HYDROLOGY ENGINEERING

1 INTRODUCTION

Hydrology (from Greek: Y, hydr, "water"; and , logos, "study") is the study of the
movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth, and thus addresses both
the hydrologic cycle and water resources. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist,
working within the fields of earth or environmental science, physical geography or civil and
environmental engineering.

Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology,

drainage basin management and water quality, where water plays the central role.
Hydrological research is useful as it allows us to better understand the world in which we
live, and also provides insight for environmental engineering, policy and planning.

1.1 Hydrologic Cycle

Water is essential to life. Without it, the biosphere that exists on the surface of the earth
wouldn't be possible. Nicknamed the "water" planet, Earth is covered by one of our most
precious resources. However, almost 93% is locked in the oceans, toxic to humans and
many plants and animals.

How do we obtain fresh water resources then?

Where does drinkable water come from?

To understand, we need to turn to the Hydrologic Cycle.

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Fig. 1 The Hydrologic Cycle

Water has many unique properties that allow it to be such a universal material. One special
characteristic of water is its ability to change state very easily under Earth conditions. It can
be found readily on the planet in all of its three forms, solid, liquid, and gas. These forms
also play a great part in the hydrologic cycle. Now, exactly what is the hydrologic cycle?
The hydrologic cycle takes place in the hydrosphere, this is the region containing all the
water in the atmosphere and on the surface of the earth. The cycle is the movement of
water through this hydrosphere.

Now the entire process is very simple, divided in to five parts

Condensation
Infiltration
Runoff
Evaporation
Precipitation

The process begins with condensation, when water vapor condenses in the atmosphere to
form clouds. Condensation occurs when the temperature of the air or earth changes. Water
changes states when temperatures fluctuate. So when the air cools enough, water vapor
has to condense on particles in the air to form clouds. This process is very noticeable on
plants as they dew in the morning.

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As clouds form, winds move them across the globe, spreading out the water vapor. When
eventually the clouds can't hold the moisture, they release it in the form of precipitation,
which can be rain, hail, snow etc.

The next three stages: infiltration, runoff, and evaporation occur simultaneously. Infiltration
occurs when precipitation seeps into the ground. This depends a lot on the permeability of
the ground.

Permeability is the measure of how easily something flows through a substance. The more
permeable, the more precipitation seeps into the ground. If precipitation occurs faster than
it can infiltrate the ground, it becomes runoff. Runoff remains on the surface and flows into
streams, rivers, and eventually large bodies such as lakes or the ocean. Infiltrated
groundwater moves similarly as it recharges rivers and heads towards large body of water.

As both of these processes are happening, the power of the sun is driving this cycle by
causing evaporation. Evaporation is the change of liquid water to a vapor. Sunlight aids
this process as it raises the temperature of liquid water in oceans and lakes. As the liquid
heats, molecule are released and change into a gas. Warm air rises up into the
atmosphere and becomes the vapor involved in condensation.

Considering so little of the water on earth is drinkable to people, it is amazing the supply
has survived as long as it has. The hydrologic cycle continues to move water and keep
sources fresh. It is estimated that 100 million billion gallons a year are cycled through this
process. Without this process life on Earth would be impossible. We need it to sustain us
and for all of our life processes to function. Without water, life would not be possible on
Earth.

1.2 Application of Hydrology in Practice

Knowledge of hydrology is required in the following engineering purposes:

Precipitation and evaporation estimation for Agricultural use

Rainfall run off analysis for flood forecasting
River flow estimation

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 Flood and draught estimation
Flood frequency analysis
Climate change analysis
Hydrological modelling such as rainfall runoff modelling and ground water modelling

1.3 Questions

Q1. What is hydrologic cycle? Sketch and briefly outline its various components.
Q2. Write the entire process of the hydrologic cycle.
Q3. Write down various application of hydrology in practice.

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2 HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES

2.1 Precipitation and its Processes

In meteorology, precipitation (also known as one of the classes of hydrometeors, which are
atmospheric water phenomena) is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water
vapour that is deposited on the earth's surface. It occurs when the atmosphere, a large
gaseous solution, becomes saturated with water vapour and the water condenses and falls
out of solution (i.e., precipitates). Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air
becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapour to the air. Virga is precipitation
that begins falling to the earth but evaporates before reaching the surface; it is one of the
ways air can become saturated. Precipitation forms via collision with other rain drops or ice
crystals within a cloud.

Rain drops range in size from oblate, pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to small
spheres for smaller drops. Rain drops are not shaped like tear drops, but rather like
flattened pancakes. Precipitation that reaches the surface of the earth can occur in many
different forms, including rain, freezing rain, drizzle, ice needles, snow, ice pellets or sleet,
graupel and hail. While snow and ice pellets require temperatures to be near or below
freezing, hail can occur during much warmer temperature regimes due to the process of its
formation. Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies, e.g. when it gets cold, Mars
has precipitation which most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.

Moisture overriding weather fronts is a major method of precipitation production. If enough

moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as
cumulonimbus and organize into narrow rainbands. Precipitation can also form due to
forced ascent up the windward side of a mountain or mountain range. On the leeward side
of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional
heating. The movement of the monsoon trough, or Intertropical convergence zone, brings
rainy seasons to savannah climes. Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle,
and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately
505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000
cu mi) of it over the oceans. Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally-
averaged annual precipitation is about 1 metre (39 in), and the average annual
precipitation over oceans is about 1.1 metres (43 in).

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Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water,
liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of different types of
precipitation, including types in different categories, can fall simultaneously.
How air becomes saturated?

Air contains water vapour, measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg), but
most commonly reported as a relative humidity. How much water vapour a parcel of air can
contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) depends on its temperature.
Warmer air can contain more water vapour than cooler air before becoming saturated.
Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature
to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated. Water vapor normally
begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form
clouds. An elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form clouds
decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus. Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form
when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due
to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.

There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling,
conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs
when air rises and expands. The air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric
motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling
occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface, usually by being blown from
one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational
cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface
underneath. Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through
evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet bulb temperature, or until it
reaches saturation.

Adding moisture to the air

The main ways water vapour is added to the air are:

Wind convergence into areas of upward motion

Precipitation or virga falling from above
Daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet
land
Transpiration from plants

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 Cool, dry air moving over warmer water
Lifting air over mountains
Formation
Condensation and coalescence are important parts of the water cycle

Coalescence and the Bergeron process

Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when
water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process. Air
resistance typically causes the water droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air
turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets. As these larger water
droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to
overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in
clouds above freezing. In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they
begin to fall. This generally requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between
the crystal and neighbouring water droplets. This process is temperature dependent, as
super-cooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below freezing. In addition,
because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice
crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.

Raindrop characteristics

Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in)
mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud
droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes
more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Contrary to the
cartoon pictures of raindrops, their shape does not resemble a teardrop. Intensity and
duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of
short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration. Rain drops associated
with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.

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Causes

Frontal activity

Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in

synoptic systems (on the order of cm/s), such as over surface cold fronts, and over and
ahead of warm fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside of the
eyewall, and in comma head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones. A wide
variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but
usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually
form around mature low-pressure areas. Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies
other than Earth. When it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form
of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.

Convection

Fig. 2 Convective Precipitation

Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g.,

cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity.
Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective
clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be
convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.
Graupel and hail indicate convection. In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation in
intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall
lines, and warm fronts.

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Orographic effects

Fig. 3 Orographic Precipitation

Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the
rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in
adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to
relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually
prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side.
Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the
descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.

Within the tropics

The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of
the average annual rainfall in a region falls. The term green season is also sometimes
used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across
portions of the tropics and subtropics. Savannah climates and areas with monsoon
regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have
dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year. Some areas
with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the inter-
tropical convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the
middle of the warm season. When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or
summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet
season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves, and vegetation
grows significantly. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases. Animals have adaptation
and survival strategies for the wetter regime. Unfortunately, the previous dry season leads
to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing
countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food
shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.

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Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several
hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward
towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counter-
clockwise (northern hemisphere). Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and
personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they
impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in
their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.

2.2 Rainfall Characteristics

Rainfall characteristics affect the amount of runoff which occurs, the severity of erosion
possible in various parts of the country, and our dependency on irrigation for crop growth.
Specific important characteristics of rainfall are:

Size and Shape.

Rainfall occurs when moisture in the atmosphere condenses into drops. Raindrops occur
about in any shape up to approximately 9 mm mean diameter after which they tend to
break up. However, they do tend, if turbulence does not interfere, toward an
aerodynamically stable shape (tear-drop) because this affords the least surface resistance
to movement.

Intensity and Duration.

These are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short
duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.

Intensity and Area.

We can expect a less intense rainfall (amount also) over a large area than we can over a
small area.

Intensity and Drop Size.

High intensity storms have a larger drop size than low intensity storms.

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 Drop size and Terminal Velocity.

The terminal velocity of raindrops increases as the drop size increases up to about 35 feet
per second. Storms with large drop sizes have a high erosion potential.

Rainfall Distribution and Supply.

These are difficult to predict for a given season, but averages based on long-term records
tells us much about the kind of water management necessary for an area.

Rainfall Amount/Intensity

The most common historical rainfall data are daily total amounts at selected locations.
Such data have usually been obtained from a "standard raingage" (tube) which gives the
depth of rainfall accumulated between observations. More useful are data from a recording
raingage which gives a record of accumulation as a function of time. Hence, intensities can
be determined from recording gages. Traditional raingages use a mechanical weighing
mechanism, while modern electronic units tend to digitally record the time when each 1/4
mm accumulates.

2.3 Measurement of Precipitation

2.3.1 Point Precipitation Measurement

The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can
be found in 100-mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties. The inner cylinder is
filled by 25 mm (1 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gages will
have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.01 in) resolution, which metal
gages will require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.01 in) markings.
After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the
remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding
to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. These gages are winterized by
removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing the snow/freezing rain to collect inside
the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to their gage so they do not have to melt the snow

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or ice that falls into the gage. Once the snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as you
approach 300 mm (12 in), one can either bring it inside to melt, or use luke warm water to
fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen precipitation in the outer cylinder,
keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently subtracted from the overall
total once all the ice/snow is melted.

Fig. 4 Standard Rain Gauge

Other types of gages include the popular wedge gage (the cheapest rain gage and most
fragile), the tipping bucket rain gage, and the weighing rain gage. The wedge and tipping
bucket gages will have problems with snow. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by
warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the
gage is kept much above freezing. Weighing gages with antifreeze should do fine with
snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. For those
looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight
sides will act as a rain gage if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what
ruler you use to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gages can be made at home,
with enough know-how.

Once someone has a device to measure precipitation, various networks exist across the
United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the
internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE. If a network is not available in the area where
one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement.

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The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid
precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area. A QPF will be
specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast
for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by
synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by
use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations
with fine detail. Starting in the mid to late 1990's, QPFs were used within hydrologic
forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States. Forecast models
show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the
lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height. QPF can be generated on a
quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific
amount, basis. Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model
forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified
through use of rain gage measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of
both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.

2.3.2 Estimation of Areal Precipitation

A single point precipitation measurement is quite often not representative of the volume of
precipitation falling over a given catchment area. A dense network of point measurements
and/or radar estimates can provide a better representation of the true volume over a given
area. A network of precipitation measurements can be converted to areal estimates using
any of a number of techniques include the following:

1) Arithmetic Mean - This technique calculates areal precipitation using the arithmetic
mean of all the point or areal measurements considered in the analysis. Areal rainfall is
obtained from point data by an arithmetic or area-weighted average of the rainfall
amounts. The general formula to calculate area-weighted averages is:

(2.1)
where:

The cross-product of each "n" sub-area and its corresponding rainfall amount are summed
and then divided by the total area.

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2) Isohyetal Analysis - This is a graphical technique which involves drawing estimated
lines of equal rainfall over an area based on point measurements. The magnitude and
extent of the resultant rainfall areas of coverage are then considered versus the area in
question in order to estimate the areal precipitation value. In Isohyetal Method, rainfall
amounts from a set of gages are plotted on a map of the region. Lines connecting all
points of equal precipitation are then connected to create a isohyetal map (analogous
to contour lines on a topographic map). Obviously, this works best when there are
numerous raingages. The area between each isohyetal line is then measured (using a
planimeter if done manually or a computer algorithm if automated with GIS software).
This is the more accurate of the two methods; however, it's laborious if done manually
because the isohyetal lines must be redrawn and remeasured for every storm event.

3) Thiessen Polygon - This is another graphical technique which calculates station

weights based on the relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen
polygon network. The individual weights are multiplied by the station observation and
the values are summed to obtain the areal average precipitation.

The Thiessen polygon network can be constructed from the Delauney triangulation of a
scatter point set. A Delauney triangulation is a TIN that has been constructed so that
the Delauney criterion has been satisfied.

Delauney Triangulation and Corresponding Thiessen Polygon Network for a Set of Scatter
Points.

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Each Thiessen polygon is constructed using the circumcircles of the triangles resulting
from a Delauney triangulation of the scatter points. The vertices of the Thiessen polygons
correspond to the centroids of the circumcircles of the triangles. Thiessen Method. This
technique has the advantage of being quick to apply for multiple storms because it uses
fixed sub-areas. It is based on the hypothesis that, for every point in the area, the best
estimate of rainfall is the measurement physically closest to that point. This concept is
implemented by drawing perpendicular bisectors to straight lines connecting each two
raingages. This yields, when the watershed boundary is included, a set of closed areas
known as Thiessen polygons. An example with four gages, A - D, is shown below:

As a computational example, assume the areas enclosed by the four Thiessen polygons
are: A = 11 Ac.; B = 9 Ac.; C = 8 Ac.; and D = 15 Ac. These areas are, of course, constant
and need be measured only once. For a given storm, the gages recorded the following
precipitation amounts: A = 1.81 inches, B = 2.25 inches, C = 2.07 inches and D = 1.53
inches. Using the above weighted averaging formula, the Thiessen average precipitation
estimate for the entire watershed is:

In contrast, the simple arithmetic average of precipitations is 1.91 inches. Differences

between arithmetic and Thiessen averages increase for non-uniform storms when the
Thiessen areas differ widely.

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4) Distance Weighting/Gridded - This is another station weighting technique. A grid of
point estimates is made based on a distance weighting scheme. Each observed point
value is given a unique weight for each grid point based on the distance from the grid
point in question. The grid point precipitation value is calculated based on the sum of
the individual station weight multiplied by observed station value. Once the grid points
have all been estimated they are summed and the sum is divided by the number of grid
points to obtain the areal average precipitation

5) MAPX - This is a NWS-specific gridded technique. Areal runoff zone precipitation

estimates are made using the 4 x 4 km 1-hourly gridded precipitation estimates. The
arithmetic mean calculation technique is used to average the grid point estimates.

6) Index Stations - In some areas of the country (primarily mountainous areas), pre-
determined station weights based on climatology are used to compute basin average
precipitation.

Areal Precipitation Terminology As Used In ABRFC Hydrologic Modelling

MAP - Mean Areal Precipitation - Areal runoff zone precipitation estimate normally based
on point precipitation observations. The distance weighting calculation technique is used.
MAP is used as input to the river forecast model on a routine basis.

MAPX - Radar Based Mean Areal Precipitation - Areal runoff zone precipitation estimate
based on the 4 x 4 km WSR-88D 1-hourly gridded precipitation estimates. The arithmetic
mean calculation technique is used to average the grid point estimates. MAPX is used as
input to the river forecast model on a routine basis.

FMAP - Future Mean Areal Precipitation - Future or forecast areal runoff zone precipitation
estimate. The Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs) develop precipitation forecasts based on
input from sources which may include meteorlogical model output, national guidance
products, local forecast procedures and individual forecaster experience. After weather
analysis is complete, the WFO forecaster uses a computer program to draw isohyets of
forecast precipitation and then the program performs an automated isohyetal analysis
calculation technique to convert to areal estimates. The forecast precipitation information is
generated for four 6-hour periods. The area of coverage is that of each WFOs area of
responsibility. The ABRFC Hydrometeorological Analysis and Support (HAS) function
mosaics the input from the WFOs so as to cover the entire ABRFC area of responsibility.

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The HAS function also coordinates any required changes in the individual WFO QPF
information. FMAP is used as input to the river forecast model on a routine basis.

2.4 Evaporation and it its Estimation

Evaporation is the slow vaporization of a liquid and the reverse of condensation. A type of
phase transition, it is the process by which molecules in a liquid state (e.g. water)
spontaneously become gaseous (e.g. water vapor). Generally, evaporation can be seen by
the gradual disappearance of a liquid from a substance when exposed to a significant
volume of gas. Vaporization and evaporation however, are not entirely the same
processes. For example, substances like caesium, francium, gallium, bromine, rubidium
and mercury may vaporize, but they do not evaporate as such.

On average, the molecules in a glass of water do not have enough heat energy to escape
from the liquid, or else the liquid would turn into vapor quickly (boil). When the molecules
collide, they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide.
Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a molecule near the surface that it ends up with
enough energy to escape.

Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g. cooking oil
at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a
pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into
vapor. However, these liquids are evaporating, it's just that the process is much slower and
thus significantly less visible.

Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. Solar energy drives evaporation of
water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water.
In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which involves evaporation within plant
stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation is caused when water is
exposed to air and the liquid molecules turn into water vapor which rises up and forms
clouds.

Evaporation is the process by which a liquid becomes a gas. It usually occurs at the
surface of a liquid,

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2.4.1 Factors Influencing the Rate of Evaporation

1) Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air

If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given
substance will evaporate more slowly.

2) Concentration of other substances in the air

If the air is already saturated with other substances, it can have a lower capacity for the
substance evaporating.

3) Concentration of other substances in the liquid (impurities)

If the liquid contains other substances, it will have a lower capacity for evaporation.

4) Flow rate of air

This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air is moving over the
substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go
up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of the boundary layer
at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, decreasing the diffusion distance
in the stagnant layer.

5) Inter-molecular forces

The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more energy
one must get to escape.

6) Pressure

In an area of less pressure, evaporation happens faster because there is less exertion on
the surface keeping the molecules from launching themselves.

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7) Surface area

A substance which has a larger surface area will evaporate faster as there are more
surface molecules which are able to escape.

8) Temperature of the substance

If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster.

The actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan" open water surface outdoors, at
various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is
collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The measurements range from
under 30 to over 120 inches (3,000 mm) per year

2.5 Evapo-Transpiration and its Estimation

2.5.1 Equations

A large number of more or less empirical methods have been developed over the last 50
years by numerous scientists and specialists worldwide to estimate evapo-transpiration
from different climatic variables. Relationships were often subject to rigorous local
calibrations and proved to have limited global validity. Testing the accuracy of the methods
under a new set of conditions is laborious, time-consuming and costly, and yet evapo-
transpiration data are frequently needed at short notice for project planning or irrigation
scheduling design. To meet this need, guidelines were developed and published in the
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24 'Crop water requirements'. To accommodate
users with different data availability, four methods were presented to calculate the
reference crop evapo-transpiration (ETo): the Blaney-Criddle, radiation, modified Penman
and pan evaporation methods. The modified Penman method was considered to offer the
best results with minimum possible error in relation to a living grass reference crop. It was
expected that the pan method would give acceptable estimates, depending on the location
of the pan. The radiation method was suggested for areas where available climatic data
include measured air temperature and sunshine, cloudiness or radiation, but not measured
wind speed and air humidity. Finally, the publication proposed the use of the Blaney-
Criddle method for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data only.

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These climatic methods to calculate ETo were all calibrated for ten-day or monthly
calculations, not for daily or hourly calculations. The Blaney-Criddle method was
recommended for periods of one month or longer. For the pan method it was suggested
that calculations should be done for periods of ten days or longer. Users have not always
respected these conditions and calculations have often been done on daily time steps.

Advances in research and the more accurate assessment of crop water use have revealed
weaknesses in the methodologies. Numerous researchers analysed the performance of
the four methods for different locations. Although the results of such analyses could have
been influenced by site or measurement conditions or by bias in weather data collection, it
became evident that the proposed methods do not behave the same way in different
locations around the world. Deviations from computed to observed values were often found
to exceed ranges indicated by FAO. The modified Penman was frequently found to
overestimate ETo, even by up to 20% for low evaporative conditions. The other FAO
recommended equations showed variable adherence to the reference crop evapo-
transpiration standard of grass.

To evaluate the performance of these and other estimation procedures under different
climatological conditions, a major study was undertaken under the auspices of the
Committee on Irrigation Water Requirements of the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE). The ASCE study analysed the performance of 20 different methods, using
detailed procedures to assess the validity of the methods compared to a set of carefully
screened lysimeter data from 11 locations with variable climatic conditions. The study
proved very revealing and showed the widely varying performance of the methods under
different climatic conditions. In a parallel study commissioned by the European Community,
a consortium of European research institutes evaluated the performance of various evapo-
transpiration methods using data from different lysimeter studies in Europe.

The studies confirm the overestimation of the modified Penman introduced in FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, and the variable performance of the different
methods depending on their adaptation to local conditions. The comparative studies may
be summarized as follows:

20
 The Penman methods may require local calibration of the wind function to achieve
satisfactory results.

The radiation methods show good results in humid climates where the aerodynamic term
is relatively small, but performance in arid conditions is erratic and tends to underestimate
evapo-transpiration.

Temperature methods remain empirical and require local calibration in order to achieve
satisfactory results. A possible exception is the 1985 Hargreaves' method which has
shown reasonable ETo results with a global validity.

Pan evapo-transpiration methods clearly reflect the shortcomings of predicting crop

evapo-transpiration from open water evaporation. The methods are susceptible to the
microclimatic conditions under which the pans are operating and the rigour of station
maintenance. Their performance proves erratic.

The relatively accurate and consistent performance of the Penman-Monteith approach in

both arid and humid climates has been indicated in both the ASCE and European studies.

The analysis of the performance of the various calculation methods reveals the need for
formulating a standard method for the computation of ETo. The FAO Penman-Monteith
method is recommended as the sole standard method. It is a method with strong likelihood
of correctly predicting ETo in a wide range of locations and climates and has provision for
application in data-short situations. The use of older FAO or other reference ET methods is
no longer encouraged.

2.5.2 Penman-Monteith Equation

In 1948, Penman combined the energy balance with the mass transfer method and derived
an equation to compute the evaporation from an open water surface from standard
climatological records of sunshine, temperature, humidity and wind speed. This so-called
combination method was further developed by many researchers and extended to cropped
surfaces by introducing resistance factors.

21
The Penman-Monteith form of the combination equation is:

(2.2)

where Rn is the net radiation, G is the soil heat flux, (es - ea) represents the vapour
pressure deficit of the air, a is the mean air density at constant pressure, cp is the specific
heat of the air, represents the slope of the saturation vapour pressure temperature
relationship, is the psychrometric constant, and rs and ra are the (bulk) surface and
aerodynamic resistances. The Penman-Monteith approach as formulated above includes
all parameters that govern energy exchange and corresponding latent heat flux (evapo-
transpiration) from uniform expanses of vegetation. Most of the parameters are measured
or can be readily calculated from weather data. The equation can be utilized for the direct
calculation of any crop evapo-transpiration as the surface and aerodynamic resistances
are crop specific.

Aerodynamic resistance (ra)

The transfer of heat and water vapour from the evaporating surface into the air above the
canopy is determined by the aerodynamic resistance:

(2.3)
where

ra aerodynamic resistance [s m-1],

zm height of wind measurements [m],
zh height of humidity measurements [m],
d zero plane displacement height [m],
zom roughness length governing momentum transfer [m],
zoh roughness length governing transfer of heat and vapour [m],
k von Karman's constant, 0.41 [-],
uz wind speed at height z [m s-1].

23
The equation is restricted for neutral stability conditions, i.e., where temperature,
atmospheric pressure, and wind velocity distributions follow nearly adiabatic conditions (no
heat exchange). The application of the equation for short time periods (hourly or less) may
require the inclusion of corrections for stability. However, when predicting ETo in the well-
watered reference surface, heat exchanged is small, and therefore stability correction is
normally not required.

Many studies have explored the nature of the wind regime in plant canopies. Zero
displacement heights and roughness lengths have to be considered when the surface is
covered by vegetation. The factors depend upon the crop height and architecture. Several
empirical equations for the estimate of d, zom and zoh have been developed. The
derivation of the aerodynamic resistance for the grass reference surface is presented in
Box 1.

(Bulk) surface resistance (rs)

The 'bulk' surface resistance describes the resistance of vapour flow through the
transpiring crop and evaporating soil surface. Where the vegetation does not completely
cover the soil, the resistance factor should indeed include the effects of the evaporation
from the soil surface. If the crop is not transpiring at a potential rate, the resistance
depends also on the water status of the vegetation. An acceptable approximation to a
much more complex relation of the surface resistance of dense full cover vegetation is:

BOX 1. The aerodynamic resistance for a grass reference surface

For a wide range of crops the zero plane displacement height, d [m], and the roughness
length governing momentum transfer, zom [m], can be estimated from the crop height h [m]
by the following equations:

d = 2/3 h
zom = 0.123 h

The roughness length governing transfer of heat and vapour, zoh [m], can be
approximated by:
zoh = 0.1 zom
Assuming a constant crop height of 0.12 m and a standardized height for wind speed,
temperature and humidity at 2 m (zm = zh = 2 m), the aerodynamic resistance ra [s m-1]
for the grass reference surface becomes (Eq. 4):

23
where u2 is the wind speed [m s-1] at 2 m.

(2.4)
where

rs (bulk) surface resistance [s m-1],

rl bulk stomatal resistance of the well-illuminated leaf [s m-1],
LAIactive active (sunlit) leaf area index [m2 (leaf area) m-2 (soil surface)].

The Leaf Area Index (LAI), a dimensionless quantity, is the leaf area (upper side only) per
unit area of soil below it. It is expressed as m2 leaf area per m2 ground area. The active
LAI is the index of the leaf area that actively contributes to the surface heat and vapour
transfer. It is generally the upper, sunlit portion of a dense canopy. The LAI values for
various crops differ widely but values of 3-5 are common for many mature crops. For a
given crop, green LAI changes throughout the season and normally reaches its maximum
before or at flowering (Figure 5). LAI further depends on the plant density and the crop
variety.

The bulk stomatal resistance, rl, is the average resistance of an individual leaf. This
resistance is crop specific and differs among crop varieties and crop management. It
usually increases as the crop ages and begins to ripen. There is, however, a lack of
consolidated information on changes in rl over time for the different crops. The information
available in the literature on stomatal conductance or resistance is often oriented toward
physiological or eco-physiological studies.

24
Fig. 5. Typical presentation of the variation in the active (green) Leaf Area Index over
the growing season for a maize crop

The stomatal resistance, rl, is influenced by climate and by water availability. However,
influences vary from one crop to another and different varieties can be affected differently.
The resistance increases when the crop is water stressed and the soil water availability
limits crop evapo-transpiration. Some studies indicate that stomatal resistance is
influenced to some extent by radiation intensity, temperature, and vapour pressure deficit.
The derivation of the surface resistance for the grass reference surface is presented in Box
2.

BOX 2: The (bulk) surface resistance for a grass reference crop

A general equation for LAIactive is:
LAIactive = 0.5 LAI

which takes into consideration the fact that generally only the upper half of dense clipped
grass is actively contributing to the surface heat and vapour transfer. For clipped grass a
general equation for LAI is:

LAI = 24 h

where h is the crop height [m].

25
The stomatal resistance, rl, of a single leaf has a value of about 100 s m-1 under well-
watered conditions. By assuming a crop height of 0.12 m, the surface resistance, rs [s m-
1], for the grass reference surface becomes (Eq. 2.3):

Reference surface

To obviate the need to define unique evaporation parameters for each crop and stage of
growth, the concept of a reference surface was introduced. Evapo-transpiration rates of the
various crops are related to the evapo-transpiration rate from the reference surface (ETo)
by means of crop coefficients.

In the past, an open water surface has been proposed as a reference surface. However,
the differences in aerodynamic, vegetation control and radiation characteristics present a
strong challenge in relating ET to measurements of free water evaporation. Relating ETo to
a specific crop has the advantage of incorporating the biological and physical processes
involved in ET from cropped surfaces.

Grass, together with alfalfa, is a well-studied crop regarding its aerodynamic and surface
characteristics and is accepted worldwide as a reference surface. Because the resistance
to diffusion of vapour strongly depends on crop height, ground cover, LAI and soil moisture
conditions, the characteristics of the reference crop should be well defined and fixed.
Changes in crop height result in variations in the roughness and LAI. Consequently, the
associated canopy and aerodynamic resistances will vary appreciably with time. Moreover,
water stress and the degree of ground cover have an effect on the resistances and also on
the albedo.

The FAO Expert Consultation on Revision of FAO Methodologies for Crop Water
Requirements accepted the following unambiguous definition for the reference surface:

"A hypothetical reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.12 m, a fixed surface
resistance of 70 s m-1 and an albedo of 0.23."

26
The reference surface closely resembles an extensive surface of green grass of uniform
height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and with adequate water. The
requirements that the grass surface should be extensive and uniform result from the
assumption that all fluxes are one-dimensional upwards.
The FAO Penman-Monteith method is selected as the method by which the evapo-
transpiration of this reference surface (ETo) can be unambiguously determined, and as the
method which provides consistent ETo values in all regions and climates.

2.5.3 FAO Penman-Monteith Equation

The panel of experts recommended the adoption of the Penman-Monteith combination

method as a new standard for reference evapo-transpiration and advised on procedures
for calculation of the various parameters. By defining the reference crop as a hypothetical
crop with an assumed height of 0.12 m having a surface resistance of 70 s m-1 and an
albedo of 0.23, closely resembling the evaporation of an extension surface of green grass
of uniform height, actively growing and adequately watered, the FAO Penman-Monteith
method was developed. The method overcomes shortcomings of the previous FAO
Penman method and provides values more consistent with actual crop water use data
worldwide.

Fig. 6. Characteristics of the hypothetical reference crop

27
From the original Penman-Monteith equation (Equation 2.3) and the equations of the
aerodynamic (Equation 4) and surface resistance (Equation 2.4), the FAO Penman-
Monteith method to estimate ETo can be derived (Box 6):

(2.5)
where

ETo reference evapo-transpiration [mm day-1],

Rn net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day-1],
G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 day-1],
T mean daily air temperature at 2 m height [C],
u2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s-1],
es saturation vapour pressure [kPa],
ea actual vapour pressure [kPa],
es - ea saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa],
slope vapour pressure curve [kPa C-1],
psychrometric constant [kPa C-1].
The reference evapo-transpiration, ETo, provides a standard to which:

evapo-transpiration at different periods of the year or in other regions can be compared;

evapo-transpiration of other crops can be related.

The equation uses standard climatological records of solar radiation (sunshine), air
temperature, humidity and wind speed. To ensure the integrity of computations, the
weather measurements should be made at 2 m (or converted to that height) above an
extensive surface of green grass, shading the ground and not short of water.
Data

Apart from the site location, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation requires air temperature,
humidity, radiation and wind speed data for daily, weekly, ten-day or monthly calculations.
Location

28
Altitude above sea level (m) and latitude (degrees north or south) of the location should be
specified. These data are needed to adjust some weather parameters for the local average
value of atmospheric pressure (a function of the site elevation above mean sea level) and
to compute extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) and, in some cases, daylight hours (N). In the
calculation procedures for Ra and N, the latitude is expressed in radian (i.e., decimal
degrees times /180).

BOX 3 Derivation of the FAO Penman-Monteith equation for the hypothetical grass
reference crop
With standardized height for wind speed, temperature and humidity measurements at 2 m
(zm = zh = 2 m) and the crop height h = 0.12 m, the aerodynamic and surface resistances
become (Boxes 4 & 5):
ra = 208/u2 s m-1, (with u2 wind speed at 2 m height)
rs = 70 s m-1
(1 + rs/ra) = (1 + 0.34 u2)

Rn and G is energy available per unit area and expressed in MJ m-2 day-1. To convert the
energy units for radiation to equivalent water depths (mm) the latent heat of vaporization,
is used as a conversion factor. The conversion from energy values to equivalent depths of
water or vice versa is given by (Eq. 20):

By substituting cp with a rearrangement of Eq. 8:

and considering the ideal gas law for a:

where TKv the virtual temperature, may be substituted by:

TKv = 1.01(T+273)
results in:

[MJ m-2 C-1 day-1]

29
where
cp specific heat at constant pressure [MJ kg-1 C-1],
a mean air density at constant pressure [kg m-3],
ra aerodynamic resistance [s m-1],
psychrometric constant [kPa C-1],
ratio molecular weight of water vapour/dry air = 0.622,
latent heat of vaporization [MJ kg-1],
u2 wind speed at 2 m [m s-1],
R specific gas constant = 0.287 kJ kg-1 K-1,
T air temperature [C],
P atmospheric pressure [kPa],

[MJ m-2 C-1 day-1]

or, when divided by ( = 2.45),

[mm C-1 day-1]

A positive value is used for the northern hemisphere and a negative value for the southern
hemisphere.

Temperature

The (average) daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in degrees Celsius (C) are
required. Where only (average) mean daily temperatures are available, the calculations
can still be executed but some underestimation of ETo will probably occur due to the non-
linearity of the saturation vapour pressure - temperature relationship (Figure 11). Using
mean air temperature instead of maximum and minimum air temperatures yields a lower
saturation vapour pressure es, and hence a lower vapour pressure difference (es - ea),
and a lower reference evapo-transpiration estimate.

Humidity

The (average) daily actual vapour pressure, ea, in kilopascals (kPa) is required. The actual
vapour pressure, where not available, can be derived from maximum and minimum relative
humidity (%), psychrometric data (dry and wet bulb temperatures in C) or dewpoint
temperature (C).

30
Radiation

The (average) daily net radiation expressed in megajoules per square metre per day (MJ
m-2 day-1) is required. These data are not commonly available but can be derived from the
(average) shortwave radiation measured with a pyranometer or from the (average) daily
actual duration of bright sunshine (hours per day) measured with a (Campbell-Stokes)
sunshine recorder.

Wind speed

The (average) daily wind speed in meters per second (m s-1) measured at 2 m above the
ground level is required. It is important to verify the height at which wind speed is
measured, as wind speeds measured at different heights above the soil surface differ.
Missing climatic data

Situations might occur where data for some weather variables are missing. The use of an
alternative ETo calculation procedure, requiring only limited meteorological parameters,
should generally be avoided. It is recommended that one calculate ETo using the standard
FAO Penman-Monteith method after resolving the specific problem of the missing data.
Differences between ETo values obtained with the FAO Penman-Monteith equation with,
on the one hand, a limited data set and, on the other hand, a full data set, are expected to
be smaller than or of similar magnitude to the differences resulting from the use of an
alternative ETo equation.

2.6 Possible Questions

Q1. How precipitation is formed?

Q2. Define the entire process of formation of precipitation.
Q3. How precipitation can me measured?
Q3. What are the methods of areal precipitation measurement?
Q5. Area of catchment like a circle of diameter 100 km. Given below the data of five gauge
points, Estimate the mean areal precipitation by thiessen polygon method.

31
Station 1 2 3 4 5
Coordinates (30,80) (70,100) (100,140) (130,100) (100,70
Precipitation(cm) 80.5 132.2 96.2 145.5 101.5

Coordinate of centre is (100,100). Answer: 120 cm

Q6. Long-term observations at a streamflow-measuring station at the outlet of a catchment

in a mountainous area gives a mean annual discharge of 65 m3/s. An isohyetal map for the
annual rainfall over the catchment gives the following areas closed by isohyets and the
divide of the catchment:
Isohyete Area (km2) Isohet (cm) Area (km2)
140-135 50 120-115 600
135-130 300 115-110 400
130-125 450 110-105 200
125-120 700
Calculate (a) the mean annual depth of rainfall over the catchment, (b) the mean annual
runoff.

Q7. Define evaporation and discuss its mechanism.

Q8. How evapo-transpiration can be estimated? Name two well known method of Evapo-
traspration.

32
3 STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT

3.1 Introduction

One can ask question "How much water is flowing in this river?" Answer is, it is a process
involving two concepts:

Stream stage
Streamflow

Streamflow (Discharge): The rate of water flow (volume/unit time) passing a given cross
section of a stream. Some common units include:

cubic feet per second, cfs, ft3/s

cubic meters per second, m3/s
gallons per minute, gpm

Stream gaging: Two types of field measurements is the basis for all streamflow work: (1)
river stage (water surface elevation) and (2) cross-sectional area.

The location along the river where these measurements are taken is referred to as a
gaging site. A permanent facility at this site is referred to as a gaging station. Determination
of river discharge requires that the velocity and cross-section area be measured at the
station in some systematic manner. This process is referred to as stream gaging.

Therefore, flow through a stream can be measured by direct measurement. Also some
methods are available to measure stream flow in ungaged streams.

Velocity Meters
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)
Weirs and Flumes
Dilution Gaging

33
For a gaged streams flow are usually measured by the area- velocity method. The velocity
is measured using current meter.

3.2 Measurement of Stage and Velocity

Stream stage (also called stage or gage height) is the height of the water surface, in feet,
above an established datum plane where the stage is zero. The zero level is arbitrary, but
is often close to the streambed. You can get an idea of what stream stage is by looking at
this picture of a common staff gage, which is used to make a visual reading of stream
stage. The gage is marked in 1/100th and 1/10th foot intervals.

Streamflow, or discharge, is the volume of

water flowing past a fixed point in a fixed
unit of time. For water flow in streams, the
U.S. Geological Survey expresses the
value in cubic feet per second (ft3/s). For
example, when rain has not fallen for a
while, Peachtree Creek often is at a
baseflow stage of about 3 feet. The rating curve (see chart below) shows that at a stage of
3 feet streamflow is 76 ft3/s. Since one cubic foot of water contains 7.48 gallons, it might be
easier to understand this streamflow value if you consider that 76 ft3/s is about 568 gallons
of water flowing each second.

3.3 Stage-Discharge Relation: Rating Curve

Draw a graph with an x-axis and y-axis. The x-axis, the horizontal line, will be the
streamflow measurement. The y-axis, the vertical line, will be the staff gage reading. Place
a dot on the graph where each streamflow and corresponding staff gage measurement
intersect. Draw a smooth, curved line between the points. Now you have a stage-discharge
relationship. From now on, you can simply take the gage reading and estimate the stream
flow from your prediction curve.

34
As convenient as a stage-discharge relationship is, it still needs to be supported by real
data. The more data points you use to develop your graph, the better. The graph is
accurate only for the stream flows that fall within the data range you used to create the
graph. For example, if all your measurements were taken during June through September
when stream flows were low, the graph could not be used to predict high flows in
December. Be sure to collect data during a wide range of flow conditions. In general, if you
have about four data sets from the low-flow period and four from the high-flow period, you
can comfortably prepare the graph. Make periodic checks of the discharge curve,
especially after periods of flooding. Recalibrate the curve if the periodic checks indicate the
relationship has changed. Eventually, natural changes in the stream bottom will result in a
change in the relationship between flow and gage height.

Fig. 7 Stage vs streamflow curve

This chart, Figure 7, known as a rating curve, shows that there is a relation between
stream stage and streamflow. The stage-streamflow relation is used to relate water level to
an associated streamflow. The rating curve for a specific stream location is developed by
making successive steamflow measurements at many different stream stages to define
and maintain a stage-streamflow relation. These steamflow measurements and their
corresponding stages are then plotted on a graph. Continuous streamflow throughout the
year can be determined from the rating curve and the record of river stage.
The rating curve is crucial because it allows the use of stream stage, which is usually
easily determined, to estimate the corresponding streamflow at virtually any stream stage.

35
3.3.1 Relation of Stream Stage to Streamflow is Always Changing

Rating curves are not static - they occasionally must be recalculated. Rating curves
frequently shift due to changes in the factors that determine the relation between stream
stage and streamflow. These factors are:

Slope of the stream (affects velocity)

Roughness of the channel
Area of the channel at each stream stage
Backwater effects (when a tributary enters a larger river)
Filling in, scouring out, channel changes of river banks

Consider what can happen to a stream channel during a large flood. The Figure 8 below
shows a streambed before and after a flood, thus changing the relation between the
stream stage, in feet, and the amount of water flowing at that stage. The colored area
represents how much water is flowing. Both diagrams show the same 5-foot stage, but
more water is flowing after the flood because the streambed profile has changed and now
there is more area for water to flow. Scouring occurs more often on the outside edge of a
curve in a stream, whereas sand buildup occurs on the inside edge.

Fig. 8 Gage reading before and after bed scour

36
3.3.2 Method of Estimation of Flow by Direct Measurement

In order to accurately determine streamflow, measurements must be made of its width,

depth, and speed (velocity) of the water at many horizontal and vertical points across the
stream. To develop a stream-stage/streamflow relation (rating curve), streamflow must be
measured at many different stages. The well-developed rating curve allows for estimation
of streamflows at virtually any stream stage. More simply, if a stream is measured at
stages of 3.5, 6, 7.1, 9, and 10.2 feet, then an estimate can be made for a streamflow at 8
feet -- that is the goal.

Fig. 9 Current meter for velocity measurement

The stream-measurement procedure is to go across the stream at selected intervals and

measure the total depth and the velocity of the water at selected depths at each interval
across the stream. The picture shows a current meter (attached above the torpedo-looking
weight), which is lowered into the stream and measures water velocity. The spinning cups
on the current meter measure velocity.

In the diagram, the hydrologist would take a measurement of how fast the water is moving
at every green 'X', and would then determine the areas between all of the measured
intervals, such as the one shown by the purple box.

37
Fig. 10

In the diagram above, water depth/velocity measurements are obtained horizontally across
the stream at 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 feet (the vertical lines in the diagram). At each location,
measurements of velocity and total depth are obtained. Depending on the depth and flow
conditions, one or more velocity reading(s) are obtained in each vertical. For our example,
a water depth/velocity measurement is obtained at a point 5 feet from the edge of the
stream. The total depth is slightly more than 3 feet and velocity readings are obtained at
depths of 1, 2, and 3 feet (the 'X's on the 5-foot vertical line). The purple box represents an
area that is midway between this measurement point and the measurement points on
either side. The purple area is 2 feet across and one foot high, or 2 square feet. The
measured velocity at the big X in the purple box is is 2 feet per second. To compute the
amount of water flowing in that purple area each second, multiply the area of the purple
box times the velocity of the water:
(1) 2 feet wide x 1 foot high = 2 square feet
(2) 2 square feet x 2 feet per second = 4 cubic feet per second.

To compute the total stream streamflow the hydrologist has to create imaginary purple
boxes between all of the 'X's and, using the velocity of the water in every box, compute the
streamflow for each purple area. Summing the streamflows for all the purple areas will give
the total streamflow. Actually, the example above is a simplified explanation of how
streamflow is measured. When an actual measurement is made, the hydrologist takes
measurements at about 20 points across the stream. The goal is to have no one vertical
cross-section contain more than 5 percent of the total stream discharge.

38
3.4 Questions

Q1. Why do we measure streamflow?

Q2. How do we measure streamflow?
Q3. Relating streamflow and stage?
Q4. The following data were collected during a stream-gauging operation in a river.
Compute the discharge.

Distance from left water Depth (m) Velocity (m/s)

edge (m) At 0.2 d At 0.8 d
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.5 1.3 0.6 0.4
3.0 2.5 0.9 0.6
4.5 1.7 0.7 0.5
6.0 1.0 0.6 0.4
7.5 0.4 0.4 0.3
9.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Q5. The following are the data obtained in a stream-gauging operation. A current meter
with a calibration equation V = (0.32 N+0.032) m/s where N + revolutions per second was
used to measure the velocity at 0.6 depth. Using the mid-section method, calculate the
discharge in the stream.

Distance 0 2 4 6 9 12 15 18 20 22 23 24
from right
bank (m)
Depth 0 0.50 1.10 1.95 2.25 1.85 1.75 1.65 1.50 1.25 0.75 0
(m)
Number 0 80 83 131 139 121 114 109 92 85 70 0
of revolu-
tion
Time (s) 0 180 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 150 0

39
Q6. The following are the coordinates of a smooth curve drawn to best represent the
stage-discharge data of a river., Draw the stage-Discharge Curve(Rating curve)

Stage (m) 20.80 21.42 21.95 22.37 23.00 23.52 23.90

Discharge 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000
(m3/s)

40