be shielded from radiation, precipitation, and
spray. The psychrometer thermometers should be read right after whirling or ventilation
has stopped.
There are 2 widely used methods for measuring sea surface temperature: 1) using a
bucket to take a sample of sea surface water, and measuring its temperature and 2) reading
the temperature of the condenser intake water, either with a fluid thermometer, or with
an electrical remote indicating device. It is very important to use thermometers that are
accurate and properly calibrated. Bucket thermometers are available for your use from
National Weather Service PMOs.
Officials of his shipping company may wish to offer some guidance in this regard!!.
X - observation taken
X - observation as appropriate
O - No observation made
I - Instrument supplied to vessel for observing purposes
R - May be requested to observe
36 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
Turn the screw to either increase or decrease the pressure (i.e. until the light changes
position)
3.7. A TYPICAL LAND STATION: TEMA HARBOUR METEOROLOGICAL STATION37
If the light is up at the time you turn it on, turn the screw on the right side of the
PAB until the light moves down and then back up before you read the pressure from
the scale.
If the light is down when you turn the light on, turn the screw on the right side of
the PAB until the light goes up. Then take the pressure reading from the scale.
38 CHAPTER 3. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
Chapter 4
Atmospheric Thermodynamics
The topics include Gas laws, virtual temperature, First law of thermodynamics,, potential
temperature, moisture in the atmosphere
Thermodynamics is the branch of study which deals with heat in motion.
An ideal or perfect gas is one which the potential energy of interaction between molecules
is independent of their separation and hence is independent of gas volume. Thus, the inter-
nal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature. To a very good approximation,
atmospheric gases at normal terrestrial temperatures and pressures are ideal. In short, an
ideal gas is that gas
39
40 CHAPTER 4. ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS
1
P orP V = constantorP1 V1 = P2 V2 = P3 V3 = = constant (4.1)
V
where the suffixes 1,2 and 3 etc refer to the different states or sets of conditions of the gas.
V V1 V2 V3
V T or = constantor = = = constant (4.2)
T T1 T2 T3
P P1 P2 P3
P T or = constantor = = = = constant (4.3)
T T1 T2 T3
change characteristics and the properties of a substance in these two phases are predicted
with some success by Van der Waals equation, but not at all by the equation of state for
perfect gases. When p is small and is large, the correction terms are small and the two
equations become identical.
W = JH (4.5)
where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat (J=4.186 joules/cal )
2. The second statement of this law arises from the extension of the Law of Conservation
of Energy. It states In all transformations, the energy due to heat units supplied must
be balanced by the external work done plus the gain in internal energy due to rise in
temperature
42 CHAPTER 4. ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS
at the same temperature. Where e is the partial pressure and es is the saturation
vapor pressure.
RH is also defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapor in a given volume of
air to the amount that volume would hold if the air were saturated. It is usually
expressed in percent.
2. Specific Humidity
3. Absolute Humidity (or vapor density or vapor concentration) Is the mass of vapour
contained in unit volume. (g vap/cm3)
4. Dew Point Temperature Is the temperature to which moist air must be cooled in
order to just reach the condition of saturation with respect to a plane H20 surface.
Further cooling results in condensation on solid surfaces. Even slight cooling beyond
the dew-point will ensure condensation on dust particles in the air, forming fog or
cloud. Fog may form even in unsaturated air, and its presence should not be taken
as indicative that the temperature is at or below the dew-point.
5. Vapor Pressure
6. Humidity Mixing Ratio (r) The mass of vapour contained in unit mass of dry air (g
vapour/kg dry air).
Mixing ratio is the ratio of a mass of a variable atmospheric constituent to the mass
of dry air. If not specified the term refers to water vapor. That is, in a sample of
moist air, the mixing ratio (w) is the ratio of the mass of water vapor (MV ) to the
mass of dry air (Md ). It is usually expressed as grams of water vapor per kilograms
of dry air. (Saturation mixing ratio is the mixing ratio a sample of air would have if
saturated)
7. Frost-Point Is the temperature to which moist air must be cooled in order to just
reach the condition of saturation with respect to a plane ice surface. Further cooling
induces deposition of ice in the form of hoar frost on solid surface including other ice
surfaces.
The wet-bulb temperature is the lowest temperature to which air may be cooled by
evaporation of water.
Water vapour can change directly into ice, and conversely ice evaporates directly into
vapour sublimation. Moreover, water droplets in suspension readily remain liquid
or super cooled at temperatures below 0o C. Consequently at such temperatures the
S.V.P with respect to super cooled water is considered in addition to that with
respect to ice. S.V.P. over ice is slightly less than S.V.P. over super cooled water at
the same temperature; hence if unsaturated air is cooled progressively below 0o C, the
frost-point is reached while the air is still unsaturated with respect to water.
S.V.P. increases rapidly with temperature so that warm air, when saturated holds
more warm vapour than cold air.
The amount of vapour present in a given mass of air can be varied only by means
of evaporation or condensation and (at a given pressure) does not depend on the
temperature unless this is reduced below the dew-point, when the excess vapour is
condensed. In contrast, the relative humidity varies widely with temperature. Tem-
perature and saturation vapor pressure and consequently inversely proportional to
relative humidity, although this may be partly offset by evaporation from the surface
or from vegetation; conversely a fall of temperature increases the R.H unless the air
is already saturated. The diurnal variation of temperature over land is accordingly
reflected in diurnal variation of R.H, the lowest values occurring at the warmest time
of the day and the highest at night when, if 100% is approached, fog can readily form
. Even in desert regions the relative humidity at the surface may reach 100% at night
due to intense radiative cooling, so giving heavy dew or even fog. The lowest values of
R.H occur in air subjected to prolonged heating such as might result from insolation
over dry land, from advection over a warm dry surface or from adiabatic subsidence;
the highest values occurring during prolonged evaporation from the surface as when
air is in contact with the sea or wet ground or as a result of cooling by radiation,
advection or adiabatic ascent. On account of the prevalence of convection, air in the
upper toposhpere is frequently near saturation. In the lower stratosphere extremely
low RHs are the rule; in temperature latitudes the average is about 2% and it rarely
exceeds 10%.
water), they may bring about condensation even before saturation is reached; this explains
the occurrence of mist or fog with R.H below 100%. The main origin of the nuclei is prob-
ably the combustion products of domestic, factory and other fires. Sea salt ptles probably
contribute about 1/10th of the nuclei involved in cloud droplet formation.
When the vapour is cooled below the frost-point, it may be that ice crystals are formed
on sublimation nuclei. Condensation takes place only after the vapour has become satu-
rated with respect to water and the first product is a super-cooled droplet; subsequently the
droplet may freeze spontaneously if it contains a solid nucleus which is active as a freezing
nucleus, presumably because its shape is similar to that of an ice crystal. The rarity, if
not complete absence of sublimation nuclei in natural conditions means that water vapor
on cooling readily becomes super saturated with respect to water. If on the other hand
ice crystals are already present, having perhaps fallen from higher levels, and if the vapour
pressure exceeds the saturation values with respect to ice, then direct sublimation takes on
to these ice crystals. When freezing of super cooled droplets take place spontaneously, the
larger droplets tend to freeze more readily than the smaller ones. Generally, the freezing
of droplets becomes increasingly probable as the temperature continues to fall.
Q = mc (4.7)
where is the rise in temp, m is mass and c is specific heat capacity.
46 CHAPTER 4. ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS
Adiabatic Change
This is a process in which there is no exchange with environment. Change of volume
or pressure, temperature of a small parcel of air without flow of heat into or out of the
parcel.
3 reasons why adiabatic change is assumed: (i) Air is a poor conductor of heat (ii)
Mixing of parcel with surroundings is very slow. (iii) Radiative processes produce only
small change in the short term. Rate of adiabatic process is 10C/km for Unsaturated Air.
Although there is heat transfer, it is negligible for the above 3 reasons.
Insolation
All solar radiation do not reach the surface of the earth. Absorption by gases (ozone),
reflection by clouds and scattering by dust, etc. occur in the atmosphere. The depletion
also depends on path taken to reach the surface. These are determined by latitude, time
of year and time of day. The total radiation (direct, sky radiation) received on a unit area
of horizontal surface in unit time is known as Insolation.
Diurnal Variation of temperature
Diagram:
The diurnal variation of temperature depends on the (i) amount of insolation and (ii)
Intensity and duration. Absorption and scattering are almost constant but reflection from
clouds may vary.
Intensity of Terrestrial Radiation
Water vapour absorbs long wave radiation and reradiates back to earth. Hence moist
areas have small diurnal variation than dry areas. Clouds also absorb and reradiate long
wave thus keeping close diurnal variation than clear skies. CO2 acts similarly. The nature
of the surface is very important since water surface and land surface differ greatly.
Summary: No cloud; summer season; low latitudes, dry air, dry soil, no wind all favour
large diurnal difference, whilst the thick cloud; winter, high latitudes, moist air, wet soil,
water surfaces, etc favour small differences.
2. Mixing of a parcel of air with its surroundings usually takes place relatively slowly.
A parcel of unsaturated air may expand adiabatically when it rises and enters regions
of lower pressure aloft. Adiabatic exp. Results in cooling (DALR rate 10o C/km assuming
the air remains unsaturated i.e no water vapour in the air condenses as the parcel as-
cends). A descending parcel warms at the same rate as a result of adiabatic compression.
DALR is used because adiabatic temperature changes that occur in unsaturated air are
very approximately equal to those in dry air (N.B. moist air must remain unsaturated for
DALR).
*Sometimes moist air may become saturated due to cooling. If parcel of saturated air
continues to rise and expand -use SALR. Adiabatic cooling of saturated air leads to the
condensation of some of the water vapour and cloud begins to form. Latent heat is released
and this partly counteracts the adiabatic cooling die to expansion. If the air is saturated
the lapse rate is therefore smaller than the DALR. The volume of the SALR depends
upon the press and temperature. Reason for dependence on temperature Air holds more
moisture at higher temperature. More latent heat is released and this reduces the rate
of cooling. Thus it is impossible to speak of single SALR. ELR Each day in any locality
the vertical distribution of temperature with height varies from these average conditions
(vertical divisions atmosphere based on temperature these temperature changes referred
to mean conditions in the atmosphere) Thus Meteorological Observers balloon, which carry
radiosonde equipment high into the atmosphere. In this way pressure, temperature and
humidity at the various levels in the atmosphere can be determined. A knowledge of
vertical distribution of temperature enables ELR to be determined at various levels. ELR
Rate of decrease of temperature with height
the parcel moves farther from its original level, then the surrounding atmosphere is said to
be statically unstable. An initial disturbance in such an atmosphere results in spontaneous
development of the disturbance. If after displacement, the parcel is found to be colder
(and therefore more dense) than its surroundings, its buoyancy will tend to return the
parcel to its original level and the surrounding atmosphere is said to be statically stable.
A disturbance in such an atmosphere must in the 1st instance be forced, since buoyancy
tends to oppose any vertical motion. Clearly there is an intermediate state where vertical
motion is neither encouraged nor opposed; the atmosphere is said to be neutrally stable.
Comparison: Ball-bearing in a watch-glass Glass concave upwards ball in at bottom and
any sideways displacement results in a return to the centre. If glass is convex upwards -
ball remains stationary when it is at the centre, but any sideways displacement results in
further movement away from the centre. In 1st state ball is in stable In 2nd state, unstable
Diagrams
(a) Stable (b) Unstable (c) Neutral
Consider the surroundings of a rising parcel. If they are cooler than the parcel at all
levels (other than the original, where the 2 temperatures are the same) then it is unstable
because the parcel is always warmer, after its initial displacement. For this to be true ELR
> DALR (that is the surroundings are unstable for ascent or descent of dry air). *N.B.
The parcels lapse rate is a consequence of its ascent. If ELR < DALR the surroundings
are stable
When the parcel ascends so far that the cooling causes condensation of some of the
water vapour within it, than the cooling is partly offset by the release of latent heat. Thus
air rising adiabatically, with at the same time some of its water vapour condensing within
it, cools more slowly than dry air lapse rate SALR.
SALR has a small value at high temps but becomes nearly equal to the DALR below -
40o C. This is because at these low temperatures the maximum amount of water which can
be present in the air is very small so that, for a given fall in temperature, the amount of
water vapour which condenses (and hence the amount of latent heat liberated) is so small
that it hardly alters the cooling resulting from expansion. (N.B. The parcel will warm
at the same rate when it is compressed adiabatically by descent only as long as sufficient
liquid water or ice is present to evaporate and keep the air saturated).
Note: Thus the stability of the environment depends on (1) its lapse rate (2) whether
the rising parcel is saturated or not.
Development of Instability and Stability (PROCESSES WHICH CAN CHANGE THE
ELR) ELR of atmosphere varies with space and time. The ELR of a layer in the atmosphere
increases when either the lower part is warmed or the upper part is cooled or both occur
together. (Warming of the lower part may be the result of contact with a warm, underlying
ground or of the replacement of the original air by now, warmer air brought in by the wind
and cooling of the upper part may be the result of heat loss by long-wave radiation is slow,
except when clouds are present). Conversely, ELR if a layer
Thermal Turbulence
The results from the convection currents set up by surface heating (this heating may result
from insolation on the land. Sometimes it also occurs when relatively cool mass of air
passes over a warmer land or sea surface.
The Thermal turbulence sometimes leads to the development of clouds (explanation as
the temp. rises near the earths surface the ELR increases. Eventually, the air becomes
unstable and convection currents become part of the turbulent structure. In convection
clouds, especially in TS, latent heat is released at cloud heights and this energy sets up
updrafts and downdrafts, representing large eddy-type motions. These in turn give rise to
numerous smaller turbulent eddies of various sizes).
Thermal turbulence or convection does not always lead to the development of clouds.
In hot arid regions the humidity of the atmosphere may be too low for condensation to
occur. Turbulence may nevertheless be very great in these regions.
Mechanical Turbulence
This is also known as frictional turbulence and is wide-spread due to roughness of the
earths surface. Turbulence is accentuated by the flow of air over buildings, trees, hills etc.
and is also generated by wind shear.
The eddies produced by mechanical turbulence may rotate about axes in any direction.
They tend to develop more easily if the wind speed is high or if the ELR is great.
50 CHAPTER 4. ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS
Mechanical turbulence tends to be lower over the open sea or relatively smooth ground.
Light winds or calm conditions and stable atmosphere are also conducive to reduced me-
chanical turbulence.
A severe form of turbulence may occur in clear air at high levels in the atmosphere
(this is known as CAT) hazard to aircraft in this region.
Temperature Inversions
Normally temperature decrease with height. But in certain layers, temperature increases
with height. The increase in temperature with height are called temperature inversions.
A surface inversion is an inversion occurring from the ground level upwards. An upper
inversion is an inversion occurring in a layer situated above the earths surface.
Diagram:
The following processes are important in the production of temperature inversions
1. Radiation
2. Turbulence
3. Subsidence
4. Frontal Development
therefore be spread through a thicker layer of air. The top of the inversion therefore occurs
at a greater height.
Turbulence may be greater if the wind is stronger. The mixing then causes the cooler
air to be spread through a much thicker layer. As a result, there is little lowering of
the temperature, and so an inversion does not occur (Inference: Wind strength and the
Consequent turbulence must lie between certain limits, if a deep surface inversion is to
occur.
Turbulence may sometime produce an upper inversion. In the turbulence layers air is
brought downward and heated by adiabatic compression. At the same time, air from lower
levels is raised and cools as a result of adiabatic expansion. After some time, all the air
in the turbulence layer will have undergone adiabatic expansion and compression in this
mixing process. An adiabatic lapse rate will develop within the layer; air at the bottom
will be warmer than formerly, while that at the top will be colder.
Above the turbulence layer the temperature will not be affected by adiabatic cooling.
As a result a turbulence inversion will be produced.
Diagram:
Subsidence Inversion In some regions of the atmosphere whole layer of air many hun-
dreds of metres thick may sink or subside. This process may occur over a wide area and is
know as Subsidence.
This effect is associated with horizontal mass convergence and divergence. Often con-
vergence takes place in the upper troposphere at the same time as divergence occurs near
the earths surface.
Diagram:
As some air flows outwards near the earths surface, it is replaced by other air sinking
downwards from aloft. The downward vertical velocity is greatest at about the middle
of the troposphere. At higher levels beneath the tropopause, the air flows inwards before
it makes its way downwards to lower levels. As the air spreads outward near the earths
surface the thickness of a layer of subsiding air generally decreases in this case the top
of the layer sinks more than the base. Now subsiding air warms due to the fact that is
undergoes adiabatic compression, as it reaches the higher pressure regions near the earths
surface. If the top of the layer subsides more than the base, it will be warmed more than
the base. If the top of the subsidizing layer reaches a higher temperature than its base, a
subsidence inversion is formed.
Subsidence is associated with high pressure areas (anticyclones) convergence aloft may
cause pressures to rise near the earths surface. Low-level div. may then occur initially as
the press grad force drives the air outwards. Gradually, however, the coriolis force increases
with the wind speed and tends to balance the press grad force. The air does not, however,
flow exactly around the isobars. The friction force produces outward cross-isobar flow, and
thus also contributes to the low level div.
52 CHAPTER 4. ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS
Frontal Inversion Fronts may occur between air masses possessing different densities
and temperatures. If warm air is forced to rise overcool air in the vicinity of a frontal zone
the conditions necessary for the formation of an inversion are present. This is known as
a frontal inversion . Note: In addition to a rise in temperature; there is sometimes an
increase in the water vapor content at a frontal inversion. In this way it may differ from
other types of inversions in which a rapid decrease in moisture content usually occurs.
The topics include wind (Beaufort scale of wind force, pressure gradient force, Coriolis
force, frictional force, Geostrophic wind scale, limitations), wind and pressure systems
(circulation cells on a rotating earth, mean surface pressure and wind distribution, climates
of the oceans, monsoons, land and sea breeze, katabatic and anabatic winds, other local
winds)
The atmosphere is always in motion. Ranging from tiny, turbulent whirls or eddies to
immense circulations extending over large areas.
53
54 CHAPTER 5. CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
low pressure) is called the Coriolis force). Three distinct cells are shown in figures 5.3 and
5.4 as follows:
1. Tropical cell (Hadley cell): Air from the low latitudes move towards the equator
and gets heated up. The heated air rises vertically and moves towards the pole in
the upper atmosphere. This forms a convection cell that is found in the tropical and
sub-tropical climates.
3. Polar cell: Air rises, spreads out and travels toward the poles. Once over the poles,
the air sinks forming the polar highs. At the surface, the air spreads out from the
polar highs. Surface winds in the polar cell are easterly (polar easterlies).
It is worth noting the names of the surface climatological winds in figure 5.4 in both
hemispheres.
N.B: You can demonstrate this by turning a piece of paper pinned at the centre and
trying to draw a straight line at the same time.
The Coriolis force is an imaginary deflective force arising from Earths rotation that is
necessary to account for motions measured relative to the surface. This force is maximum
around the poles and very small or zero at the equator.
If the wind is considered very close to the surface, then we introduce friction (in addition
to the PGF and the Coriolis force) which makes the wind blow at an angle to the Isobars.
Figure 5.1: Geostrophic Wind Scale is shown inserted in the upper left corner of the chart
5.6. SOME TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE WIND 57
Veering and Backing: Surface winds shifting anti-clockwise are backing while those
shifting clockwise are veering. The terms were originally used in regards to the wind
direction changing with time. But currently the terms are also used in regards to the
wind direction changing with height.
Wind shear: Change in speed and/or direction of wind over a short distance between
the points of change. Wind shear can be found in thunderstorms and especially jet
streams (a narrow core of very strong winds).
A=T +S (5.1)
Thus the vector A is the sum or resultant of the vectors T and S shown in figure ??
5.7.1 Example 1
An officer on a vessel steaming NNE at 11 12 knots observes the apparent wind to be 6 points
on the port bow at 15 knots. What would be the true wind direction and speed? (Answer:
True wind west 15 knots).
58 CHAPTER 5. CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
5.7.2 Example 2
From a vessel on a course of 243o at 12 knots, the apparent wind was observed to be 120o
at 15 knots. Find the direction and speed of the true wind.
5.7.3 Example 3
Determine the direction and speed of the true wind of a vessel on course 045o at a speed of
15 knots. The observed apparent wind is at 100o at 20 knots.
5.8 Monsoons
This is wind blowing over mountain leaving the windward side with clouds/rain and to the
lee ward side with dry and warmer air.
Diagrams:
Dry adiabatic Lapse Rate (D.A.L.R) 10o C/km Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (S.A.L.R)
6o C/km.
The air rising from A at the wind side is at D.A.L.R. until condensation takes place at
B 1 3 km above ground to form clouds. Then the air moves at S.A.L.R until it gets to D,
3 km above ground. Some moisture is removed due to rain.
On the leeward side, the air descends from D, still at S.A.L.R until E (2 km) when
it dries out, then it descends again at the D.A.L.R until G where the temperature is now
higher than it started at A.
Because it descends a longer distance from E to G it is both drier and hotter and it is
very uncomfortable for those living to leeward side of mountains.
Diagram:
These are waves set up by the wind blowing over mountains.
These stationary waves extend to height about 5 times the height of the mountains
causing them and extending so many miles to the leeward. Altocumulus clouds form in the
crests of the waves. These are used by gliders who ride the waves for long distances.
Diagram:
5.9.6 Turbulence
Turbulence is defined as the small scale and short time variations in wind (both strength
and direction). Two types exist (Thermal, Frictional).
Turbulence can be found over land surface due to buildings, forests, jet streams, etc.
Their effect on aircraft in flight or take off or landing cannot be over emphasized.
Wind Shear
Diagram:
Change in speed and or direction of wind over a short distance between the points of
change. Wind Shear can be found in thunderstorms and especially jet streams (A narrow
core of strong winds).
Effects of wind shear on aircraft regarding head wind and then tail wind are vital in
planning flights economically and for passenger comfort.
60 CHAPTER 5. CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Figure 5.4: Circulation cells on a rotating earth with names of the winds
5.9. LOCAL WINDS 63
Figure 5.5: (a) Ideal Zonal Pressure Belts, (b) Actual Zonal Pressure Belts
Figure 5.6: Wind in geostrophic balance flowing (A) along parallel and (B) curved isobars
64 CHAPTER 5. CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Figure 5.7: Frictionless circulation around closed isobars in the Northern Hemisphere
Figure 5.8: Frictionless circulation around closed isobars in the Southern Hemisphere
5.9. LOCAL WINDS 65
Figure 5.9: Friction causing geostrophic wind to cross parallel isobars toward low pressure
The topics include water vapour, lapse rates, formation of cloud and precipitation, principal
cloud types, description
67
68 CHAPTER 6. CLOUD AND PRECIPITATION
gives a detailed account of the present system of classification, illustrated by a large number
of carefully selected photographs.
1. Cirrus (Ci). Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, or white or
mostly white patches or narrow bands. These clouds have a fibrous (hair-like) ap-
pearance or a silky sheen or both.
2. Cirrocumulus (Cc). Thin, white patch, sheet or layer of cloud without shading, com-
posed of very small elements in the form of grains, ripples, etc
4. Altocumulus (Ac). White or grey, or both white and grey, patch, sheet or layer
of cloud,generally without shading, composed of laminae, rounded masses, rolls, etc
which are sometimes partly fibrous of diffuse, and which may or may not be merged.
5. Altostratus (As). Greyish or bluish cloud sheet or layer of striated, fibrous or uniform
appearance, totally or partly covering the sky. It has parts that are thin enough to
reveal the sun at least vaguely, as through ground glass.
6. Nimbostratus (Ns). Grey cloud layer, often dark, the appearance of which is rendered
diffuse by more or less continually falling rain or snow which in most cases reaches
the ground. It can blot out the sun because it is thick enough. Most often low, ragged
clouds occur below the layer. The low clouds may or may not merge with the layer.
7. Stratocumulus (Sc). Grey or whitish, or both grey and whitish, patch, sheet or layer of
cloud which almost always has dark parts, composed of tessellations, rounded masses,
rolls, etc, which are non-fibrous (except for virga) and may or may not be merged.
8. Stratus (St). Generally grey cloud layer with a fairly uniform base, which may give
drizzle, ice prism or snow grains.
9. Cumulus (Cu). Detached clouds, generally dense and with sharp outlines, developing
vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes or towers, of which the bulging upper
part often resembles a cauliflower.
6.2. PRINCIPAL CLOUD TYPES 69
10. Cumulonimbus (Cb). Heavy and dense cloud, with a considerable vertical extent, in
the form of a mountain or huge towers.
Clouds can be classified as low, medium and high depending on the heights at which
the bases of clouds occur. The approximate height-ranges vary with latitude as indicated in
table 6.2.
Generally, the clouds in each of these layers are distinctive. Thus Ci, Cc and Cs are
normally high clouds, Ac, As and Ns medium clouds, St, Sc, Cu and Cb low clouds.
Clouds can also be classified as
1. layered, or stratiform, clouds;
2. heaped, or cumliform, clouds;
3. fibrous, or cirriform, clouds.
1. Orographic uplift
2. Frontal Lifting
3. Convergence
4. Localized Convection
Formation of clouds
1. Adiabatic expansion
Dispersal of clouds
1. Evaporation
2. Fall-out as precipitation.
Cloud Movement
At any given height, clouds general move with the speed and direction of the wind at
that height.
6.3. PRECIPITATION 71
6.3 Precipitation
Precipitation is the deposit on the earths surface of water in liquid or solid state or a
combination of both. The principal forms are
Drizzle water droplets with diameters between 200m (i.e. microns) and 500m.
Ice pellets, prisms or granular snow also occur, usually but not always, precipitation is
associated with a cloud. On occasions it can be seen leaving the base of a cloud in vertical
or inclined trails which do not reach the surface, which are termed fallstreaks or virga.
Diagram:-
Mechanical Turbulence
Air flow over the earths surface is generally deformed by frictional forces into a series of
eddies. This turbulent motion is accentuated by buildings, trees, hills etc.
Air in the friction layer is thoroughly mixed by mechanical turbulence [if the layer is
initially stable, the upper part will be cooled and lower portion warmed. As a result, a dry
adiabatic lapse rate may become established in the layer if the air remains unsaturated.
Similarly, the turbulence mixes the H20 vapour in the turbulent layer (it is carried
up and down within the layer, cooling as it rises and warming as it falls. If, during the
ascent, it cools to below the dew-point, condensation will occur, this level marking the base
of a layer of turbulent cloud). The w.v. content in the layer therefore tends to become
evened out. As a result, the air may become saturated at some distance below the top of
the friction layer. Condensation may then occur at a height above the ground known as the
mixing condensation level (MCL). This represents the base of the cloud.
[If cloud forms by turbulence the DALR will only extend up its base (MCL). The SALR
will then extend to the top of the turbulence inversion at the upper limit of the friction
layer].
The cloud formed by turbulence is initially stratus, a sheet cloud without definite form.
It may either continue as such, or else the upper and lower surface may develop a wave-like
appearance.
When these undulations occur, the thickness of the cloud may then vary, an sometimes
breaks may be seen. These arise as a result of cloud being formed in the up currents, and
evaporated in the down currents. This is classed as stratocumulus.
[Turbulence clouds may also develop below rain-bearing clouds, such N3 AS and . They
are the very ragged clouds
Diagram:-
[These clouds derive their moisture from the evaporation of raindrops and surface rain
H20. Turbulence near the earths surface then produces ragged low clouds in the air beneath
the main cloud formation.
Sometimes high SC or AC are observed when the wind changes with height through
a humid layer, high above the friction layer. Turbulent motion may then occur at these
heights, but usually some other factor is responsible for the high w.v content. The moisture
has not been transferred to that level by direct mixing due to turbulence near the earths
surface] [This type of cloud is common when Tm air reaches temperate latitudes. Here the
R.H becomes even higher. Under these conditions a layer of cloud can be wide-spread and
persistent over the oceans at any season, and overland areas for much of the year although
inland in summer the cloud will often become broken or even disappear altogether during
the day. Over land the most rapid changes in turbulence and RH take place in the early
6.3. PRECIPITATION 73
evening and again after dawn; it is at these times that changes in turbulence cloud are most
likely with fresh clouds being formed and/or existing cloud dissipating. Over the open sea
(in the absence of air-mass changes) there is the little diurnal variation of temperatures;
humidity or turbulence, and therefore there are fever changes in cloud types and amounts.]
Orographic Ascent
When moist air is blown against rising ground such as a range of hills or a mountainous
island (or barrier of hills of mountain ranges) the forced ascent (both near the surface and
at upper levels) and adiabatic cooling can lead to condensation and cloud may form. The
type of cloud depends on some factors eg. Stability of the air in which it is formed.
Stratus is frequently formed in moist stable air.
Cumulus is characteristic of air which is slightly unstable. If instability is established
through a great depth of the atmosphere, cb may develop.
If moisture content is insufficient, no clouds are formed. Orographic clouds forms
continuously on the windward side of the hill or mountain, but clears on the lee side (due
to descent and thus warming).
Sometimes cloud formed high above the hill or mountain.
When there is a layer of almost saturated air aloft, orographic lifting of the air may
cause condensation to occur above the obstruction. A persistent cloud cap may form.
Viewed from below, it is thin at the ends with a thicker an broader centre, shaped like
a lens lenticular cloud.
Diagram:-
Convection
When a portion of parcel of air is heated to a temperature higher than the surrounding
atmosphere, the parcel will rise freely (if the ELR . DALR up to the condensation level)
and will continue to rise, accompanied by cloud development, (if the ELR . SALR above
this level).
* It combines with mechanical turbulence to mix the air the lower layers of the atmo-
sphere.
[Generally, the ELR tends to the DALR, while the air remains unsaturated. This lapse
rate may be established up to the CCL cloud forms at this level, but the extent of its upward
development depends on a number of factors. Example ELR in the air above the cloud
base.
If ELR SALR, the atmosphere is unstable for saturated parcels of air. The saturated
air is forced to rise. It continues to rise until it reaches a level where it is no longer warmer
than its surroundings].
A cumuliform cloud depends in this way. (Their vertical extent varies 1km 10km).
Isolated convection clouds of limited extent are called fair-weather cumulus. Their vertical
74 CHAPTER 6. CLOUD AND PRECIPITATION
development is insufficient for precipitation to occur. Sometimes the vertical currents are
terminated by a marked inversion above the CCL. The top of the cloud then spreads out
beneath the inversion and the cloud develops into SC.
[Convection may be caused by local heating of the air in contact with the ground as a
sunny days over land, or by cool air moving over progressively warmer sea, as occurs in
the trade wind belt or when polar air flows to more temperate latitudes. This warmed air
over land or sea cannot rise as a single mass over a large area because other air must fall
to take its place; it therefore ascends in distinct columns, hence the well-known pattern of
individual clouds with clear spaces between where the air is descending. Such columns or
heaps of cloud are known as cumulus]
If ELR above the condensation level the SALR through a deep layer an dif sufficient
moisture is available clouds may then extend to great heights. Sometimes even up to level
where ice crystals form cb (the TS cloud).
Diagram:- Cb with Fibrous Top The veil of ice crystals that surrounds the upper parts
of the clouds gives it a smooth fibrous appearance which distinguishes it from a Cu cloud.
Slight or heavy precipitation may develop according to the degree of instability and to
the height and temperature reaches.
7.1.1 Haze
Meteorological Visibility by Night:
Greatest distance at which the black object of A suspension of predominantly non-aqueous,
suitable dimensions could be seen and recog- solid particles (e.g. smoke and dust) invisi-
nized, if the general illumination were raised ble to the naked eye and sufficiently numer-
to the normal daylight level. In practice un- ous (to give the air an opalescent appear-
focused lights of moderate intensity at known ance). It is very rare for haze to reduce visi-
distances are used. The silhouttes of hills bility to less than 1km (industrial and desert
and mountains against the sky may also be areas) but there is no upper limit. To en-
used. sure that the concentration of any droplets
75
76 CHAPTER 7. VISIBILITY AND FOG
present is very small, the RH must be low essential difference between these types is in
to make even droplets containing a high pro- the mode of cooling. In radiational fog, the
portion of solute evaporate. RH is less than air remains stationary or slow moving while
95% (80%? check). In most cases the par- the ground cools while in advection fog, the
ticles composing haze are small enough to air is transported to a place of lower surface
cause differential scattering of sunlight and temperature.
to contribute for example to sunrise and sun-
set colours. Radiation fog
This is caused by cooling of the ground by
7.1.2 Mist nocturnal radiation. It occurs on cloudless
nights when radiation from the earth has cooled
A state of atmospheric obscurity produced
its surface to below the dewpoint of the air
by suspended water droplets or wet hygro-
adjacent to it. Conduction cools this air un-
scopic particles with radii usually less than
til condensation takes place.
one micron. The visibility is greater than
Air is a poor conductor and the cooling
or equal to 1 km; the corresponding RH is
may be limited in depth to a few centime-
greater than or equal to 95%. The droplets
tres. Dew or frost may then form on the
(are smaller and) are more sparse than in
cooler ground, removing water vapour from
fog. And the concentration of solute within
the air. Any turbulence will, however, cause
them is usually higher (so that they can per-
mixing of the air and the cooling may then
sist at lower values of the RH, down to about
spread through a greater depth. If turbulence
80%?).
is sufficient, stratus cloud may form.
If the wind is light (3-7 kts) and less tur-
7.1.3 Fog bulence occurs, fog may be formed. The cold
saturated air is carried to higher levels and
Obscurity in the surface layers of the atmo-
drier air is brought to the surface, which in
sphere which is caused by a suspension of wa-
turn is cooled and saturated. As the process
ter droplets (with or without smoke particles
continues the whole layer of air become sat-
-smog) with radii mostly in the range 1 to
urated. A temperature inversion is often as-
10, reducing visibility to below 1km. RH
sociated with radiation fog, which, acting as
is nearly 100% (100 for pure water and less
lid, keeps the fog lower down and causes it
when droplets contain large concentrations of
to thicken
the soluble nuclei). Here visibility depends
The conditions favourable for the forma-
on sizes and concentrations of droplets in
tion of radiation fog include
it. When they are small or numerous - poor
visibility. When the particles are large or 1. Cooling effect of the ground in the night
sparse, visibility is not so bad. In general, must be very strong (i.e. large terres-
however, condensation is usually associated trial radiation)
with a cold underlying surface. There are
two distinct types of fog that occur in this 2. Cloudless sky (permitting loss of radi-
way; radiation fog and advection fog. The ation from surface)
7.1. FACTORS AFFECTING VISIBILITY 77
3. Air mass must be sufficiently moist: South America. Note that the areas men-
high RH so that little cooling is required tioned have cold sea currents flowing through
to reach the dew point (i.e. high dew them.
point) Ashore, it is particularly likely when in
winter, after a cold spell, a supply of milder
4. Little or no wind (slight turbulence):
air arrives from the sea. The air is cooled by
confining the cooling to the lower lay-
the colder land surface over which it passes
ers
and fog is formed.
The methods of dispersal of radiation fog
include Mixing fog
Air Mass: A large body of air (with dimensions of the order of 1000 km) and with little
or no horizontal variation of any of its properties (like temperature and moisture). That
is, level for level, its temperature and moisture content are approximately the same over
large horizontal distances.
Source Regions: Parts of the earths surface where air masses stagnate, and gradually
assume characteristics typical of that surface. Prolonged stagnation of an air mass is
commonly found in the central parts of large, slow-moving anticyclones, especially those in
the subtropical and Polar high-pressure belts
Air Mass Classification:
1. Temperature: In order of increasing latitude (a) Equatorial air, (b) Tropical, (c)
Polar, (d) Arctic (or Antarctic) air. It is difficult to distinguish between (a) and
(b) as sharp differences in temperature are rarely maintained for long periods in the
warmer regions of the earth. However, Arctic (or Antarctic) air is extremely cold and
dry (because it can hold very little moisture). It is sometimes possible to distinguish a
front between (c) and (d). Equatorial air is mostly warm, moist and often unstable,
especially after lifting. The equatorial belt is the region between the two trade wind
zones
2. Moisture: (a) Maritime, (b) Continental. The generalizations are (a) Tropical Mar-
itime (Tm ), (b) Tropical Continental (Tc ) , (c) Polar Maritime (Pm ) and Polar
Continental (Pc ).
Air Mass Characteristics
Tropical Maritime (Tm ) Air Mass: Its source regions are the subtropical anticyclones
in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It starts with a high temperature, high relative
humidity and high dew-point.
79
80 CHAPTER 8. AIR MASSES: FRONTAL AND SYNOPTIC SYSTEMS
Tropical Continental (Tc ) Air Mass: Its source region during winter is north Africa.
During summer the source occupies a vast area extending across North Africa and
Southern Europe to eastern Asia; another source region in Summer is the arid region
of North America to the west of the Mississippi. It is warm at its source with low
relative and absolute humidity.
Polar Maritime (Pm ) Air Mass: Its source regions are the northern parts of the North
Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. At the source, it has low temperature, low dew
point, high relative humidity and stable lapse rate at least in the lower layers.
Polar Continental (Pc ) and Arctic: Its source regions are the northern parts of the
Eurasian and North American continents and are more extensive in winter than in
summer. The arctic regions, situated between these two areas constitute the source
region for arctic air. Since at the source the Pc and A air masses are in contact
with a surface mostly covered with snow or ice, the air and dew-point temperatures
are low; (the lapse rate is stable in the lower layers and perhaps also aloft because of
subsidence).
Equatorial: The equatorial belt included between the two trade wind zones form an
extensive source region of equatorial air which for most part is warm, moist and often
unstable, especially after lifting.
1. Cold air over warm surface: If a cold air mass moves over a warmer surface, it is
heated from below (Thermal instability then develops in the lower layers and spreads
upwards. If the air originally contained inversions, these will be destroyed, and a
uniform steep lapse rate will be established in the lower troposphere). If it travels
over water, its moisture content will increase (transfer of water vapour by convection
to higher levels will result in condensation and cloud formation: cu, large cu and
finally cb). Showers and thunderstorm may occur.
2. Warm air over cold surface: If a warm air mass moves over a colder surface it is
cooled from below and becomes increasingly stable. Thus stable weather results. If the
air near the earths surface is cooled below its dew point, fog or stratus may form.
(Poor visibility or drizzle may occur).
Chapter 9
Fronts
This is more correctly called frontal zone. It is a zone of transition in which the properties
of one air mass gradually change to those of another. The frontal zone could be many
kilometers across. The two air masses could have different densities. A front is marked
on a chart by a line and this line is called a front. The interaction of two air masses at
a front or frontal zone is responsible for much cloud and precipitation. Note that the front
represented by a line on the chart marks only the dividing line on the earths surface; the
two air masses, however extend upwards and the division is really a surface in space; this
is known as a frontal surface.
Arctic front: It is the boundary between arctic and polar air masses. It lies further
north than the polar front but is often displaced southwards into temperate latitudes
in winter.
Mediterranean front: This usually extends from west to east over the mediterranean
in winter and forms the boundary between Pc air from Europe and Tc air from north
Africa. There is no corresponding front in this region in Summer.
Inter-tropical front: It lies within the tropics and marks the rather broad zones of
separation between air masses conveyed by the trade winds from source regions on
opposite sides of the equator. This arrangement is, however, subject to modification
by monsoonal winds, particularly those of Asia. The front is usually less well defined
than the fronts previously mentioned . Partly for this reason, the name inter-tropical
convergence zone (ITCZ) is sometimes preferred. Its position normally varies little
from day to day but undergoes a regular seasonal shift during the course of the year.
81
82 CHAPTER 9. FRONTS
Extra-tropical Depressions
A marked concentration of potential energy occurs in the vicinity of the polar front. A
natural mechanism which provides for the release of this energy is wave depression or wave
cyclone. It is called extra-tropical because it occurs outside the tropics. Extra-tropical
depressions may sometimes develop in the absence of a front. However, those that do
form along a front are associated with a wavelike twist on the front. Some of these waves
undergo little or no change and eventually die - ripple or stable waves. However, sometimes
the amplitude of the wave increases until great masses of polar or tropical air are carried
away from their source regions and eventually become modified and mixed together. These
types are called unstable waves. These grow in amplitude until they eventually break like
ocean waves.
87
88 CHAPTER 10. EXTRA-TROPICAL DEPRESSIONS
or warm sector depression. This is the case of an unstable wave. [Waves are unstable only
if the wavelength lies between 800 and 2000 miles and if there is a sufficiently rapid change
(shear) of wind between the two air masses. With the unstable waves, a fall of pressure
occurs where the warm air intrudes into the cold and a cyclonic circulation is then created.
The front moves with the circulating winds as the depression develops. There is a general
translation of the system in addition to the development or deepening process as the winds
have a value roughly equal to geostrophic and the fronts are carried along with them. The
depression itself, traveling with the fronts, usually has a velocity roughly equal in speed and
direction to that of the geostrophic wind in the warm air].
Continuously falling pressure implies convergence into the depression so that air is
forced to rise.
Diagrams
Characteristics of Open Wave Depression
Size: Weather affecting order of 105 NM2
Time: Developing 2 days; Mature 1 day; Decaying 2-3 days
4
Speed of movement: Suggest 5 Vg (geostrophic speed) in warm sector. For example,
20-40 KT, occasionally 60 KT.
Direction of movement: Parallel to isobars in warm sector. It is also parallel to thick-
ness lines and lines joining maximum pressure falls and rises.
Separation: Next depression is not likely to develop closer than 700NM along polar front
Activity of Fronts Fronts shown with clouds extending to near the tropopause and
hence with much associated weather, are examples of active fronts - Ana fronts. This ac-
tivity is affected by motion in the warm air having an upward component. Weak fronts
are known as Kata fronts. In these cases the vertical motion in the warm air has a down-
ward component. Ana fronts may change to kata during the life time, a process known as
Frontolysis. Generally an active warm front is followed by a weak cold front and vice versa.
Conditions here are typical of a polar air mass (described earlier) but there are modifi-
cations because of the frontal developments. In the cold air in advance of the warm front
when the sky becomes covered with high and medium cloud, surface heating by the sun is
reduced and the diurnal cumulus type of cloud is either very restricted in the vertical because
of the shallow depth of cold air or does not form at all. There may also be some pre-frontal
subsidence of air, making lapse rate more stable than in a typical cold air mass. (The
clearance of low cumiliform clouds on the arrival of the high clouds of a new depression is
often very noticeable). In the cold air behind the cold front, subsidence often clears the sky
completely soon after the frontal rain has ceased ; there may then be an interval of clear
Wx lasting a few hours before he convection clouds and showers of the cold air begin to
appear.
Diagram:
[Wish the approach of a steep well-developed cold front]
We associated with occluded Fronts See Page 19/20
In both types of occlusions, a trough of warm air is pushed aloft from the warm sector.
Clouds and ppn may occur in this warm air, as the cold air squeezes it upward. In many
cases, interaction between the 2 cold surface air masses also produces clouds and ppn in
the lower levels accompanying the wind shift line. However, the actual type of Wx depends
on the structure and action of the occluded front. Some of the characteristics of both cold
and warm front may often be present, but the sequence of events is more complex than
before occlusion. As the occlusion process continues, the warm sector is displaced more and
more draft. The cyclone eventually becomes completely surrounded by cold air in the low
levels. By the time this occurs, the air masses become completely modified or mixed. The
depression then decreases in intensity, until it dies out completely.
Occluded Depression
The depression usually continues to deepen until an advanced stage in the occluding
process is reached. By then the supply of warm air has been cut off and the depth of
the depression subsequently changes little. At the same time the centre, previously carried
along with the warm air, becomes almost stationary. ( The last stage in the life of a
normal frontal depression is thus a stationary or slowly moving system of circulating polar
air.) This decaying depression fills up very slowly and is often very persistent unless the
circulation is destroyed by the approach of a new vigorous depression, in which case an old
and deep occluded centre may fill up completely within 24 hours. During the occluding and
decaying stages, the Wx usually tends to improve slowly. The frontal cloud and rain become
gradually less extensive but instability cloud and showers may become more general, their
intensity and extent varying with the characteristics of the cold air and the thermal and
dynamical processes to which it is subjected. Hence the Wx in old depressions ranges from
conditions of little cloud to widespread convective cloud with showers and thunderstorms.
During the decay of the depression the winds decline slowly and clearing skies over the land
at night may permit radiation fog to develop.
Families of frontal Depressions
10.2. THE OCCLUSION PROCESS 91
types of depressions. In the description above, the low pressure is accounted for by the
difference in temperature between the heated air and its surroundings. Assuming a stable
temperature lapse rate, these depressions are usually rather shallow and of little significance.
If, however the lapse rate should increase to a point where it exceeds the limit of stability
(that is if lapse rate is unstable or becomes so as a result of continued heating so that
instability showers breakout then there is an increased likelihood of a fall in surface pressure
and dev. Of a depression) a deeper and more serious depression may result. Especially if
the air becomes saturated, the liberation of latent heat of condensation of water vapor will
contribute to the process of convection (by providing additional energy) which, if it becomes
widespread, may lead to the development of a vigorous depression.
Types of Thermal Low
The temperature of inland waters in early winter is relatively high compared with the
air temperature over the surrounding land. In consequence, when a fresh outbreak of polar
air spreads over such waters, the air often becomes unstable and a local depression results
e.g.. Over Great Lakes of North America, and over the northern Mediterranean and the
Black Sea. Depressions give local showers and squalls- winds circulate in ordinary cyclonic
manner but there are often large deviations caused by orographic and Katabatic effects on
the coasts; local gales and calms are typical of the coastal areas in the conditions. When the
pressure gradient is slight, surface heating over land in summer may lead to the formation
of shallow depressions sometimes these are of little significance but when associated with
vertical instability or with pre-existing fronts they may result in deteriorations such as
squalls, widespread rain or outbreaks of TS. (Central and Western Europe).
Monsoon Low
Tends to develop over a large continent in summer; the South Asiatic monsoon low
which controls the general circulation over that area is the outstanding one. The weather
in a monsoon low does not follow any regular pattern being very dependent on topography
and on the characteristics of the air masses which are drawn into the area of the depression.
Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt
This may be regarded as a permanent heat low encircling the earth in tropical latitudes.
The lapse rate is generally steep and there is heavy showery precipitation.
Orographic Depressions
Cause: Wind blowing across mountain range creates low pressure area on the lee side,
often a trough, sometimes a circulation.
Diagram:
Weather:
This pure orographic low is a shallow feature and has little or no associated weather,
but topography may intensify frontal weather and create low.
Eg. South Greenland N.B. Lows of this type prefer to move around high ground rather
than over it. Example: Genoa low.
Check:
94 CHAPTER 10. EXTRA-TROPICAL DEPRESSIONS
95
96 CHAPTER 11. PRINCIPAL ISOBARIC SYSTEM
term is used interchangeably with cyclone. A cyclone of middle and high latitudes is called
a depression. A tropical cyclone of moderate intensity is a tropical storm: if of great
intensity, a tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean, Arabian sea or Bay of bengal is termed a
cyclone, in the western Pacific a typhoon, in western Australia a willy-willy, in most
other tropical latitudes a hurricane.
The associated weather is unsettled, often with much precipitation and strong winds or
gales.
11.4 Ridge
1. The ridge is sometimes called wedge. In meteorology, an elongated area of relatively
high atmospheric pressure, almost always associated with and most clearly identified
as an area of maximum anticyclonic curvature of wind flow. The locus of this max-
imum curvature is called the ridge line. Sometimes, particularly in discussions of
atmospheric waves embedded in the westerlies, a ridge line is considered to be a line
drawn through all points at which the anticyclonically curved isobars or contour lines
are tangent to a latitude circle. The most common use of this term is to distinguish
it from the closed circulation of a high (or anticyclone); but a ridge may include a
high (and an upper-air ridge may be associated with a surface high) and a high may
have one or more distinct ridges radiating from its center. The opposite of a ridge is
a trough.
A ridge in which maximum curvature of isobars along the ridge line (or axis of the
ridge) is relatively small is termed a flat ridge and tends to be a faster-moving
isobaric feature than one in which the curvature is great.
A ridge is associated with fair, anticyclonic type weather.
2. The term ridge is also used as reference to other meteorological quantities such as
equivalent potential temperature, temperature, and mixing ratio. That is, an elongated
area of relatively high values of any particular field emanating from a maximum.
11.5 Trough
In meteorology, an elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure; the opposite of a
ridge. The axis of a trough is the trough line. This term is commonly used to distinguish
11.6. COL 97
the previous condition from the closed circulation of a low (or cyclone), but a large-scale
trough may include one or more lows, an upper-air trough may be associated with a lower-
level low, and a low may have one or more distinct troughs radiating from it. The trough
is said to be deep, or shallow, according as the maximum curvature of the isobars along
the trough line is great or small respectively.
11.6 Col
This is also called saddle point or neutral point. In meteorology, the point of intersection of
a trough and a ridge in the pressure pattern of a weather map. It is the point of relatively
lowest pressure between two highs and the point of relatively highest pressure between two
lows.
In short, a col is the indefinite isobar configuration between two highs and two lows
arranged alternately, and has no particular type of weather associated with it other than
light winds. See figure 11.1 for an illustration of the pressure systems.
The topics include definition, African easterly waves, tropical cyclone development, struc-
ture, evidence of its presence, location and season for storms, nomenclature, SOLAS reg-
ulations, Masters action, plotting the storm, avoiding action, precautions, etc
There is a distinction between a tropical depression (winds of beaufort force less than
6), a tropical storm (force 6 to 11) and depending on locality, a cyclone, hurricane
or typhoon (force 12 or greater). The word storm is commonly used for any violent
atmospheric phenomenon, such as a gale, thunderstorm, squall line, rainstorm, dust storm,
snow storm. In Synoptic meteorology, it is applied to an active centre of low pressure with
which are associated gales, precipitation, etc.
The more intense tropical cyclones are confined to fairly specific regions and seasons
which, broadly speaking, are the western sides of the great tropical oceans beyond 5o from
the equator, towards the end of the hot season or seasons. More specifically, the main
oceanic regions and times are shown in table 12.1.
The centre pressure of the more intense tropical cyclones is often about 960mb and
pressure at the periphery about 1020 mb. These values are comparable to those of mid-
99
100 CHAPTER 12. TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS
latitude depression but the tropical storm diameter is much smaller (500 miles compared to
1500 miles) and pressure gradients and winds are correspondingly greater. Very low surface
pressures are sometimes attained. Pressure tendencies are very large near the centre of an
intense tropical cyclone.
A tropical cyclone generally moves initially towards west or north-west in the northern
Hemisphere and towards west or south-west in the Southern Hemisphere: the speed is
generally about 10 kts. Recurvature of the cyclone, (i.e. change of path direction towards
N-E in the northern Hemisphere and towards S-E in the Southern Hemisphere) sometimes
occurs at about latitudes 20 to 30o . After recurvature, the cyclone tends to assume the
characteristics of a mid-latitude depression.
Apart from the central eye region, some 10 miles in diameter, heavy and continuous
rain and multi-layer cloud occupy the central regions of the cyclone, with more showery
precipitation towards the edges. Decay of a cyclone is generally rapid after passage inland.
A sufficient supply of real and latent heat (sea surface temperature of at least 27o C or
80o F) at a distance from the equator (at least some 5o latitude) sufficient for the Coriolis
force to be active are necessary conditions for the formation of a tropical storm. [The
precise mechanism which cause shallow tropical cyclones to form, or having formed, to
intensify to a tropical storm or hurricane are yet uncertain].
Tropical storms are typically a phenomenon of the summer and autumn months - June
to October in the northern Hemisphere and December to April in the southern Hemisphere.
They usually reach their maximum frequency in August and September or January and
February according to the Hemisphere, although in this respect the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea are anomalous, the storms being there more common with the advancing and
retreating monsoon than at its height.
These storms most frequently originate near the inter-tropical front and appear to result
from the marked instability which is often characteristic of this region. Much of the energy
is derived from the latent heat set free by condensation of water vapor; The storms occur
mainly over the western parts of the tropical oceans where the trade winds have had a long
passage over the sea, and often in areas where the air on the equator-ward side of the inter-
tropical front has crossed over from the other hemisphere and has become almost saturated.
[Once a storm has formed, the circulatory velocity is so great that no frontal structure can
persist and it becomes an almost symmetrical circular depression. The mechanism by which
the energy of latent heat released by condensation is converted to intense circulatory motion
appear to be mainly that for thermal depressions but it cannot be claimed that the process
is as yet fully understood.]
Factors
One factor contributing to the intensity of the storm is the high humidity and degree of
instability present before hand. Another factor is the latitude, since for a given pressure
gradient the strength of the associated winds increases as the equator is approached. How-
ever, no storms are found within 5o of the equator (this is because the coriolis force there
is too small to produce any circulation).
101
Over land, tropical cyclones do not form even when conditions are extremely unstable.
It seems that most of the inflow to a storm takes place near the bottom and that the amount
of water vapor so taken in over the land is likely to be less than over the sea where the air
currents are very moist. Possibly an additional factor is the increased surface friction over
the land; (reduces speed as well as water vapor).
Premonitory indications (both on ground and aloft) include:
Ocean Swells: The strong winds of a cyclone often set up a heavy swell which spreads
out far from the storm centre. This should serve as a warning but its absence should not
be taken to indicate no storm exists in the area).
Surface Pressure: The characteristic diurnal variation of pressure in the tropics shows
up clearly on a station or ships barograph as a double wave with maxima at 1000 and 2200
local time and minima at 0400 and 1600. Any tendency to a general fall of pressure, or
even a departure from the regular oscillation, should be looked on as a likely indication of
an approaching or developing storm.
Wind: Since a cyclone develops in a region where winds are light, any marked in-
crease of wind may be taken as a reliable warning, while the direction of the centre may be
inferred from that of the wind by the usual rule. If a cyclonic circulation of strong winds is
observed, then the existence of a cyclone is certainly established even though its subsequent
intensification remains uncertain.
Use of altimeters: The pressure altimeter is of little use in maintaining constant
altitude in the neighborhood of a cyclone because the rapid fall of pressure towards the centre
causes serious over-reading. However, if the pressure altimeter is used in conjunction with
the radio altimeter, it is possible to find out whether the aircraft is moving towards or away
from the centre since both the pressure at a given height, and the height at a given pressure
altitude, decrease towards the centre. This decrease is gradual in the outer parts of the
storm but becomes more rapid as the centre is approached.
Cloud and precipitation: The instability conditions usually associated with the inter-
tropical front become intensified in the earliest stage of the development of a cyclone, when
compact masses of convective clouds are present with heavy showers and thunderstorm.
After the cyclonic circulation has started, the cloud formations tend to become arranged
in bands along the wind or more or less concentric with the centre but spiraling inwards
so that the central area of the storm (outside the eye) forms an extensive unbroken cloud
mass. Subsidence takes place between these cloud bands in the outer part of the storm, as
well as in the eye. The vertical extent of the clouds appears to be greater over the inner
core of the storm - apart from the eye, which may be cloudless - and commonly reaches
to cirrus levels. If flight is above cloud, the approach to a storm may be indicated only by
thick bands of cirrus, but while the existence of a storm may on occasions be revealed by the
upper or lower cloud formations, these are apt to be misleading as a guide to the position of
the centre. The cloud base is often about 1000 ft and occasionally on the surface in heavy
rain. Visibility below the cloud base is poor in strong winds on account of spray.
Use of radar (airborne): This is valuable especially at night when visual indications
102 CHAPTER 12. TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS
are lacking. The spiraling cloud system can be easily recognized on the radar screen at
distances of some 30 to 40 miles and the position of the eye accurately fixed. A disadvantage
is that this method gives little or no indication of the intensity of the storm.
Turbulence: Two kinds of turbulence are important in this case; (1) Severe turbulence
is present in the active convective clouds within the storm and in low-level flight can be
avoided by flying below the clouds, (2) Frictional turbulence is generated in the lowest
layers by strong winds (Increases in intensity with the strength of the winds become severe
when the wind exceeds 50 kts and dangerous when it exceeds 80 kts).
Low-level frictional turbulence can best be avoided by increasing the flight altitude to
about 5000 ft (possibly without entering the clouds). Strong, large-scale, updrafts and down-
drafts may also be encountered in various parts of the storm.
Vertical Extent: When a new cyclone forms, (first in the lowest layers) the height
affected increases rapidly during the first day or two, (sometimes reaching 30,000 ft and
possibly exceeding 50,000 ft). [Most of the penetrations made by reconnaissance aircraft
have taken place at about 1500 ft since accurate navigation requires the sea to be kept in
view most of the time so that the wind may be determined at frequent intervals]. If a flight
is continuously in cloud, navigation becomes uncertain because of the absence of precise
wind information. The greatest danger in flying blind through these storms lies in getting
lost because of a combination of the strong variable winds and a failure - due to static
of radio aids. [It can not be said what height would be necessary to ascend in order to fly
above the weather, but the minimum safe height no doubt tends to increase with the age
of the storm (skc 10,000 ft is exceptional)].
Avoidance of a storm when in flight
Storm Field - The horizontal area covered by the cyclonic conditions of the storm
Vertex Cod - The furthest westerly point reached by the storm centre
Angle of indraught - The angle which the wind makes with isobars
Dangerous Semi-Circle - The half of the storm which lies to the right of the path in
the Northern Hemisphere and the left of the path in the Southern Hemisphere
Dangerous Quadrant - The leading portion of the dangerous semi-circle where the
winds blow towards the path.
Navigable Semi-Circle - the half of the storm which lies to the left of the path in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the right of the path in the Southern Hemisphere.
Trough line - A line through the centre of the storm at right angles to the path. The
dividing line between falling and rising pressure.
Diagram
104 CHAPTER 12. TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS
Chapter 13
Ice
The freezing temperature of sea water with the normal 3.5% of salt, is approximately, -
1.8 C. Sea ice forms in early winter, thickens throughout the winter months, and thaws in
spring and summer. There are areas where ice survives all year round.
105
106 CHAPTER 13. ICE
global climate. Less ice cover will affect the socio-economic and ecosystems in the north
polar region. The continuing loss of Arctic sea ice will lead to less heat being reflected
into space. This could lead to faster warming and a greater loss of arctic ice ( a positive
feedback). Note that both sea ice and glacier ice cool the Earth by reflecting solar radiation.
Sea ice conditions are reported with reference to the date, time, and geographical position
of the observer and the particular perspective, or field of view. The field of view from an
airplane is very different from the field of view from the bridge of a ship or from the
shoreline. There are separate forms for reporting sea ice and glacier ice.
Icebergs and River ice are formed from fresh water
The temperature of the sea will vary from almost 32o C(90o F) in the equatorial regions
to -2o C (28 1/2oF) at the edge of the ice in the polar regions If the temperature of the water
is -2o C for a considerable depth ice will start to form at the surface. Navigation will not be
impaired by thin ice, but unless specially strengthened for navigation in ice, a ship should
not be forced through the thicker ice. However, in many areas where this occurs, ice breaker
assistance is available. Attention must be paid to broadcast warnings of ice conditions.
Sludge or Slush The initial stages in the freezing of sea water, when its consistency
is gluey or soapy.
Brash - Small fragments and rounded nodules; the wreckage of other forms of ice.
Pancake ice - Small pieces of new ice, approximately circular and with raised rims.
Bay ice The young ice which first forms on the sea in autumn, and is of sufficient
thickness to impede or prevent navigation.
Pack ice - Term used in a wide sense to include any area of sea ice, other than fast
ice, no matter what form it takes or how disposed.
Floe - An area of ice, other than fast ice, whose limits are within sight.
13.2. COASTAL AND OPEN OCEAN VISIBILITY 107
Field ice - Area of pack ice of such extent that its limits cannot be seen from the
masthead.
Pressure Ridge - Hummocked ice where floe have been pressed together and broken
against each other
Bergy-Bits - Medium sized pieces of glacier ice, or of hummocky pack, washed clear
of snow. Typical bergy-bits have been described as about the size of a cottage.
Growlers Smaller pieces of ice than bergy-bits, appearing greenish in colour, because
barely showing above water.
Rotten ice Floes which have become much honey combed in the process of melting.
Fast ice Sea ice which remains fast in the position of growth throughout the winter,
and sometimes even during the ensuing summer.
Land ice Ice attached to the shore, within which there is no channel.
Iceberg - Large masses of land ice which become detached are known as ICEBERGS.
Ice Accretion
14.1 Hazards
109
110 CHAPTER 14. ICE ACCRETION
Chapter 15
Ocean Currents
They affect climate only if they bring relatively warm or cold water to the area under
consideration
Most currents are caused, at least in part, by the prevailing winds. There is a close
111
112 CHAPTER 15. OCEAN CURRENTS
association between the principal currents and winds near the subtropical highs (e.g.
).
Near the land on the eastern sides of the highs is a current setting towards the equator,
carrying water from a higher latitude where temperatures are lower. For example,
Peru (off the coast of South America) and Benguela currents (off South West Africa).
Other examples are the Canaries and California currents in the northern Hemisphere.
On the western sides of the highs there is a noticeable drift of warm water away from
the equator, e.g Brazil and Mozambique currents off the east coasts of South America
and South Africa respectively, and the Gulf Stream and Japan Current (or Kuro shio)
off the same coasts of North America and Asia.
Cold Currents are associated with fog and low stratus cloud when the wind blows from
off the sea and especially if it is a Tm air mass.
While warm currents are associated with much convection, large cumulus clouds,
squalls and showers when polar air blows over them
Cold currents in higher latitudes (such as the Kamchatka and Labrador Currents) are
also instrumental in transporting and maintaining ice in comparatively low latitudes
(an additional significance).
Summary of Currents
There is an almost complete circulation round the subtropical highs
a westerly setting current on the equatorial side (which is known as the North or South
Equatorial Current depending upon the hemisphere to which it owes its existence)
Between the north and south Equatorial Currents there is a very noticeable easterly
setting current known as the Equatorial Counter Current [In the north Atlantic the
counter current is only well marked in a few months during the northern summer in
the eastern half of the ocean. The Guinea Current, which might be thought to be an
extension of the counter Current, is nearly always well marked]
A large quantity of water (North Atlantic) enters the North Polar Sea past the coast of
Norway, and this inflow together with a much smaller one through the Bering Strait
and a small accumulation due to outflow from rivers and from rainfall, is balanced by
113
outflows along the east coast of Greenland, Davis Strait and bering Strait [Since cur-
rents, like winds, are deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere]. These three
outflow cling to the eastern shores of the lands past which they flow [The Kamchatka
Current becomes known as the Oya Siwo when nearing Japan, and the Davis Strait
Current as the Labrador Current when off that country and off Newfoundland.
There is usually a current setting out of the Kattegat because of the relatively large
amount of fresh water received from rivers and rainfall, and evaporation is similar:
the Baltic Sea has therefore a low salinity, i.e. the water is nearly fresh.
In the Mediterranean, where more water flows in than out owing largely to evaporation
and few rivers, the current flows anti clockwise, (eastwards along the N. African Coast
and Westward along the northern shores) but it is usually very weak east of about
longitude 10oE, and seldom strong (more than 1 Knot) other than in the approaches
to the straits of Gibraltar.
The Gulf Stream (which is not felt within 50 miles or so of the eastern states of U.S.A)
is particularly strong because not only does the North Equatorial Current flow into the
Gulf of Mexico, but the shape of South American Coast is partly responsible for some
of the South Equatorial Current being deflected northwestward into the Gulf; added
to these effects is the drift caused by the constant east-north-easterly trade wind in
the West Indies and Caribbean sea area. During the season of part of the South-west
monsoon (June to mid-September) in the Arabian Sea, the current off the Coast of
Somali land (especially between Mogadishu and the 10th parallel) is sometimes very
strong (5 kts or more).
A branch of the Kuro ship of Japan Current flows up the west of Taiwan and up
the west coast of Japan, where it becomes the Tsushima Current, with 2 interesting
results in winter and spring. The water is abnormally cold close to the coast of the
mainland in both instances, and with tropical air visibility is bad near the mainland
but good over the warm water near the islands; furthermore, ice encroaches along the
Asiatic Coast of the Sea of Japan (late Dec. to April).
Falklands Current Coming from the South, it brings cold water nearly as far as the
approaches to the River Plate and fog is the rule when the wind brings air from a
warm and damp source. The axis of this current is often shown on maps as passing
up the coast of Argentina to the westward of the Falkland Islands, but sea surface
temperatures indicate a probability that for most of the year it is more marked to
the eastward of the islands, setting almost due north. The reason for this current
is possibly due to the deflection of the general easterly drift south of Cape Horn by
submarine ridge.
114 CHAPTER 15. OCEAN CURRENTS
Kueo Shio
Brazil Current
Mozambique Current
Agulhas Current
California Current
Kamchatka Current
Oya Shio
Falkland Current
Peru Current
Benguela Current
Chapter 16
Most ocean waves are produced by the action of the winds. The stronger the winds and the
longer it blows, the larger do the waves become. Frequently, so much energy is transferred
to water that the ocean waves continue to travel many hundreds of kilometers, even after
the winds have stopped. Waves may therefore be seen on a calm day.
A system of waves produced by the local wind blowing at the time of the observation is
referred to as a Sea wave.
A wave system which has not been generated by the local wind system blowing at obser-
vation time is called a swell. It may be produced either by winds blowing in another region
or by winds that have ceased to blow.
Wavelength (L) - the horizontal distance between successive crests (or troughs).
Wave height (H) - the vertical distance between the top of a crest and the bottom
of a trough.
Period(T) , expressed in seconds, is the time interval between the passage of succes-
sive crests (or troughs) past a given point.
Frequency (n) - the number of crests (or troughs) passing a given point in unit time.
115
116 CHAPTER 16. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF OCEAN WAVES
Chapter 17
Weather Hazards
117
118 CHAPTER 17. WEATHER HAZARDS
Chapter 18
The topics include organization of WMO, functions of WMO, sources of weather infor-
mation between merchant ships and meteorological officers, weather bulletins and contents,
storm warnings
The World Meteorological organization (WMO), a specialized agency of the United Na-
tions, is the authoritative voice on the state and behaviour of the Earths atmosphere, its
interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water
resources. It is an intergovernmental organization of 188 members (as at January 2007).
It was born out of the International Meteorological Organization which was founded in
1873. The WMO was established in 1950 but became the specialized agency of the United
Nations in 1951 for meteorology (weather and climate), operational hydrology and related
geophysical sciences.
The vision of WMO is to contribute to the safety and well-being of people throughout
the world and to contribute to the economic benefit of all nations through the provision of
global leadership in expertise and international cooperation in weather, climate, hydrology
and water resources and related environmental issues.
The mission of WMO is to:
Facilitate worldwide cooperation in the establishment of networks of stations for the
making of meteorological observations as well as hydrological and other geophysical
observations related to meteorology, and to promote the establishment and mainte-
nance of centres charged with the provision of meteorological and related services;
Promote the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of
meteorological and related information;
Promote standardization of meteorological and related observations and to ensure the
uniform publication of observations and statistics;
Further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems, agricul-
ture and other human activities;
119
120 CHAPTER 18. WEATHER SERVICES FOR SHIPPING
Weather Forecasting
The topics include single station forecast, meteorological codes, interpretation of symbols
and isobaric patterns, prognostic and synoptic charts
The seafarer can indirectly influence the circumstances arising from the atmospheric and
sea conditions affecting his vessel. This can be done through careful evaluation and applica-
tion of forecast data both in pre-passage planning and on passage. The success or otherwise
of the evaluation and application depends upon the amount and quality of data available.
Whether on passage or in port the seafarer can directly monitor his environment to a greater
or lesser degree, depending upon the range of facilities and the time available. By analyzing
a comprehensive series of observation (see table 20.1 below), trends can be established,
from which the recent history of the atmosphere and sea conditions can be determined. For
example, pressure tendency, not necessarily restricted to the standard three hours preceding
the time of observations, can be assessed from the barogram, or established to the nearest
hPa by frequent reading of the simple aneroid barometer. Trends can also be assessed of the
visibility range, cloud amount, and sequence of cloud type. The value of visibility trends
are enhanced when related to the pressure and intensity of precipitation, mist, fog, haze or
sea state. The tendency of the wind to back or veer, and the speed to increase or decrease
can be determined, and the characteristics of swell are also worth noting.
121
122 CHAPTER 19. WEATHER FORECASTING
Forecast
The analysis of the data in the table indicates the advance of a frontal depression, and the
bearing of the centre can be determined by applying Buys Ballots Law. Thus, conditions
likely to be encountered will be those associated with the passage of such a depression.
Once a short term forecast is made, the monitoring process should be continued to verify or
modify the forecast at frequent intervals, as the conclusions reached will be important for a
safe passage.
The above procedure has inherent limitations, as it assumes that the particular pressure
system inferred from the observation will result in the same meteorological conditions on
every occasion. Variations may occur and knowledge of the seafarer, who may have great
experience of the area, will be valuable in the analysis and forecast procedure.
Figure 19.1: U.K. Met. Office Synoptic chart showing the present synoptic situation
124 CHAPTER 19. WEATHER FORECASTING
Figure 19.2: U.K. Met. Office Synoptic chart showing the forecast synoptic situation
forty-eight hours ahead
Chapter 20
125
126 CHAPTER 20. MARITIME RELATED ISSUES
MARPOL: The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships.
The most important convention regulating and preventing marine pollution by ships is
the IMO International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973,
as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78). It covers
accidental and operational oil pollution as well as pollution by chemicals, goods in
packaged form, sewage, garbage and air pollution (http://www.imo.org).
ISPS Code: International Ship and Port Facility Security Code, which contains de-
tailed security-related requirements for Governments, port authorities and shipping
companies in a mandatory section (Part A), together with a series of guidelines
about how to meet these requirements in a second, non-mandatory section (Part B)
(http://www.imo.org).
20.4. SOME MARITIME TERMINOLOGIES 127
.2 Anticyclones
An anticyclone is a region of high pressure with the winds circulating clockwise Northern
Hemispheres. Wind speeds over the central regions are light although on the outskirts,
.2. ANTICYCLONES 129
away from the centre, winds may be strong. General character due to low level divergence
implying descending air subsidence. This causes warming and drying of air at low levels.
Thus anticyclones are regions of quiet weather.
Types Cold anticyclone - cold dense air near surface Warm anticyclone - lower tropo-
sphere warmer than surroundings.
Highs Lows
Larger, slower moving Where as a low is usually an independent And more persistent,
feature throughout its life of several days, Weaker pressure gradient a new high almost
always forms as an Especially near the centre; extension of an existing high or as a Some-
times so much weaker centre near the original eventually That a pressure centre is eventu-
ally replacing it. Its formation Difficult to find; even is accompanied by a rise in the mean
Several small centres may temperature of the atmosphere up Co-exist. To a level in the
middle stratosphere. Its formation is accompanied By cooling of the atmosphere.
Probably the most important characteristic of a developing anticyclone, and one which
largely determines the Wx found in it, is the widespread slow descent of air especially in
the middle troposphere, known as subsidence. (that is General character due to low level
divergence implying descending air subsidence). Its effects are (1) Warms air (at low
levels) since descent causes adiabatic compression. ( warms at DALR of 10?c/km as long
as no clouds are present).
Diagram:
(2) It reduces the relative humidity of the air, (that is dries the air) since the dew point
of descending unsaturated air increases by only about 1.7?c/km whereas the air temperature
increases by 10?c/km. Anticyclones may be classified into cold and warm.
Cold anticyclone where the cold dense air is largely confined to the upper troposphere and
the lower stratosphere. The middle and lower troposphere are often warmer than normal.
[ Here the air in the troposphere is warmer than the average; the high pressure then cannot
be explained by the greater weight of the lower atmosphere and must be due to an excess of
air high levels]. N.B. the terms warm and cold refer to lower troposphere.
Diagram:
A subdivision of each type may be made into permanent (or quasi-permanent) and
temporary or migratory anticyclones.
A permanent anticyclone constitutes a persistent feature of a given area over a period of
months. (Example subtropical high pressure is regarded as permanent feature even though in
places they may be occasionally interrupted or displaced by low pressure systems: Similarly
the Siberian high is a more or less permanent feature throughout the winter months).
The temporary or migratory highs are transient features which often pass over any one
place within a day; occasionally one remains stationary for several days or even weeks, but
then it is usually found to form an extension of a permanent. Origin of high pressure in
anticyclone (CEM Page 178)
Cold Anticyclones
The so called permanent anticyclones over the polar regions are frequently invaded by
130 CHAPTER 20. MARITIME RELATED ISSUES
traveling depressions so that the high pressure is not a permanent feature. Nor are the polar
anticyclones, necessarily of the cold type they can also be of the warm type [Polar regions
above absent 70?N have relatively high atmospheric pressure. This is shown on charts
of annual mean pressure as the polar anticyclone]. The only example of a permanent
cold anticyclone is that over Siberia in the winter (and even this is not immune from
disturbance).
Ascending from the ground through a cold anticyclone, the depth of cold air overhead
progressively decreases and so, therefore, does the excess of pressure over its surroundings.
Since the cold air is confined to the lowest part of the atmosphere it follows that above the
top of the cold air there is no excess pressure, that is, an anticyclone would not be found
on upper-air charts for levels above the top of the cold air. The intensity of a cold high is
thus greatest at low levels; (hence the clockwise wind circulation is most pronounced there
too). A cold high is a shallow feature of the atmosphere.
Temporary cold anticyclones are common features of the middle latitudes. When a
family of frontal depressions travels eastwards, each member is necessarily separated from
its successor by a ridge of high pressure or a small anticyclone in the cold air which moves
along between the 2 centres. The ridge brings a short break of dry weather lasting perhaps 24
hrs between the instability showers behind one depression and the warm front cloud an drain
of the next; (it is a transitory pressure feature which usually collapses as the new depression
advances. When polar air finally breaks through and terminates the family, the cold air
build up into an anticyclone of considerable size. In winter over the land the anticyclone
may merge into, or become an extension of, the seasonal continental anticyclone, by being
maintained as a cold anticyclone by continuous radiative cooling at the surface. Over the
sea, and over the land in summer, a cold anticyclone is never of great persistence; it either
collapses within a day or two or is gradually transformed into a warm anticyclone by the
adiabatic heating associated with subsidence.
The type of Wx depends on many factors
- In summer, polar air is subject to surface heating over both land and sea. Fog, is
therefore exceptional and cumulus clouds may develop. - In the winter, the air may undergo
surface cooling over the land and radiation fog becomes probable where the winds are light ,
and St or SC where the wind is stronger. - The cold anticyclone is however associated with
a large measure of bright and dry WX (In accordance with the general rule that a region
of low temperature tends to become a region of low pressure in the upper atmosphere, the
cold anticyclone is not deep and the easterly winds on its equatorward side are generally
shallow, decreasing with height and changing to westerly at moderate altitudes).