Power Topologies Handbook

Power Topologies
Handbook
Markus Zehendner, Matthias Ulmann
TI.com/powertopologies Contents
chapter 1 Abbrevations and General Information 5
chapter 2 General Equations for Calculating RMS and AC Currents 9
chapter 3 Buck Converter 15
chapter 4 Boost Converter 23
chapter 5 Inverting Buck-Boost Converter 31
chapter 6 SEPIC 39
chapter 7 Cuk Converter 49
chapter 8 Zeta Converter 59
chapter 9 Flyback Converter 69
chapter 10 Two Switch Flyback Converter 81
chapter 11 Active Clamp Forward Converter 91
chapter 12 Single Switch Forward Converter 105
chapter 13 Two Switch Forward Converter 119
chapter 14 Push-Pull Converter 131
chapter 15 Weinberg Converter 145
chapter 16 Half-Bridge Converter 157
chapter 17 Full-Bridge Converter 171
chapter 18 Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge Converter 185
Power Topologies Handbook 3

Abbrevations and General Information TI.com/powertopologies
Expression Abbrevation
Continuous Conduction Mode CCM
Discontinuous Conduction Mode DCM
Alternating Current VV VinAC

in
in
Root Mean Square VV VRMS

out
Vin
out
out
IV IIout
outout
Synchronous Rectifier V SR
out
VIVVfin f
f
out
Right Half Plane Zero f RHPZ
switch
ffswitch
VVout
switch
Vin f
Input Voltage IVout
f1switch in
1 1V
V
Vout
TT = fswitch in = t1 + t2 + t3
switch= in
Tswitch
switch =fswitch
fswitch VV VVoutf=
in
in =t1t1++t2t2++t3t3
Output Voltage switch
V I in
Vtout out
out
1
Tswitch = fswitch V
tI1tout
f1switch
V out
out
1 =t +t +t
Output Current IIVout
out
f
1 2 3
IVout
out
f1switchIVtout
out
f
1f
Diode Forward Voltage
V
Vfff = t1 + t2 + t3
Tswitch = fswitch
fswitch Vf
ffswitch
Switching frequency of the power supplys FET t2tt221
switch
ff1switch
switch
Tswitch = fswitch switch = t1 + t2 + t3
1
Tswitch = fswitch1 t = t1 + t2 + t3
Switching period T
Tswitch = switch
switch = f
1 t2 = t1 + t2 + t3
1 1 = t1 + t2 + t3
1
switch
T switch = f
Tswitch 1 t1 = t1
fswitch 1 + t2 + t 3
switch = f switch
fswitch t13 = t1 + t22 + t33
Time, when the FET is conducting and current in switch t 1
t3tt3211
the inductor is increasing. 1
Time, when the FET is not conducting and current in tt3
2
the inductor is decreasing. tt2
Time, when the FET is not conducting and constant tt22
tt2322
current or no current flows through the inductor for
non-interleaved switching topologies. For interleaved
t3
switching topologies (e.g. Push-Pull) the current will tt3
decrease to 0A during that time. tt33
3
tttph
3
3
Phase Shift Time tph ph
tadtad
Demagnetization Time ttphad
td t1
Time after demagnetization. Time period tbetween
td
d t1ttd
1 and tad
t1 in DCM. Only applies for Single Switch Forward and tph
Two Switch Forward. td t1
tad
t fswitch
Duty Cycle
td t1 DD
D==
=t1tt11tph
ffswitch
switch
ttph
ph
ad
ttph
ph
td t1 D = t1ttph fswitch
ad
ph
ttad
ad
td t1 ad
tad
ad
ttdd tt11
ttdd tt11 D = t1 fswitch
d 1
D = t1 fswitch
D
D =
= tt1 ffswitch
D = tt111 ffswitch
= 1 switch
D switch
D = t1 fswitch
switch
6 Power Topologies Handbook

TI.com/powertopologies Abbrevations and General Information
About Discontinuous Conduction Mode

A switch mode power supply enters Discontinuous Conduction Mode when half the inductor current ripple ex-
ceeds the average inductor current. Respectively the relative inductor current ripple will have a value of 200% or
greater in DCM and the current will have a minimum value of 0A during t3. An exception is the synchronous Buck
converter without diode emulation, where the inductor current can also become negative, because it remains in
CCM under conditions a non-sychronous Buck regulator enters DCM. In case of the SEPIC, Cuk and Zeta topol-
ogies the before mentioned conditions for DCM are a little bit different as those topologies contain two inductors.
The inductor currents both have an offset in relationship to the input and output current. DCM is entered when
both offsets have the same absolute value and sum up to zero. The relative inductor current ripple in DCM is also
200% or greater for SEPIC, Cuk and Zeta converters and the current during t3 will equal the value of the offset.
About Inductors and Transformers

Coupling between coupled inductors and for transformer windings is assumed to be ideal. The equations
for SEPIC, Cuk and Zeta converters are for uncoupled inductors: When calculating with coupled inductors for
those topologies use double the value of the components inductance. This also means that for the same ripple
requirement a coupled inductor with half the inductance of a single inductor solution is sufficient. Another benefit
of using coupled inductors for Cuk, SEPIC and Zeta is that the resonant frequency between inductors and cou-
pling capacitor does not have an effect on the power supplys frequency response, but does with single inductors.
About Diodes
The forward voltage drop of rectifier and freewheeling diodes (D1 and D2, as well as D3 for the Weinberg) is taken
into account for all calculations. It is assumed that the forward voltage drop is identical for those. The forward
voltage drop for demagnetization diodes (D3 and D4) is neglected for all equations.
About How waveforms are being displayed

The voltage and current waveforms of components are displayed in the direction the current is flowing through
them. Exceptions are the secondaries of transformers and coupled inductors, because they are considered to be
current sources. This results in the signs of current and voltage being inverse. For Inverting Buck-Boost and
Cuk output voltage and current have to be negative values for calculations. The direction of voltage and current
waveforms for the synchronous rectifier in the synchronous Buck regulator point to the opposite direction com-
pared to the diode in the non-synchronous Buck regulator, because the voltage is measured from Drain to Source
in this special case.
Figure 1.0.1.Example of how the waveforms of a Flyback converter are displayed.
About Right Half Plane Zero

For Boost, Inverting Buck-Boost, Cuk, SEPIC, Flyback and Two Switch Flyback topologies the equations for the
right half plane zero are very simplified and thus give the designer only an estimation of the frequency. Please
consider that SEPIC and Cuk converters have more than one RHPZ and only one of them can be calculated to
a certain extent.

CHAPTER 2
General Equations
for Calculating RMS
and AC Currents
General Equations for Calculating RMS and AC Currents TI.com/powertopologies
2.1. Positive triangular waveforms without offset
Figure 2.1.1. Positive triangular waveforms without offset
Figure 2.1.2. Positive triangular waveforms without offset
Average:
1
Tswitch
avg = Tswitch 0
i (t) dt
max t1 +t2
avg = 2 Tswitch
RMS:
Tswitch
1
rms = Tswitch 0
(i (t))2 dt

t1 +t2
rms = max 3Tswitch
AC:

ac = rms2 avg 2

TI.com/powertopologies General Equations for Calculating RMS and AC Currents
2.2. Positive triangular waveforms with offset
Figure 2.2.1. Positive triangular waveforms with offset
Figure 2.2.2. Positive triangular waveforms with offset
Average:
1
Tswitch
avg = Tswitch 0
i (t) dt
min+max t1 +t2
avg = 2 Tswitch
RMS:
Tswitch
1
rms = Tswitch 0
(i (t))2 dt

t1 +t2 (maxmin)2
rms = Tswitch (min max + 3 )
AC:

ac = rms2 avg 2

2.3. Positive and negative triangular waveforms without offset
Figure 2.3.1. Positive and negative triangular waveforms without offset
Figure 2.3.2. Positive and negative triangular waveforms without offset
Average:
1
Tswitch
avg = Tswitch 0
i (t) dt
min t1 max t2
avg = 2 Tswitch + 2 Tswitch
RMS:
Tswitch
1
rms = Tswitch 0
(i (t))2 dt
2 2
t1 t2
rms = min 3Tswitch + max 3Tswitch
AC:

ac = rms2 avg 2

TI.com/powertopologies General Equations for Calculating RMS and AC Currents
2.4. Positive and negative triangular waveforms with offset
Figure 2.4.1. Positive and negative triangular waveforms with offset
Average:
1
Tswitch 1
Tswitch
avg = Tswitch 0
i (t) dt avg = Tswitch 0
i (t) dt
min1 +max1 t1 min1 +max2 t2 min1 +max1 t1 min1 +max2 t2

avg = 2 Tswitch + 2 avg =
Tswitch 2 Tswitch + 2 Tswitch
RMS:
Tswitch Tswitch
1 1
rms = Tswitch 0
(i (t))2 dt rms = Tswitch 0
(i (t))2 dt

(max1 min1 )2 min12))22
(max12min
rms = t1
Tswitch [max1 min1 + 3rms =]
tt12
+ TTswitch
switch
[max
[max12 min + (max
min12 + 33 ]+ t2
Tswitch [max2 min2 + (max
AC:

ac = rms2 avg 2 ac = rms2 avg 2

2.5. U
niversal equations for positive and negative triangular waveforms with Offset and
three time components
Average:
min1 +max1 t1 min2 +max2 t2 min3 +max3 t3

avg = 2 Tswitch + 2 Tswitch + 2 Tswitch
RMS:

3 2
rms = n=1 fswitch tn maxn minn + (maxn minn )
AC:

ac = rms2 avg 2

CHAPTER 3
Buck Converter
Buck Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Buck converter steps down an input voltage to a lower output voltage level. The energy is transferred to the
output when the FET is conducting.
Figure 3.0.1. Schematic of a non-synchronous Buck converter
For calculating a synchronous Buck converter set Vf = 0V. The waveforms for the synchronous Buck converter
show the operation in a forced PWM scenario, where a non-synchronous Buck converter would enter DCM.
For normal operation there is an additional positive DC offset for the current of FET and Inductor. The CCM wave-
forms can be used as reference. In case of the synchronous rectifier current the additional DC offset is negative.
L1
Q1
Ci Q2 Co
Figure 3.0.2. Schematic of a synchronous Buck converter

TI.com/powertopologies Buck Converter
3.1. General
1
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = L1 (Vin Vout ) t1
3.1.1. Continuous Conduction Mode & Synchronous forced PWM.

Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: t1 = 1

t1 =fswitch Vin +Vff
1 outV +V
fswitch Vin +Vf
1
FET off, decreasing current: t2 t= =fswitch
1 t1
2 fswitch t1
IIripple
Min. Inductor Current: Imin Iout
==Iout
Imin ripple
22
IIripple
ripple
Max. Inductor Current: Imax
Imax==Iout
Iout++ 22
Vout Iout V
Vf Imin +I
Iin,avg + Vinf
Iin,avg==VoutVIinout + Imin max
+I t2 fswitch
max
t f
Average Input Current: Vin Vin
2
2 2 switch
3.1.2. Discontinuous Conduction Mode.

Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: t1 = 2 Iout L1 fswitch (VinV
Vout )(Vin +Vf )
+V
out f
t1 = 2 Iout L1 fswitch (Vin Vout )(Vin +Vf )
Vin +Vf
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 Vout +Vf t1
Vin +Vf
t2 = t1 V
1 out +Vf
t1
FET off, no current: t3 = fswitch t1 t2
1
t3 I= t1 t2
Min. Inductor Current: fswitch
min = 0A
Max. Inductor Current: Imin ==0A1 (Vin Vout ) t1

Imax L1
Iout Vf
Average Input Current: Imax = L1= V out
Iin,avg (V
Vinin +VV
out
in
) Imin
t1 +I
2
max
t2 fswitch
1
Vout Iout Vf Imin +Imax

Iin,avg = Vin + Vin 2 t2 fswitch
3.2. Inductor L1
L1
3.2.1. CCM, DCM & Synchronous forced PWM.
L1
Figure 3.2.1. Buck - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchronous forced PWM
L1
L1 Power Topologies Handbook 17

Figure 3.2.2. Buck - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchronous forced PWM
Average Inductor Current: IL1 ,avg = Imin +Imax

2 (t1 + t2 ) fswitch
Min. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,min = Vout Vf
Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = Vin Vout
Inductor Voltage during tt33: VL1 ,t3 = 0V
Q1
3.3. FET Q1
Q1
Figure 3.3.1. Buck - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchronous forced PWM
Figure 3.3.2. Buck - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchronous forced PWM
Q1
Imin +Imax
18 Power Topologies Handbook IQ1 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
VQ1 ,min = 0V
Q1
Imin +Imax
Average FET Current: IQ1 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,min = 0V
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,max = Vin + Vf

D1
FET Voltage duringt3t3 (DCM): Q1 ,t3 = Vin Vout
t3 Q1 ,t3 = Vin
3.4. Diode D1
3.4.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 3.4.1. Buck - Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 3.4.2. Buck - Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Imin +Imax
Average Diode Current: ID1 ,avg = 2 t2 fswitch
Min. Diode Voltage: VD1 ,min = Vin
Max. Diode Voltage: VD1 ,max = Vf
Diode Voltage during t3t: 3 VD1 ,t3 = Vout

3.4.2. Synchronous Rectifier FET Q2 - forced PWM.
Q2
Figure 3.4.3. Synchronous Buck - Synchronous Rectifier FET Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and forced
PWM mode
Q2
Figure 3.4.4. Synchronous Buck - Synchronous Rectifier FET Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM and forced
PWM mode
Average SR Current: IQ2 ,avg = Imin +Imax

2 t2 fswitch
Min. SR Voltage: VQ2 ,min = 0V
Max. SR Voltage: VQ2 ,max = Vin

Ci
3.5. Input Capacitor Ci
Ci
Figure 3.5.1. Buck - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchronous forced PWM
Ci
Figure 3.5.2. Buck - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchronous forced PWM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,min,t1 = Imax + Iin,avg
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = Imin + Iin,avg
Input Capacitor Current during tt22 and t3t:3 ICi ,t2/3 = Iin,avg
Average Input Capacitor Current: ICi ,avg = 0A
Input Capacitor Voltage: VCi = Vin

Co
3.6. Output Capacitor Co
Co
Figure 3.6.1. Buck - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchro-nous forced PWM
Co
Figure 3.6.2. Buck - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and synchro-nous forced PWM
Min. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,min = Imin Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,max = Imax Iout
Average Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,avg = 0A
Output Capacitor Voltage: VCo = Vout

CHAPTER 4
Boost Converter
Boost Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Boost converter steps up an input voltage to a higher output voltage level. The energy is transferred to the
output when the FET is not conducting.
Figure 4.0.1. Schematic of a Boost converter
1 Vin 1
Iripple = (Vout + Vf Vin )
4.1. General fswitch Vout +Vf L1
2
out (1D)
frhpz = V2L 1 Iout
11 Vin 1
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = fLswitch
ripple = 1
Vin (V
tout
1 + Vf Vin ) Vout +Vf L1
Vout (1D)2
Right Half Plane Zero: frhpz = 2L1 Iout
4.1.1. CCM.
1 Vout +Vf Vin
FET on, increasing current: t1 = fswitch Vout +Vf
1
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = fswitch t1
1 V +Vf Vin
t1 = fswitch outV +Vf
Vout +Vf out
Average Input Current: Iin = Iout Vin
1
t2 = fswitch t1
I
Min. Inductor Current: Imin = Iin ripple
V 2 +Vf
Iin = Iout out Vin
I
Max. Inductor Current: Imax = Iin + ripple2
I
Imin = Iin ripple2
4.1.2. DCM. Imax = Iin + ripple

I
2

V +Vf Vin
FET on, increasing current: t1 = 2 Iout L1 fout 2
switch V in
Vout +Vf
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 Vout +Vf Vin t1
1
FET off, no current: t3 = fswitch t 1 t2
Vout Vf
Average Input Current: Iin = Iout Vin
Min. Inductor Current: Imin = 0A
1
Max. Inductor Current: Imax = L1 Vin t1
24 Power Topologies Handbook L1

Imin = 0A
1
Imax = L1 Vin t1
TI.com/powertopologies Boost Converter

L1
4.2. Inductor L1
4.2.1. CCM & DCM.
L1
Figure 4.2.1. Boost - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
L1
Figure 4.2.2. Boost - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Imin +Imax
Average Inductor Current: IL1 ,avg = 2 (t1 + t2 ) fswitch
Min. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,min = Vin Vout Vf
Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = Vin

Q1
4.3. FET Q1
4.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1
Figure 4.3.1. Boost - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1
Figure 4.3.2. Boost - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average FET Current: IQ1 ,avg = Imin +Imax

2 t1 fswitch
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,max = Vout + Vf
FET Voltage during t3t: 3 Q1 ,t3 = Vin

D1
4.4. Diode D1
4.4.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 4.4.1. Boost - Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 4.4.2. Boost - Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average Diode Current: ID1 ,avg = Imin +Imax

2 t2 fswitch
Min. Diode Voltage: VD1 ,min = Vout
Diode Voltage during t3t: 3 VD1 ,t3 = Vin Vout

Ci
4.5.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 4.5.1. Boost - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 4.5.2. Boost - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current: ICi ,min = Imax + Iin
Max. Input Capacitor Current: ICi ,max = Imin + Iin

Co
4.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 4.6.1. Boost - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 4.6.2. Boost - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Output Capacitor Current during

t1 t1: ICo ,t1 = Iout
Min. Output Capacitor Current duringt2t2 and tt33: ICo ,min,t2/3 = Imin Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current duringt2t2 and tt33: ICo ,max,t2/3 = Imax Iout

CHAPTER 5
Inverting Buck-Boost
Converter
Inverting Buck-Boost Converter TI.com/powertopologies
An Inverting Buck-Boost regulator converts a positive input voltage to a higher or lower negative output voltage
level. The energy is transferred to the output when the FET is not conducting.
Figure 5.0.1. Schematic of an Inverting Buck-Boost converter
5.1. General Iripple = 1

fswitch (Vout + Vf ) Vin
Vout +Vf +Vin 1
L1
Vout (1D)2
frhpz = 2DL I
1 out
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = 1 1
Vin (V
fLswitch
1
t1 out + Vf ) Vin
Vout +Vf +Vin 1
L1
Vout (1D)2
Right Half Plane Zero: frhpz = 2DL1 Iout
5.1.1. CCM.
1 Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: t1 = fswitch Vout +Vf +Vin
1
1 V +Vf
t
Min. Inductor Current: 1
= Ioutout
Imin = V
fswitch V +V V
fin+Vinf out
Iripple
out+V Vin 2
1
Max. Inductor Current: t2 = Imax
fswitch I
= t1 out Vin +Vf Vout
+
Iripple
Vin 2
V Vin +V V Iripple
Average Input Current: Imin Vinout V+finVVinfout
I=out outI
=Iin Imin
+I max
2 2 t2 fswitch
Vin +Vf Vout Iripple

Imax = Iout +
5.1.2. DCM. Vin 2

VoutIout Vf Imin +I
Iin = t1 V=in
FET on, increasing current: + VIin
2
out L1
Vmax ft2
out +V fswitch
f2 V 2
switch in
Vout +Vin +Vf

FET off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 Vout +Vf t1
1
FET off, no current: t3 = fswitch t 1 t2
Min. Inductor Current: Imin = 0A
1
Max. Inductor Current: Imax = L1 Vin t1
Vout Iout Vf Imax
Average Input Current: Iin = Vin + Vin 2 t2 fswitch
L1
1
Imax = L1 Vin t1
Vout Iout Vf Imax
Iin = Vin + Vin 2 t2 fswitch
TI.com/powertopologies Inverting Buck-Boost Converter

L1
5.2. Inductor L1
5.2.1. CCM & DCM.
L1
Figure 5.2.1. Inverting Buck Boost - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
L1
Figure 5.2.2. Inverting Buck Boost - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average Inductor Current: IL1 ,avg = Imin +Imax

2 (t1 + t2 ) fswitch
Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = Vin
Inductor Voltage during t3:t3 VL1 ,t3 = 0V

Q1
5.3. FET Q1
5.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1
Figure 5.3.1. Inverting Buck Boost - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1
Figure 5.3.2. Inverting Buck Boost - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Imin +Imax
Average FET Current: IQ1 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,max = Vin + Vf Vout
FET Voltage during t3t:3 Q1 ,t3 = Vin

5.4. Diode D1
D1
5.4.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 5.4.1. Inverting Buck Boost - Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D
Figure 5.4.2. Inverting Buck Boost - 1Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Imin +Imax
Average Diode Current: ID1 ,avg = 2 t2 fswitch
Min. Diode Voltage: VD1 ,min = Vout Vin
Diode Voltage during tt33: VD1 ,t3 = Vout

CCii
5.5.1. CCM & DCM.
CCii
Figure 5.5.1. Inverting Buck Boost - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
CCii
Figure 5.5.2. Inverting Buck Boost - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:t11 IICCii,min,t = I

,min,t11 = Imax
max +
+IIin
in
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:t11 IICCii,max,t = I

,max,t11 = Imin
min +
+IIin
in
Input Capacitor current duringtt222 and tt3t:33 CCii,t,t2/3

2/3
=
= in
in
Average Input Capacitor Current: IICCii,avg

,avg =
= 0A
0A
Input Capacitor Voltage: VVCCii =

= VVin
in

Co
5.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 5.6.1. Inverting Buck Boost - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 5.6.2. Inverting Buck Boost - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Output Capacitor Current during

t1t1: ICo ,t1 = Iout
Min. Output Capacitor Current duringtt22 and tt33: ICo ,min,t2/3 = Imin Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current duringtt22 and tt33: ICo ,max,t2/3 = Imax Iout

CHAPTER 6
SEPIC
SEPIC TI.com/powertopologies
A Single Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC) steps up/down an input voltage to a higher/lower output
voltage level. The energy is transferred to the output when the FET is not conducting.
Figure 6.0.1. Schematic of a SEPIC converter
Vout (1D)2
6.1. General frhpz = 2D 2 L1 Iout
Vout (1D)2
Right Half Plane Zero: frhpz = 2D 2 L1 Iout
6.1.1. Continuous Conduction Mode.

Vout +Vf
fswitch Vout +Vin +Vf
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = 1

fswitch t1
1 Vout +Vf
Average Input Current:t1 = fswitch Vout +VI
in +Vf
in,avg =
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Vin
1
Inductor L1 LRipple:
1 t2 = fswitch t1 IL1 ,ripple = Vin t1
L1
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Inductor L2 LRipple:
2 Iin,avg = Vin
IL2 ,ripple = Vin t1
L2
L1 Coupling Capacitor C1ICVoltage

1 Ripple:
=V t1 VC1 ,ripple = Iin,avg 1D
C1 fswitch
L1 ,ripple in L1
t1
L2 IL2 ,ripple = Vin
6.1.2. Discontinuous Conduction Mode. L2

1D
C1 VC ,ripple = Iin,avg 2Iout L1 L2 (Vout +Vf )fswitch (L1 +L2 )
FET on, increasing current:
1
t1C1=fswitch Vin fswitch (L1 +L2 )

2Iout L1 L2 (Vout +Vf )fswitch (L1 +L2 )
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = (Vout +Vf )fswitch (L1 +L2 )
FET off, constant current: t3 = 1

fswitch t 1 t2
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Average Input Current: Iin,avg = Vin
Inductor L1LRipple:
1 IL1 ,ripple = Vin t1
L1
Inductor L2LRipple:
L2
Coupling Capacitor C1CVoltage

1 Ripple: VC1 ,ripple = Iin,avg 1D
C1 fswitch
L1
TI.com/powertopologies SEPIC
6.2. Inductor L1
6.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 6.2.1. SEPIC - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 6.2.2. SEPIC - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Inductor Current: IL1 ,min = Iin,avg 1

2 IL1 ,ripple (t1 + t2 ) fswitch
Max. Inductor Current: IL1 ,max = IL1 ,min + IL1 ,ripple
Average Inductor Current: IL1 ,avg = Iin,avg
Inductor Voltage during t1t:1 VL1 ,t1 = Vin

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Inductor Voltage during t2:t2 VL1 ,min,t2 = Vout Vf 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Inductor Voltage during t2t: 2 VL1 ,max,t2 = Vout Vf + 2
Inductor Voltage during t3t:3 VL1 ,t3 = 0V
The offset in DCM during t3tis dependent on the input voltage and can be positive or negative.
3
L2

VC1 ,ripple
t2 VL1 ,min,t2 = Vout Vf 2
VC1 ,ripple
t2 VL1 ,max,t2 = Vout Vf + 2
t3 VL1 ,t3 = 0V
t3
L2
Ci
6.3. Inductor L2 Ci
6.3.1. CCM.
L2 Ci
Ci
Figure 6.3.1. SEPIC - Inductor L2 Voltage Waveform in CCM
Ci
L2 Ci
Figure 6.3.2. SEPIC - Inductor L2 Current Waveform in CCM
t1 ICi ,min,t1 = Imax + Iin
IL2I
Min. Inductor Current: ItLt112 ,minIC=ii ,max,t
,min,t
Iout 11 =
= I min + Iin
,ripple
2
max
Max. Inductor Current: t2 ILtt123,maxIC

C= I2/3
,max,t
ii,t L2 ,min
=+I
=1 in ILmin + Iin
2 ,ripple
Average Inductor Current: t2 ILt23,avgIC

= out = 0A
I2/3
Cii,t
,avg in
VC1 ,ripple
Min. Inductor Voltage during t1:t1 ICC1ii,avg
VL2 ,min,t
V = =in0A
=VVout 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Inductor Voltage during t1t:1 VC1i =
VL2 ,max,t = VVout
in + 2
Inductor Voltage during t2t:2 VL2 ,t2 = Vout Vf

Ci
Ci
6.3.2. DCM.
Ci L2
Ci
Figure 6.3.3. SEPIC - Inductor L2 Voltage Waveform in DCM
Ci
Ci L2
Figure 6.3.4. SEPIC - Inductor L2 Current Waveform in DCM
Min. Inductor Current: ItL

t112 ,minICC=ii,max,t = Imax
IL111,min
,min,t min + Iin
in
Max. Inductor Current: t2 ILt132 ,maxICC=

ii,tI2/3
,max,t
L2 ,min
=+I
=1 in ILmin + Iin
2 ,ripple
Average Inductor Current: t2 ILt23,avgI= ,t = in

2/3 = 0A
Iout
Cii ,avg
VC1 ,ripple
Min. Inductor Voltage during t1t:1 VIC1ii,avg
VL2 ,min,t =
in 0A
= VVout
= 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Inductor Voltage during t1t:1 VC1i =
VL2 ,max,t = VVout
in + 2
Inductor Voltage during tt22: VL2 ,t2 = Vout Vf
The offset in DCM during t3t3is dependent on the input voltage and can be positive or negative.

Q1
6.4. FET Q1
6.4.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1
Figure 6.4.1. SEPIC - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1
Figure 6.4.2. SEPIC - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. FET Current: IQ1 ,min = IL1 ,min + IL2 ,min
Max. FET Current: IQ1 ,max = IL1 ,max + IL2 ,max

Average FET Current:
IQ1 ,avg = Iin,avg
FET Voltage during t1:
t1 VQ1 ,t1 = 0V
Min. FET Voltage during t2: VC1 ,ripple
t2 VQ1 ,min,t2 = Vin + Vout + Vf 2
Max. FET Voltage during t2:
VC1 ,ripple
t2 VQ1 ,max,t2 = Vin + Vout + Vf + 2
FET Voltage during t3:
t3 VQ1 ,t3 = Vin

D1
6.5. Diode D1
6.5.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 6.5.1. SEPIC - Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 6.5.2. SEPIC - Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Diode Current: ID1 ,min = IL1 ,min + IL2 ,min
Max. Diode Current: ID1 ,max = IL1 ,max + IL2 ,max
Average Diode Current: ID1 ,avg = Iout

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Diode Voltage during t1t:1 VD1 ,min,t1 = Vin Vout 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Diode Voltage during t1t:1 VD1 ,max,t1 = Vin Vout + 2
Diode Voltage during t2: VD1 ,t2 = Vf
Diode Voltage during t 3: VD1 ,t3 = Vout

C1
6.6. Coupling Capacitor C1
6.6.1. CCM & DCM.
C1
Figure 6.6.1. SEPIC - Coupling Capacitor C1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
C1
Figure 6.6.2. SEPIC - Coupling Capacitor C1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Coupling Capacitor Current during t1t:1 IC1 ,min,t1 = IL1 ,max If et,max
Max. Coupling Capacitor Current during t1t:1 IC1 ,max,t1 = IL1 ,min If et,min
Min. Coupling Capacitor Current during t2t:2 IC1 ,min,t2 = IL1 ,min
Max. Coupling Capacitor Current during t2t:2 IC1 ,max,t2 = IL1 ,max
Coupling Capacitor Current during tt33: IC1 ,t3 = IL1 ,min
Average Coupling Capacitor Current: IC1 ,avg = 0A

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Coupling Capacitor Voltage: VC1 ,min = Vin 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Coupling Capacitor Voltage: VC1 ,max = Vin + 2
Coupling Capacitor Voltage during tt33: VC1 ,t3 = Vin

Ci
6.7.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 6.7.1. SEPIC - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 6.7.2. SEPIC - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current: ICi ,min = Iin,avg IL1 ,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current: ICi ,max = Iin,avg IL1 ,min

Co
6.8.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 6.8.1. SEPIC - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 6.8.2. SEPIC - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Output Capacitor Current during t11: ICo ,t1 = Iout
Min. Output Capacitor Current during t2t2and t3t:3 ICo ,min,t2/3 = IL1 ,min + IL2 ,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during tt22and t3t:3 ICo ,max,t2/3 = IL1 ,max + IL2 ,max Iout

CHAPTER 7
Cuk Converter
Cuk Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Cuk regulator converts a positive input voltage to a higher or lower negative output voltage level.
The energy is transferred to the output when the FET is not conducting.
Figure 7.0.1. Schematic of a Cuk converter

7.1. General frhpz = 1
2 1D
L1 C1

1 1D
Right Half Plane Zero: frhpz = 2 L1 C1

Vout +Vf

fswitch t1
1 Vout +Vf
Average Input Current:t1 = fswitch Iin,avg
Vout +V in +Vf=
(Vout Vf )Iout
Vin
1
Inductor L1LRipple:
1
t2 = fswitch t1 IL1 ,ripple = Vin t1
L1
(Vout Vf )Iout
Inductor L2LRipple:
2 Iin,avg = Vin IL2 ,ripple = Vin t1
L2
L1 Coupling Capacitor CC1I1LVoltage

1 ,ripple
Ripple:
= Vin t1 V
L1 C1 ,ripple
= Iin,avg 1D
C1 fswitch
L2 IL2 ,ripple = Vin Lt12

1D
C1 VC1 ,ripple = Iin,avg C1 fVswitch
in 2(Iout )|Vout Vf |(Vin Vout +Vf )fswitch (L1 +L2 )(Vin +|Vout Vf |)L1 L2
FET on, increasing current: t1 =
(Vin out Vf |)fswitch (L1 +L2 )
3 +V 2 |V
in
1
L1 L2 2(Iout )|Vout Vf |(Vin Vout +Vf )fswitch (L1 +L2 )(Vin +|Vout Vf |) L
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = |Vout Vf |fswitch (L1 +L2 )(Vin +|Vout Vf |)
1 L2

fswitch t1 t2
(Vout Vf )Iout
Inductor L1LRipple:
L1
Inductor L2LRipple:
L2
Coupling Capacitor CC
1 1Voltage Ripple: VC1 ,ripple = Iin,avg 1D
C1 fswitch
L1
TI.com/powertopologies Cuk Converter
7.2. Inductor L1
7.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 7.2.1. Cuk - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 7.2.2. Cuk - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM

Inductor Voltage during tt11: VL1 ,t1 = Vin

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Inductor Voltage during t2t:2 VL1 ,min,t2 = Vout Vf 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Inductor Voltage during t2t:2 VL1 ,max,t2 = Vout Vf + 2
The offset in DCM during t3t3is dependent on the input voltage and can be positive or negative.
L2

CC ,ripple
,ripple
t2t2 VVLL1 1,min,t 2 2= out
=VVout VVff 11
,min,t 22
VV
CC ,ripple
,ripple
t2t2 VVLL1 1,max,t out
==VVout VVff++ 11
,max,t
22 22
t3t3 VVLL1 1,t,t3 3==0V

0V
t3t3
LL22
Ci
7.3. Inductor L2 Ci
7.3.1. CCM.
LL22 Ci
Ci
Figure 7.3.1. Cuk - Inductor L2 Voltage Waveform in CCM
Ci
LL22
Ci
Figure 7.3.2. Cuk - Inductor L2 Current Waveform in CCM

II
Max. Inductor Current: IILL2 2,max
tt11 ==
,max ICICIout ++ LL2 2,ripple
,min,t1 =2I
out
ii,max,t
,ripple
min + Iin
2 max in
Min. Inductor Current: t2 IILL2 2,min

t13 ==IC
,min ICILii,t
L ,max=1in
,max
,max,t
2 2/3
2 =IILI
L ,ripple
22 + Iin
,ripple
min
Average Inductor Current: t2 IILL2 2,avg

t3 ==IICIout
,avg ,t2/3 =
iout
,avg = 0A
in
VV
Min. Inductor Voltage during tt11t:1 VVLL2 2,min,t
,min,t V1=
1I C= V
=VV=
in 0A
ii,avgout
out
CC ,ripple
11 ,ripple
22
VV
Max. Inductor Voltage during t11t:1 VVLL2 2,max,t VC=i V
1 1=
,max,t VVout
= in +
out + CC ,ripple
11 ,ripple
22
Inductor Voltage during tt2t22: out

VVLL2 2,t,t2 2==VVout VVff

Ci
Ci
7.3.2. DCM.
LL2 2
Ci
Ci
Figure 7.3.3. Cuk - Inductor L2 Voltage Waveform in DCM
Ci
LL2 2
i C
Figure 7.3.4. Cuk - Inductor L2 Current Waveform in DCM
Min. Inductor Current: ILIL 1 ==

2t,min
2 ,min
I
CiI
IIC LL
1 ,min
i,max,t
= Imin
1 ,min
,min,t 1
1 max +
+ IIin
in
Max. Inductor Current: t2 ILIL 2t

2 ,max1 ==
,max
3 ICICiLIi,t,max,t
L ,min
2 ,min
22/3 =ILII
=1+in
+ L
2 ,ripple+ Iin
,ripple
2min
Average Inductor Current: t2 ILIL

2 ,avgt3 ==
2 ,avg IICCout
Iiiout
,t2/3 =
,avg = 0A
in
VV
Min. Inductor Voltage during tt11t: 1 VV
LL2 ,min,t I1=
1V
2 ,min,t C= V
=V out
V=
i ,avgout
in C1C,ripple
0A 1 ,ripple
22
VV
Max. Inductor Voltage during t11t:1 VV
LL2 ,max,t 1V
2 ,max,t1=
C=
i
V
=V
V in ++
out
out
C1
C,ripple
1 ,ripple
22
Inductor Voltage during tt22t:2 VV

LL2 ,t
22,t2==VVoutVV
out ff
Inductor Voltage during tt33t:3 VV

LL2 ,t
23,t3==0V
0V
The offset of the current in DCM during t3t3is

t3 dependent on the input voltage and can be positive or negative.

Q1
7.4. FET Q1
7.4.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1
Figure 7.4.1. Cuk - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1
Figure 7.4.2. Cuk - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. FET Current: IQ1 ,min = IL1 ,min IL2 ,max
Max. FET Current: IQ1 ,max = IL1 ,max IL2 ,min
Average FET Current: IQ1 ,avg = Iin,avg
FET Voltage during tt11: VQ1 ,t1 = 0V

VC1 ,ripple
Min. FET Voltage during t2t:2 VQ1 ,min,t2 = Vin Vout + Vf 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. FET Voltage during t2t:2 VQ1 ,max,t2 = Vin Vout + Vf + 2
FET Voltage during tt33: VQ1 ,t3 = Vin

D1
7.5. Diode D1
7.5.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 7.5.1. Cuk - Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 7.5.2. Cuk - Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Diode Current: ID1 ,min = IL1 ,min IL2 ,max
Max. Diode Current: ID1 ,max = IL1 ,max IL2 ,min

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Diode Voltage during tt11: VD1 ,min,t1 = Vin + Vout 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Diode Voltage during tt11: VD1 ,max,t1 = Vin + Vout + 2
Diode Voltage duringt2t2: VD1 ,t2 = Vf
Diode Voltage duringt3t3: VD1 ,t3 = Vout

C1
7.6.1. CCM & DCM.
C1
Figure 7.6.1. Cuk - Coupling Capacitor C1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
C1
Figure 7.6.2. Cuk - Coupling Capacitor C1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Coupling Capacitor Current during t1t:1 IC1 ,min,t1 = IL1 ,max If et,max
Max. Coupling Capacitor Current during t1t:1 IC1 ,max,t1 = IL1 ,min If et,min
Min. Coupling Capacitor Current during t2t:2 IC1 ,min,t2 = IL1 ,min
Max. Coupling Capacitor Current during t2t:2 IC1 ,max,t2 = IL1 ,max

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Coupling Capacitor Voltage: VC1 ,min = Vin Vout 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Coupling Capacitor Voltage: VC1 ,max = Vin Vout + 2
VC1 ,ripple
Coupling Capacitor Voltage during tt33: VC1 ,t3 = Vin Vout + 2

Ci
7.7.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 7.7.1. Cuk - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 7.7.2. Cuk - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current: ICi ,min = Iin,avg IL1 ,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current: ICi ,max = Iin,avg IL1 ,min

Co
7.8.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 7.8.1. Cuk - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 7.8.2. Cuk - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,min = Iout + IL2 ,min
Max. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,max = Iout + IL2 ,max

CHAPTER 8
Zeta Converter
Zeta Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Zeta converter steps up/down an input voltage to a higher/lower output voltage level.
The energy is transferred to the output when the switch is conducting.
Figure 8.0.1. Schematic of a Zeta converter
8.1. General

Vout +Vf

fswitch t1
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Inductor L1LRipple:
L1
Inductor L2LRipple:
L2
Coupling Capacitor C1CVoltage

1 Ripple: VC1 ,ripple = Iin,avg 1D
C1 fswitch

FET on, increasing current: t1 = Vin fswitch (L1 +L2 )

FET off, decreasing current: t2 = (Vout +Vf )fswitch (L1 +L2 )

fswitch t 1 t2
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Inductor L1LRipple:
L1
Inductor L2LRipple:
L2
1 1Voltage Ripple:
Coupling Capacitor CC VC1 ,ripple = Iin,avg 1D
C1 fswitch
L1

TI.com/powertopologies Zeta Converter
8.2. Inductor L1
8.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 8.2.1. Zeta - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 8.2.2. Zeta - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM

Inductor Voltage during t1t:1 VL1 ,on = Vin

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Inductor Voltage during t2t:2 VL1 ,min,t2 = Vout Vf 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Inductor Voltage during t2t:2 VL1 ,max,t2 = Vout Vf + 2
The offset of the current in DCM during t3 is

L2

t2t2 VVLL1 ,min,t 2 2=
1 ,min,t =V
Vout
outVVff 22
VV 1 ,ripple
t2t2 VVLL1 ,max,t
1 ,max,t
22
==V
Vout
outVVff++ CC1 ,ripple
22
t3t3 VVLL1 ,t
1 ,t
33
==0V
0V
t3t3
LL22
Ci
Ci
8.3. Inductor L2
8.3.1. CCM.
LL22 Ci
Ci
Figure 8.3.1. Zeta - Inductor L2 Voltage Waveform in CCM
Ci
LL22 Ci
Figure 8.3.2. Zeta - Inductor L2 Current Waveform in CCM

II
Min. Inductor Current: IILLt212,minII=
,min C
C out
=ii,max,t
I,min,t
Iout
11
LL2,ripple
,ripple
= 2I max +
22min + IIin
in
Max. Inductor Current: t2 IILL2t2,max =

C=
1,maxIC
3 I2/3
ii,t
ILL2 2,min
,max,t =
,min=++I
1 in
IILLmin
22 + Iin
,ripple
,ripple
Average Inductor Current: t2 IILL2t2,avg

3,avgI=
=
CCiiI,avg
Iout
,t out=
2/3
= 0A
in
VV
Min. Inductor Voltage during t11t:1 VVLL2 2,min,t
VIC1 1i=
,min,t =VVout
,avg =
out0A
in
CC ,ripple
11 ,ripple
22
VV
Max. Inductor Voltage during t1t1: VVLL2 2,max,t
VC1 1i=
,max,t =VVout
in +
out + CC ,ripple
11 ,ripple
22
Inductor Voltage duringtt222: VVLL2 2,t,t2 2==V

Vout
out
VVff

TI.com/powertopologies Ci Zeta Converter
Ci
8.3.2. DCM.
Ci LL22
Ci
Figure 8.3.3. Zeta - Inductor L2 Voltage Waveform in DCM
Ci
Ci LL22
Figure 8.3.4. Zeta - Inductor L2 Current Waveform in DCM
Min. Inductor Current: ItL21,min

IL II=
C
C
2 ,min i
I
=i,max,t
,min,t 1 = Imin
ILL1 ,min
11,min
+ IIin
max + in
Max. Inductor Current: t2 ILt231,max

IL IC=
2 ,max
C= I2/3
ii,t IL2 ,min
,max,t
L =
=1 in
2 ,min++I
IL
IL2min + Iin
,ripple
2 ,ripple
Average Inductor Current: t2 IL2t,avg

IL 3 I=C=iiI,avg
2 ,avg C out=
I2/3
,tout = 0A
in
VV
Min. Inductor Voltage during tt11t: 1 VIC1 i1=
VVLL2 ,min,t
2 ,min,t
=
out0A
=VVout
,avg in CC1 ,ripple
1 ,ripple
22
VV
Max. Inductor Voltage during tt11t:1 VVLL2 ,max,t
CC1 ,ripple
1 ,ripple
VC1 1i==VVout
2 ,max,t in ++
out 22
Inductor Voltage during t2t:2 VVLL2 ,t2 ,t2 2==V

Vout
outVV
ff
Inductor Voltage during t3t:3 VVLL2 ,t2 ,t3 3==0V

0V
The offset of the current in DCM during t3t3is


Q1
8.4. FET Q1
8.4.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1
Figure 8.4.1. Zeta - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1
Figure 8.4.2. Zeta - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. FET Current: IQ1 ,min = IL1 ,min + IL2 ,min
Max. FET Current: IQ1 ,max = IL1 ,max + IL2 ,max
Average FET Current: IQ1 ,avg = Iin,avg
FET Voltage during t1: VQ1 ,t1 = 0V

VC1 ,ripple
Min. FET Voltage during t2t:2 VQ1 ,min,t2 = Vin + Vout + Vf 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. FET Voltage during t2t:2 VQ1 ,max,t2 = Vin + Vout + Vf + 2
FET Voltage during t3: VQ1 ,t3 = Vin

D1
8.5. Diode D1
8.5.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 8.5.1. Zeta - Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 8.5.2. Zeta - Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Diode Current: ID1 ,min = IL1 ,min + IL2 ,min
Max. Diode Current: ID1 ,max = IL1 ,max + IL2 ,max

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Diode Voltage during tt11: VD1 ,min,t1 = Vin Vout 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Diode Voltage during tt11: VD1 ,max,t1 = Vin Vout + 2
Diode Voltage duringtt22: VD1 ,t2 = Vf
Diode Voltage duringtt33: VD1 ,t3 = Vout

C1
8.6.1. CCM & DCM.
C1
Figure 8.6.1. Zeta - Coupling Capacitor C1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
C1
Figure 8.6.2. Zeta - Coupling Capacitor C1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Coupling Capacitor Current during t1t: 1 IC1 ,min,t1 = IL1 ,min + If et,min
Max. Coupling Capacitor Current during t1t:1 IC1 ,max,t1 = IL1 ,max + If et,max
Min. Coupling Capacitor Current during t2t: 2 IC1 ,min,t2 = IL1 ,max
Max. Coupling Capacitor Current during t2t:2 IC1 ,max,t2 = IL1 ,min
Coupling Capacitor Current during t33: IC1 ,t3 = IL1 ,min

VC1 ,ripple
Min. Coupling Capacitor Voltage: VC1 ,min = Vout 2
VC1 ,ripple
Max. Coupling Capacitor Voltage: VC1 ,max = Vout + 2
VC1 ,ripple
Coupling Capacitor Voltage during tt33: VC1 ,t3 = Vout 2

Ci
8.7.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 8.7.1. Zeta - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 8.7.2. Zeta - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,min,t1 = Iin,avg If et,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = Iin,avg If et,min
Input Capacitor Current during t22 and t3t:3 ICi ,t2/3 = Iin,avg

Co
8.8.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 8.8.1. Zeta - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 8.8.2. Zeta - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,min = IL2 ,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,max = IL2 ,max Iout

CHAPTER 9
Flyback Converter
Flyback Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Flyback regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output voltage level.
The energy is transferred to the output when the FET is not conducting.
Figure 9.0.1. Schematic of a Flyback converter

1 1 np Vin
Ipri,max = fswitch Lp (Vout + Vf ) ns n
Vin +(Vout +Vf ) nps
L
9.1. General Ls = npp 2 1
(= 1
(Vout + Vf )
np
Vin
Ipri,max ns )f n
switch Lp ns Vin +(Vout +Vf ) nps
1
I L= V t
Secondary Inductance: Lsripple
= npp 2Lp in 1
( ns ) 2
frhpz = 1Vout (1D) s Iout
Primary Current Ripple: Iripple = L2DL
p
V in t 1
Vout (1D)2
Right Half Plane Zero: frhpz = 2DLs Iout

np
1
ns
t1 = fswitch (Vout + Vf ) Vin +(Vout +Vf ) np
n
s
1
FET off, decreasing current:
np
t = fswitch t1
t1 2= fswitch
1
(Vout + Vf ) ns
Vin +(Vout +Vf ) np
n
s
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min
1 = 12 Iripple
t2 = fswitch t1fswitch t1
Vin
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max =(VIout +Vf )I+
pri,min I 1
out ripple
Ipri,min = Vin fswitch t1 2 Iripple
n
Min. Secondary Current: Isec,min = Ipri,min ps
Ipri,max = Ipri,min + Inripple
np
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = (Ipri,minn+ Iripple ) ns
Isec,min = Ipri,min nps
(V +V )I
Average Input Current: Iin,avg = out Vinf out np
Isec,max = (Ipri,min + Iripple ) ns
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Iin,avg = Vin

TI.com/powertopologies Flyback Converter

Vout +Vf
t1 = 2 Iout Lp 2
fswitch Vin
9.1.2. Discontinuous Conduction Mode. np
V
in +(V
out f +V )

t2 = t1 (V +V ) np ns t1
out Vout
f +V
FET on, increasing current: t1 = 2 Iout Lp fswitchnVsf2
in
1
t3 = Vinf+(V t1 n p t2
out +Vf ) ns
switch
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 (V +V ) np t1
out f ns
Ipri,min = 0A
FET off, no current: 1
t3 = fswitch t1 t2
Ipri,max = Iripple
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min = 0A
Isec,min = 0A
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Iripple
n
Isec,max = Ipri,max nps
Min. Secondary Current: Isec,min = 0A
(V +V )I
Iin,avg = out Vinf out
n
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = Ipri,max nps
(Vout +Vf )Iout
9.1.3. Transition Mode.

(Vout +Vf )Iout
Vin
Switching frequency: fswitch,transition = 2
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Iin,avg = Vin 2 np
8Vin
V
+1 Iin Lp
ns out

Vin
2I
fswitch,transition
t1 = in,avg =Lp 8V
[ np V in 2
+ 1]
Vin 8V
ns in out
2 np +1 Iin Lp
Vout
ns
1
FET off, decreasing current: t2 =
fswitch,transition t1
2I
in,avg Lp 8Vin
t1 = Vin [ np + 1]
ns Vout
1
t2 = fswitch,transition t1
Ipri,min = 0A
Ipri,max = Iripple
np
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = Ipri,max ns
Isec,min = 0A
np
Isec,max = Ipri,max ns

Flyback Converter Np TI.com/powertopologies
9.2. Primary Side Inductor Np
9.2.1. CCM, DCM and Transition Mode.
Np
Figure 9.2.1. Flyback - Primary Side Inductor Np Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Np
Figure 9.2.2. Flyback - Primary Side Inductor Np Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average Primary Inductor Current: INp ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Primary Inductor Current: INp ,min = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Inductor Current: INp ,max = Ipri,max

np
Min. Primary Inductor Voltage: VNp ,min = (Vout + Vf ) ns
Max. Primary Inductor Voltage: VNp ,max = Vin
Primary Inductor Voltage during tt33: VNp ,t3 = 0V

TI.com/powertopologies
Ns Flyback Converter
9.3. Secondary Side Inductor Ns
9.3.1. CCM.
Ns
Figure 9.3.1. Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns Voltage Waveform in CCM
Ns
Figure 9.3.2. Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns Current Waveform in CCM
1
Average Secondary Inductor Current: INs ,avg = 2 (Isec,max + Isec,min ) t2 fswitch
Min. Secondary Inductor Current: INs ,min = Isec,min
Max. Secondary Inductor Current: INs ,max = Isec,max

ns
Min. Secondary Inductor Voltage: VNs ,min = Vin np
Max. Secondary Inductor Voltage: VNs ,max = Vout + Vf

Ns
9.3.2. DCM.
Figure 9.3.3. Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns Voltage Waveform in DCM
Figure 9.3.4. Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns Current Waveform in DCM
Ns
Average Secondary Inductor Current: INs ,avg = 1

2 Isec,max t2 fswitch
Min. Secondary Inductor Voltage: VNs ,min = Vin ns

np
Secondary Inductor Voltage during t3t:3 VNs ,t3 = 0V

9.3.3. Transition Mode.
Ns
Figure 9.3.5. Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns Voltage Waveform in Transition Mode
Ns
Figure 9.3.6. Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns Current Waveform in Transition Mode
Average Secondary Inductor Current: INs ,avg = 1

2 Isec,max t2 fswitch,transition
Min. Secondary Inductor Voltage: VNs ,min = Vin ns

np

Q1
9.4. FET Q1
Q1
Figure 9.4.1. Flyback - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Q1
Figure 9.4.2. Flyback - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Average FET Current: IQ1 ,avg = INp ,avg
Min. FET Current: IQ1 ,min = Ipri,min
Max. FET Current: IQ1 ,max = Ipri,max
Min .FET Voltage: VQ1 ,min = 0V

np
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,max = Vin + (Vout + Vf ) ns

D1
9.5. Diode D1
D1
Figure 9.5.1. Flyback - Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
D1
Figure 9.5.2. Flyback - Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Average Diode Current: ID1 ,avg = INs ,avg
Min. Diode Current: ID1 ,min = Isec,min
Max. Diode Current: ID1 ,max = Isec,max

ns
Min. Diode Voltage: VD1 ,min = Vout Vin np
Diode Voltage during t3t3: VD1 ,t3 = Vout

Ci
9.6.1. CCM.
Ci
Figure 9.6.1. Flyback - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Ci
Figure 9.6.2. Flyback - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,min,t1 = Ipri,max + Iin,avg
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = Ipri,min + Iin,avg
Input Capacitor Current during tt22and t3t:3 ICi ,t2/3 = Iin,avg

TI.com/powertopologies Co Flyback Converter
9.7.1. CCM, DCM & Transition Mode.
Co
Figure 9.7.1. Flyback - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Co
Figure 9.7.2. Flyback - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM, DCM and Transition Mode
Output Capacitor Current duringt1t1: ICo ,t1 = Iout
Min. Output Capacitor Current during t2 and t3t:3 ICo ,min,t2/3 = Isec,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during tt22 and t3t:3 ICo ,max,t2/3 = Isec,max Iout

CHAPTER 10
Two Switch
Flyback Converter
Two Switch Flyback Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Two Switch Flyback regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output
voltage level. The energy is transferred to the output when the FETs are not conducting.
Figure 10.0.1. Schematic of a Two Switch Flyback converter
10.1. General Ipri,max = 1

1
(Vout + Vf )
np
Vin
n
fswitch Lp ns Vin +(Vout +Vf ) nps
Lp
Secondary Inductance: Ls = 22
( nnps )
Primary Current Ripple: Iripple = 11
Lp VV
inin t1t1
Vout (1D)2
Right Half Plane Zero: frhpz = 2DLs Iout
np
1 ns
t1 = fswitch (Vout + Vf ) Vin +(Vout +Vf ) np
n
s
1
t2 = fswitch t1
(Vout +Vf )Iout 1
Ipri,max = Ipri,min + Iripple

np
Isec,min = Ipri,min ns
np
Isec,max = (Ipri,min + Iripple ) ns
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Iin,avg = Vin

TI.com/powertopologies Two Switch Flyback Converter
np
1
t1 = fswitch (Vout + Vf ) V +(V ns+V ) np
in out f
ns
1
t2 = fswitch t1 np
1
FETs on, increasing current: t1 = fswitch (Vout + Vf ) V +(V ns+V ) np
in out f
(Vout +Vf )Iout 1 ns
FETs off, decreasing current: 1
t2 = fswitch t1
Ipri,max = Ipri,min + Iripple
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min = Vin f
1
t 2 Iripple
npswitch 1
Isec,min = Ipri,min ns
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Ipri,min + Iripple
n
Isec,max = (Ipri,min + Iripple ) nps
np
Min. Secondary Current: Isec,min = Ipri,min ns
(V +V )I
n
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = (Ipri,min + Iripple ) nps
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Vout +Vf
FETs on, increasing current: t1 = 2 Iout Lp 2
fswitch Vin
np
Vin +(Vout +Vf )
FETs off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 (V +V ) np ns t1
out f Vout +Vf
t1 = 2 Iout Lp fswitch
ns
2
Vin
FETs o, no current: 1
t3 = fswitch tV1 in+(V
t2 out +Vf ) np
t2 = t1 (V +V ) np ns t1
out f ns
1
t3 = fswitch t1 t2
Ipri,min = 0A
Ipri,max = Iripple
n
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = Ipri,max nps
Isec,min = 0A
(V +V )I
Average Input Current: Iin,avg = out Vinf out
n
Isec,max = Ipri,max nps
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Iin,avg = Vin

Np
10.2. Primary Side Inductor Np
10.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Np
Figure 10.2.1. Two Switch Flyback - Primary Side Inductor Np Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Np
Figure 10.2.2. Two Switch Flyback - Primary Side Inductor Np Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average Primary Inductor Current: INp ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Primary Inductor Current: INp ,min = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Inductor Current: INp ,max = Ipri,max

np
Min. Primary Inductor Voltage: VNp ,min = (Vout + Vf ) ns
Max. Primary Inductor Voltage: VNp ,max = Vin
Primary Inductor Voltage during t3t:3 VNp ,t3 = 0V

TI.com/powertopologies Ns Two Switch Flyback Converter
10.3. Secondary Side Inductor Ns
10.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Ns
Figure 10.3.1. Two Switch Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns VoltageWaveforms in CCM and DCM
Ns
Figure 10.3.2. Two Switch Flyback - Secondary Side Inductor Ns Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,max +Isec,min
Average Secondary Inductor Current: INs ,avg = 2 t2 fswitch

ns
Min. Secondary Inductor Voltage: VNs ,min = Vin np
Secondary Inductor Voltage during t33: VNs ,t3 = 0V

Q1 Q2
10.4. FET Q1 / Q2
10.4.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1 Q2
Figure 10.4.1. Two Switch Flyback - FET Q1 / Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1 Q2
Figure 10.4.2. Two Switch Flyback - FET Q1 / Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average FET Current: IQ1/2 ,avg = Iin,avg
Min. FET Current: IQ1/2 ,min = Ipri,min
Max. FET Current: IQ1/2 ,max = Ipri,max
Min. FET Voltage: VQ1/2 ,min = 0V

n
Vin +(Vout +Vf ) np
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1/2 ,max = 2
s
FET Voltage during tt33: Q1/2 ,t3 = Vin

D1
10.5. Diode D1
10.5.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 10.5.1. Two Switch Flyback - Diode D1 VoltageWaveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 10.5.2. Two Switch Flyback - Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average Diode Current: ID1 ,avg = Iind,sec,avg
Min. Diode Current: ID1 ,min = Isec,min
Max. Diode Current: ID1 ,max = Isec,max

ns
Diode Voltage during t1t:1 VD1 ,t1 = Vout Vin np
Diode Voltage during t2t:2 VD1 ,t2 = Vf
Diode Voltage during t3t:3 VD1 ,t3 = Vout

Ci
10.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 10.6.1. Two Switch Flyback - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 10.6.2. Two Switch Flyback - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,min,t1 = Ipri,max + Iin,avg
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = Ipri,min + Iin,avg
Input Capacitor Current during t22 and t3t:3 ICi ,t2/3 = Iin,avg

Co
10.7.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 10.7.1. Two Switch Flyback - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 10.7.2. Two Switch Flyback - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Output Capacitor Current duringt1t1: ICo ,t1 = Iout
Min. Output Capacitor Current during tt22 and t3t:3 ICo ,min,t2/3 = Isec,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during t22 and t3t:3 ICo ,max,t2/3 = Isec,max Iout

CHAPTER 11
Active Clamp
Forward Converter
Active Clamp Forward Converter TI.com/powertopologies
An Active Clamp Forward regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output
voltage level. The energy is transferred to the output when the FET is conducting.
Figure 11.0.1. Schematic of an Active Clamp Forward converter
11.1. General
Lp
Secondary Side Inductance: Ls = 2
( nnps )

ns
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = 1
L1 Vin np Vf Vout t1

TI.com/powertopologies Active Clamp Forward Converter
1 Vout +Vf
t1 = fswitch ns
Vin n
11.1.1. Continuous Conduction Mode. p
1
t2 = fswitch t1
Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: 1
t1 = fswitch Vin ns
np t
Imag = Vin Lp
1
FET off, decreasing current: 1

t2 = fswitch t1
Isec,min = Iout 12 Iripple
Magnetization Current: Imag = Vin t1
Lp
Isec,max = Iout + 12 Iripple
Min. Secondary Current: Isec,min = Iout 12 Iripple
Ipri,min = Isec,min nnps 12 Imag
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = Iout + 12 Iripple
Ipri,max = Isec,max nnps + 12 Imag
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min = Isec,min nnps 12 Imag
(V +V )I
Max. Primary Current: ns
Ipri,max = Isec,max np + 12 Imag
t1 fswitch
Vclamp = 1t f Vin
(Vout +Vf )Iout1 switch
t1 fswitch
Clamping Voltage: Vclamp = 1t1 fswitch Vin

Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: t1 = 2 Iout L1
ns

ns
fswitch Vin n p
Vf Vout (Vin n p
)
Vin ns
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 (Vout +V
np
t1 Vout +Vf
f)
t1 = 2 Iout L1 ns

ns
fswitch Vin np Vf Vout (Vin n p
)
FET off, no current: 1
t3 = nfsswitch t1 t2
Vin np
(Vout +Vf ) t1
t2 = t1
Lp
1
t3 = fswitch t 1 t2
t1
Imag = Vin Lp
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = Iripple
Isec,min = 0A
Isec,max = Iripple
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,max nnps + 1
2 Imag
Ipri,min = 0A
(V +V )I
ns
t1 fswitch
Clamping Voltage: Vclamp = 1t f Vin
(Vout +Vf )Iout1 switch
Iin,avg = Vin
t1 fswitch
Vclamp = 1t1 fswitch Vin

Np
11.2. Primary Side Transformer Winding Np
11.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Np
Figure 11.2.1. Active Clamp Forward - Primary Side Transformer Winding Voltage Np Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Np
Figure 11.2.2. Active Clamp Forward - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average Primary Side Transformer Current: INp ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Primary Side Transformer Current duringtt11: INp ,min,t1 = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Side Transformer Current duringtt11: INp ,max,t1 = Ipri,max
Min. Primary Side Transformer Current duringtt22 and tt33: INp ,min,t2/3 = 12 Imag
1
Max. Primary Side Transformer Current duringtt22 and tt33: INp ,max,t2/3 = 2 Imag
Min. Primary Side Transformer Voltage: VNp ,min = Vclamp
Max. Primary Side Transformer Voltage: VNp ,max = Vin
Primary Side Transformer Voltage during

t3 t3: VNp ,t3 = 0V

Ns
11.3. Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns
11.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Ns
Figure 11.3.1. Active Clamp Forward - Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ns
Figure 11.3.2. Active Clamp Forward - Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,min +Isec,max
Average Secondary Side Transformer Current: INs ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Secondary Side Transformer Current: INs ,min = Isec,min
Max. Secondary Side Transformer Current: INs ,max = Isec,max

ns
Secondary Side Transformer Voltage during tt11: VNs ,t1 = Vclamp np
ns
Secondary Side Transformer Voltage during tt2=3:
2/3 VNs ,t2/3 = Vin np

L1
11.4. Inductor L1
11.4.1. CCM & DCM.
L1
Figure 11.4.1. Active Clamp Forward - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
L1
Figure 11.4.2. Active Clamp Forward - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,max +Isec,min
Min. Inductor Current: IL1 ,min = Itrans,sec,min
Max. Inductor Current: IL1 ,max = Itrans,sec,max

ns
Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = Vin np Vout Vf

Q1
11.5. FET Q1
11.5.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1
Figure 11.5.1. Active Clamp Forward - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1
Figure 11.5.2. Active Clamp Forward - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM

Vin
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,max = 1D
FET Voltage during tt3:3 Q1 ,t3 = 0V

Q2
11.6. Clamping FET Q2
11.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Q2
Figure 11.6.1. Active Clamp Forward - Clamping FET Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q2
Figure 11.6.2. Active Clamp Forward - Clamping FET Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average Clamping FET Current: IQ2 ,avg = 0A
Clamping FET Current duringt1t1: IQ2 ,t1 = 0A
Min. Clamping FET Current during tt2=3

2/3: IQ2 ,min = 12 Imag
1
Max. Clamping FET Curren during t2=3
2/3: IQ2 ,max = 2 Imag
Min. Clamping FET Voltage: VQ2 ,min = Vin Vclamp
Max. Clamping FET Voltage: VQ2 ,max = 0V
Clamping FETVoltage duringt3t3 : VQ2 ,t3 = 0V

C1
11.7. Clamping Capacitor C1
11.7.1. CCM & DCM.
C1
Figure 11.7.1. Active Clamp Forward - Clamping Capacitor C1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
C1
Figure 11.7.2. Active Clamp Forward - Clamping Capacitor C1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average Clamping Capacitor Current: IC1 ,avg = 0A
Clamping Capacitor Current during t1t:1 IC1 ,t1 = 0A
Min. Clamping Capacitor Current during t2=3t2/3

: IC1 ,min = IQ2 ,min
Max. Clamping Capacitor Curren during t2=3t2/3

: IC1 ,max = IQ2 ,max
Clamping Capacitor Voltage: VC1 = Vclamp

D1
11.8. Rectifier Diode D1
11.8.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 11.8.1. Active Clamp Forward - Rectifier Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 11.8.2. Active Clamp Forward - Rectifier Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
INs ,min +INs ,max

Average Rectifier Diode Current: ID1 ,avg = 2 t2 fswitch
Min. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1 ,min = Itrans,sec,min
Max. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1 ,max = Itrans,sec,max

ns
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1 ,min = Vclamp np + Vf
Max. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1 ,max = Vf
Rectifier Diode Voltage during tt33: VD1 ,t3 = Vout

D2
11.9. Freewheeling Diode D2
11.9.1. CCM & DCM.
D2
Figure 11.9.1. Active Clamp Forward - Freewheeling Diode D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D2
Figure 11.9.2. Active Clamp Forward - Freewheeling Diode D2 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average Freewheeling Diode Current: ID2 ,avg = INs ,avg
Min. Freewheeling Diode Current: ID2 ,min = INs ,min
Max. Freewheeling Diode Current: ID2 ,max = INs ,max

ns
Min. Freewheeling Diode Voltage: VD2 ,min = Vin np + Vf
Max. Freewheeling Diode Voltage: VD2 ,max = Vf

ns
Freewheeling Diode Voltage during tt3:3 VD2 ,t3 = Vclamp np Vout

Ci
11.10.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 11.10.1. Active Clamp Forward - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 11.10.2. Active Clamp Forward - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,min,t1 = INp ,avg Itrans,pri,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = INp ,avg Itrans,pri,min
Input Capacitor Current during t2 and t3t:3 ICi ,t2/3 = INp ,avg

Co
11.11.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 11.11.1. Active Clamp Forward - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 11.11.2. Active Clamp Forward - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Output Capacitor Current during t3:t3 ICo ,t3 = IL1 ,min Iout

CHAPTER 12
Single Switch
Forward Converter
Single Switch Forward Converter TI.com/powertopologies
p Nd
A Single Switch Forward regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output
voltage level. The energy is transferred to the output when the FET is conducting. The turns ratio between
Np and Nd is assumed to be 1:1.
Figure 12.0.1. Schematic of a Single Switch Forward converter
12.1. General
Lp
( nnps )

L1 Vin ns
np Vf Vout t1
1 Vout +Vf
t1 = fswitch ns
Vin n p
td = t1
1
t2 = fswitch t1
Vin t1
Imag = Lp
1
1
ns
Ipri,min = Isec,min np
ns
Ipri,max = Isec,max np + Imag
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Iin,avg = Vin

Lp
Ls = 2
( nnps )

1 ns
Iripple = L1 Vin np Vf Vout t1

1 Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: t1 = fswitch ns
Vin n p
Demagnetization Time: td = t1
1
Vin t1
Magnetization Current: Imag = Lp
1
1
ns
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min = Isec,min np
ns
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,max np + Imag
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Demagnetization Time:
FET off, decreasing current:
FET off, no current (if t2 > td):
FET off, no current (if td t2):
Min. Secondary Current:
Max. Secondary Current:
Min. Primary Current:
Max. Primary Current:
Average Input Current:

12.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 12.2.1. Single Switch Forward - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 12.2.2. Single Switch Forward - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average Primary Transformer Current: INp ,avg = ( 2 t1 ) fswitch
Min. Primary Transformer Current: INp ,min = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Transformer Current: INp ,max = Ipri,max
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,min = Vin
Max. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,max = Vin
Primary Transformer Voltage after tdt:d VNp ,tad = 0V
Primary Transformer Voltage during t3t:3 VNp ,t3 = 0V
Ns

TI.com/powertopologies Single Switch Forward Converter
12.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 12.3.1. Single Switch Forward - Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 12.3.2. Single Switch Forward - Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,min +Isec,max
Average Secondary Transformer Current: INs ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Secondary Transformer Current: INs ,min = Isec,min
Max. Secondary Transformer Current: INs ,max = Isec,max

ns
Min. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs ,min = Vin np Vf
ns
Max. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs ,max = Vin np
Secondary Transformer Voltage after tdt:d VNs ,tad = 0V
Secondary Transformer Voltage during t3t: 3 VNs ,t3 = 0V
L1

np
ns
VNs ,max = Vin np
td VNs ,tad = 0V
t3 VNs ,t3 = 0V
L1
12.4. Inductor L1
12.4.1. CCM & DCM.
L1
Figure 12.4.1. Single Switch Forward - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
L1
Figure 12.4.2. Single Switch Forward - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,max +Isec,min
Min. Inductor Current: IL1 ,min = Isec,min
Max. Inductor Current: IL1 ,max = Isec,max

ns
Inductor Voltage during t3:t3 VL1 ,t3 = 0V

12.5. FET Q1
12.5.1. CCM & DCM. Q1
Figure 12.5.1. Single Switch Forward - FET Q1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1
Figure 12.5.2. Single Switch Forward - FET Q1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,max = 2 Vin + V f
FET Voltage after tdt:d Q1 ,tad = Vin

Single Switch Forward Converter Nd TI.com/powertopologies
12.6. Demagnetization Winding Nd
12.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Nd
Figure 12.6.1. Single Switch Forward - Demagnetization Winding Nd Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Nd
Figure 12.6.2. Single Switch Forward - Demagnetization Winding Nd Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Imag
Average Demagnetization Winding Current: INd ,avg = 2 td fswitch
Min. Demagnetization Winding Current: INd ,min = 0A
Max. Demagnetization Winding Current: INd ,max = Imag
Min. Demagnetization Winding Voltage: VNd ,min = Vin
Max. Demagnetization Winding Voltage: VNd ,max = Vf
Demagnetization Winding Voltage after tdt:d VNd ,tad = 0V
Demagnetization Winding Voltage during t3t: 3 VNd ,t3 = 0V

TI.com/powertopologies D3 Single Switch Forward Converter
12.7. Demagnetization Diode D3
12.7.1. CCM & DCM.
D3
Figure 12.7.1. Single Switch Forward - Demagnetization Diode D3 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D3
Figure 12.7.2. Single Switch Forward - Demagnetization Diode D3 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Imag
Average Demagnetization Diode Current: ID3 ,avg = 2 td fswitch
Min. Demagnetization Diode Current: ID3 ,min = 0A
Max. Demagnetization Diode Current: ID3 ,max = Imag
Min. Demagnetization Diode Voltage: VD3 ,min = 2 Vin
Max. Demagnetization Diode Voltage: VD3 ,max = Vf
Demagnetization Diode Voltage after tdt:d VD3 ,tad = Vin
Demagnetization Diode Voltage during t3t:3 VD3 ,t3 = Vin

D1
12.8.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 12.8.1. Single Switch Forward - Rectifier Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 12.8.2. Single Switch Forward - Rectifier Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,min +Isec,max
Min. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1 ,min = Itrans,sec,min
Max. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1 ,max = Itrans,sec,max

ns
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage : VD1 ,min = (Vin + Vf ) np + Vf
Rectifier Diode Voltage after ttdd: VD1 ,tad = Vf
Rectifier Diode Voltage during tt33: VD1 ,t3 = Vout

D2
12.8.1. CCM & DCM.
D2
Figure 12.9.1. Single Switch Forward - Freewheeling Diode D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D2
Figure 12.9.2. Single Switch Forward - Freewheeling Diode D2 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Freewheeling Diode Current: ID2 ,min = Isec,min
Max. Freewheeling Diode Current: ID2 ,max = Isec,max

ns
Freewheeling Diode Voltage during t3t: 3 VD2 ,t3 = Vout

Ci
12.10.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 12.10.1. Single Switch Forward - Input Capacitor Ci VoltageWaveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 12.10.2. Single Switch Forward - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,min,t1 = INp ,avg Ipri,max ID3 ,avg
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = INp ,avg Ipri,min ID3 ,avg
Min. Input Capacitor Current during tdt:d ICi ,min,td = INp ,avg ID3 ,avg
Max. Input Capacitor Current during tdt:d ICi ,max,td = INp ,avg ID3 ,avg + Imag
Input Capacitor Current after tdd: ICi ,tad = INp ,avg ID3 ,avg
Input Capacitor Current during tt33: ICi ,t3 = INp ,avg ID3 ,avg

Co
12.11.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 12.11.1. Single Switch Forward - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 12.11.2. Single Switch Forward - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM

CHAPTER 13
Two Switch
Forward Converter
Two Switch Forward Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Two Switch Forward regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output
voltage level. The energy is transferred to the output when the FETs are conducting.
Figure 13.0.1. Schematic of a Two Switch Forward converter
13.1. General
Lp
( nnps )

L1 Vin ns
np Vf Vout t1

TI.com/powertopologies Two Switch Forward Converter
1 Vout +Vf
t1 = fswitch ns
Vin n
p
t = tV1out +Vf
1d
FETs on, increasing current: t1 = fswitch Vin n
ns
p
1
t2 = fswitch t1
Demagnetization Time: td = t1
t1
I
1 mag
= Vin Lp
FETs off, decreasing current: t2 = fswitch t1
1
IVsec,min
t
= Iout 2 Iripple
Magnetization Current: Imag = in
Lp
1
Isec,max =1 Iout + 12 Iripple

ns
Ipri,max = Isec,min np
ns
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,min nnps
(V +V )I
Iin,avg = out V f out
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,max nnps in
+ Imag
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Vout +Vf
FETs on, increasing current: t1 = 2 Iout L1
ns

ns
fswitch Vin n p
Vf Vout (Vin n p
)
Demagnetization Time: t =t
d 1 Vout +Vf
t1 = 2 Iout L1
n

n
ns Vin n s Vf Vout (Vin n s )
fswitch
Vin n p p
FETs off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 p
(Vout +Vf ) t 1
td = t1
FETs off, no current (if tt22>>tdt):d 1
t3V = nfsswitch t1 t2
in np
t2 = t1 (Vout +Vf ) t1
1
t2):t2
FETs off, no current (if ttdd t3 = fswitch t1 td
1
t2 > td t3 = fswitch t1 t2
t1
Magnetization Current: Imag = Vin Lp
1
td t2 t3 = fswitch t1 td
t1
Imag = Vin Lp
Isec,min = 0A
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,max = 0A
Isec,max = Iripple
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,max nnps + Imag
Ipri,max = 0A
(V +V )I
ns
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Iin,avg = Vin

Two Switch Forward Converter Np TI.com/powertopologies
13.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Np
Figure 13.2.1. Two Switch Forward - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Np
Figure 13.2.2. Two Switch Forward - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ipri,min +Ipri,max Imag

Average Primary Transformer Current: INp ,avg = ( 2 t1 + 2 td ) fswitch
Min. Primary Transformer Current during t1:t1 INp ,min,t1 = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Transformer Current during t1:t1 INp ,max,t1 = Ipri,max
Min. Primary Transformer Current during t2:t2 INp ,min,t2 = 0V
Max. Primary Transformer Current during t2:t2 INp ,max,t2 = Imag
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,min = Vin 2 Vf
Primary Transformer Voltage after ttdd: VNp ,tad = 0V
Primary Transformer Voltage during tt3: VNp ,t3 = 0V

TI.com/powertopologies Two
Ns Switch Forward Converter
13.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Ns
Figure 13.3.1. Two Switch Forward - Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns VoltageWaveforms in CCM and DCM
Ns
Figure 13.3.2. Two Switch Forward - Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,min +Isec,max
Average Secondary Transformer Current: INs ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Secondary Transformer Current: INs ,min = Isec,min
Max. Secondary Transformer Current: INs ,max = Isec,max

ns
Min. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs ,min = (Vin + 2 Vf ) np
ns
Max. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs ,max = Vin np
Secondary Transformer Voltage after tdt:d VNs ,tad = 0V
Secondary Transformer Voltage during t3t: 3 VNs ,t3 = 0V

L1
13.4. Inductor L1
13.4.1. CCM & DCM.
L1
Figure 13.4.1. Two Switch Forward - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
L1
Figure 13.4.2. Two Switch Forward - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,max +Isec,min
Average Inductor Current: Iind,avg = 2 (t1 + t2 ) fswitch
Min. Inductor Current: Iind,min = Itrans,sec,min
Max. Inductor Current: Iind,max = Itrans,sec,max
Min. Inductor Voltage: Vind,min = Vout Vf

ns
Max. Inductor Voltage: Vind,max = Vin np Vout Vf
Inductor Voltage during t3t:3 Vind,t3 = 0V

Q1 Q2
13.5. FET Q1= 2
13.5.1. CCM & DCM.
Q1 Q2
Figure 13.5.1. Two Switch Forward - FET Q1=Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Q1 Q2
Figure 13.5.2. Two Switch Forward - FET Q1=Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average FET Current: IQ1/2 ,avg = INp ,avg
Max. FET Voltage: VQ1/2 ,max = Vin + Vf
1
FET Voltage after tdt:d Q1 ,tad = 2 Vin
1
FET Voltage during t3t: 3 Q1/2 ,t3 = 2 Vin

D3 D4
13.6. Demagnetization Diode
13.6.1. CCM & DCM.
D3 D4
Figure 13.6.1. Two Switch Forward - Demagnetization Diode D3=D4 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D3 D4
Figure 13.6.2. Two Switch Forward - Demagnetization Diode D3=D4 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Imag
Average Demagnetization Diode Current: ID3/4 ,avg = 2 td fswitch
Min. Demagnetization Diode Current: ID3/4 ,min = 0A
Max. Demagnetization Diode Current: ID3/4 ,max = Imag
Min. Demagnetization Diode Voltage: VD3/4 ,min = Vin
Max. Demagnetization Diode Voltage: VD3/4 ,max = Vf
Demagnetization Diode Voltage after td:td VD3/4 ,tad = 12 Vin
Demagnetization Diode Voltage during t3:t3 VD3/4 ,t3 = 12 Vin

D1
13.7.1. CCM & DCM.
D1
Figure 13.7.1. Two Switch Forward - Rectifier Diode D1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D1
Figure 13.7.2. Two Switch Forward - Rectifier Diode D1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
INs ,min +INs ,max

Min. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1 ,min = INs ,min
Max. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1 ,max = INs ,max

ns
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1 ,min = (Vin + 2 Vf ) np + Vf
Rectifier Diode Voltage after td:td VD1 ,tad = Vf
Rectifier Diode Voltage during t3:t3 VD1 ,t3 = Vout

D2
13.8.1. CCM & DCM.
D2
Figure 13.8.1. Two Switch Forward - Freewheeling Diode D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
D2
Figure 13.8.2. Two Switch Forward - Freewheeling Diode D2 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Freewheeling Diode Current: ID2 ,min = INs ,min
Max. Freewheeling Diode Current: ID2 ,max = INs ,max

ns
Freewheeling Diode Voltage during tt3:3 VD2 ,t3 = Vout

Ci
13.9.1. CCM & DCM.
Ci
Figure 13.9.1. Two Switch Forward - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Ci
Figure 13.9.2. Two Switch Forward - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t: 1 ICi ,min,t1 = INp ,avg INp ,max ID3/4 ,avg
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t: 1 ICi ,max,t1 = INp ,avg INp ,min ID3/4 ,avg
Min. Input Capacitor Current during tdt: d ICi ,min,t2/3 = INp ,avg ID3/4 ,avg
Max. Input Capacitor Current during tdt:d ICi ,max,t2/3 = INp ,avg ID3/4 ,avg + Imag
Input Capacitor Current after td: ICi ,tad = INp ,avg ID3/4 ,avg
Input Capacitor Current during t33: ICi ,t3 = INp ,avg ID3/4 ,avg

Co
13.10.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 13.10.1. Two Switch Forward - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 13.10.2. Two Switch Forward - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM

CHAPTER 14
Push-Pull Converter
Push-Pull Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Push-Pull regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output voltage level.
The energy is transferred to the output when the FETs are conducting.
Figure 14.0.1. Schematic of a Push-Pull converter
14.1. General
Lp
( nnps )

V +Vf
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple 11
ripple = L
V
(V in
in nss
V f V out ) t1Vout ns 1
L11 npp in np 2fswitch
Vin t1
1 Vout +Vf
t1 = 2fswitch ns
Vin n p
1
t2 = 2fswitch t1
1
1
ns 1
Ipri,min = Isec,min np 2 Imag
ns 1
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Iin,avg = Vin

Lp
Ls = 2
( nnps )

1 ns Vout +Vf 1
Iripple = L1 Vin np Vf Vout ns
Vin n
2fswitch
p
Vin t1
Imag = Lp
TI.com/powertopologies Push-Pull Converter

1 Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: t1 = 2fswitch ns
Vin n p

2fswitch t1
Min. Secondary Current: Isec,min = Iout 1

2 Iripple
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = Iout + 1

2 Iripple
ns
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min = Isec,min np 1
2 Imag
ns 1
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,max np + 2 Imag
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Vout +Vf
ns

ns
2fswitch Vin n p
Vf Vout (Vin n p
)
ns
Vin n
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 p
(Vout +Vf ) t1
FET off, demagnetization: t3 = 1

2fswitch t1 t2

ns 1
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,max np + 2 Imag
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Np1 Np2
Np1 Np2
14.2. Primary Side Transformer Windings Np1 and Np2
14.2.1. CCM.
Figure 14.2.1. Push-Pull - Primary Side Transformer Windings Np1 and Np2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 14.2.2. Push-Pull - Primary Side Transformer Windings Np1 and Np2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average Primary Side Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Primary Side Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,min = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Side Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,max = Ipri,max
Min. Primary Side Transformer Voltage: VNp1/p2 ,min = Vin
Max. Primary Side Transformer Voltage: VNp1/p2 ,max = Vin
Np1 Np2

VNp1/p2 ,min = Vin
VNp1/p2 ,max = Vin
14.2.2. DCM.
Np1 Np2
Figure 14.2.3. Push-Pull - Primary Side Transformer Windings Np1 and Np2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Np1 Np2
Figure 14.2.4. Push-Pull - Primary Side Transformer Windings Np1 and Np2 Current Waveforms in DCM
Ipri,max
Average Primary Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Primary Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,min = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,max = Ipri,max
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp1/p2 ,min = Vin
Max. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp1/p2 ,max = Vin

np
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage during t3:t3 VNp1/p2 ,min,t3 = (Vout + Vf ) ns
np
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage during t3:t3 VNp1/p2 ,max,t3 = (Vout + Vf ) ns

14.3. Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2
14.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 14.3.1. Push-Pull - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 14.3.2. Push-Pull - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 14.3.3. Push-Pull - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 14.3.4. Push-Pull - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms in DCM

Isec,min +Isec,max
Average Secondary Transformer Current: INs1/s2 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (t1t1of FET): INs1/s2 ,min = Isec,min
Max. Secondary Transformer Current (t1t1of FET): INs1/s2 ,max = Isec,max

Ipri,max Iripple
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (t2t2of other FET): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other = ns
2 n
2
p
Ipri,max
Max. Secondary Transformer Current (t2t2of other FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other = ns
2 n p
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (t2t2of FET, CCM): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 = Isec,min INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (t2t2of FET, DCM): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 = 0A
Max. Secondary Transformer Current (t2t2of FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t2 = Isec,max INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other
Min. Secondary Transformer Current during t3t3: INs1/s2 ,min,t3 = 0A
Max. Secondary Transformer Current during tt33: INs1/s2 ,max,t3 = INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other INs1/s2 ,max,t2
Min. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2 ,min = Vin ns

np
Max. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2 ,max = Vin ns

np
Min. Secondary Transformer Voltage during tt33: VNs1/s2 ,min,t3 = Vout Vf
Max. Secondary Transformer Voltage during tt33: VNs1/s2 ,max,t3 = Vout + Vf
L1
L1

L1
14.4. Inductor L1
14.4.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 14.4.1. Push-Pull - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 14.4.2. Push-Pull - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,max +Isec,min
Average Inductor Current: IL1 ,avg = 2
Min. Inductor Current during t3:t3 IL1 ,min,t3 = INs1/s2 ,min,t3
Max. Inductor Current during t3:t3 IL1 ,max,t3 = INs1/s2 ,max,t3

ns
Q1 Q2

1
ns
VL1 ,max = Vin np Vout Vf
t3 VL1 ,t3 = 0V
Q1 Q2
14.5. FET Q1 & Q2
14.5.1. CCM.
Q1 Q2
Figure 14.5.1. Push-Pull - FETs Q1 and Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Q1 Q2
Figure 14.5.2. Push-Pull - FETs Q1 & Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Average FET Current: IQ1/2 ,avg = INp1/p2 ,avg
Min. FET Voltage during t1t: 1 VQ1/2 ,min,t1 = 0V
Max. FET Voltage during t1t1(t1 tof

1 other FET): VQ1/2 ,max,t1 = 2 Vin
FET Voltage during t2t:2 VQ1/2 ,t2 = Vin

14.5.2. DCM.
Q1 Q2
Figure 14.5.3. Push-Pull - FETs Q1 and Q2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Q1 Q2
Figure 14.5.4. Push-Pull - FETs Q1 and Q2 Current Waveforms in DCM
Average FET Current: IQ1/2 ,avg = INp1/p2 ,avg
Min. FET Voltage during t1:t1 VQ1/2 ,min,t1 = 0V
Max. FET Voltage during t1 t(t1 1 tof

1 other FET): VQ1/2 ,max,t1 = 2 Vin
FET Voltage during t2:t2 VQ1/2 ,t2 = Vin
Min. FET Voltage during t3 t(t33 of

t3 other FET): Q1/2 ,min,t3 = Vin (Vout + Vf )
np
ns
Max. FET Voltage during t3:t3 Q1/2 ,max,t3 = Vin + (Vout + Vf )

np
ns

14.6. Rectifier Diode D1 & D2
14.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 14.6.1. Push-Pull - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 14.6.2. Push-Pull - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 14.6.3. Push-Pull - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 14.6.4. Push-Pull - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in DCM

Average Rectifier Diode Current: ID1/2 ,avg = INs1/s2 ,avg
Min. Rectifier Diode Current

t1 (t1 of FET): ID1/2 ,min,t1 = Isec,min
Max. Rectifier Diode Current

t1 (t1 of FET): ID1/2 ,max,t1 = Isec,max
Ipri,max Iripple
t2 (t2 of other FET): ID1/2 ,min,t2 ,other = ns
2 n
2
p
Ipri,max
t2 (t2 of other FET): ID1/2 ,max,t2 ,other = ns
2 n p

t2 (t2 of FET): ID1/2 ,min,t2 = Isec,min INs ,min,t2 ,other

t2 (t2 of FET): ID1/2 ,max,t2 = Isec,max INs ,max,t2 ,other

t3 (t3 of other FET): ID1/2 ,min,t3 ,other = INs ,min,t3

t3 (t3 of other FET): ID1/2 ,max,t3 ,other = INs ,max,t3
Rectifier Diode Current

t3 (t3 of FET): ID1/2 ,t3 = 0A
ns
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1/2 ,min = 2 Vin np + Vf
Max. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1/2 ,max = Vf
Rectifier Diode Voltage during

t3 t3: VD1/2 ,t3 = Vout
Ci
Ci

14.7.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 14.7.1. Push-Pull - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 14.7.2. Push-Pull - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t: 1 ICi ,min,t1 = INp ,avg INp ,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = INp ,avg INp ,min
Input Capacitor Current during t22 and t3t:3 ICi ,t2/3 = INp ,avg
Co

1 Ci ,max,t1 Np ,avg Np ,min
t2 t3 ICi ,t2/3 = INp ,avg
ICi ,avg = 0A
VCi = Vin

Co
14.8.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 14.8.1. Push-Pull - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 14.8.2. Push-Pull - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,min = Isec,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,max = Isec,max Iout
Min. Output Capacitor Current during t3t:3 ICo ,min,t3 = Isec,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during t3t:3 ICo ,max,t3 = INs ,max,t3 Iout

CHAPTER 15
Weinberg Converter
Weinberg Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Weinberg regulator is a Flyback current fed Push-Pull regulator and converts an input voltage to a higher or
lower, positive or negative output voltage level. The energy is transferred to the output both when the FETs
are conducting and not conducting.
Figure 15.0.1. Schematic of a Weinberg converter
15.1. General
Lp,pushpull
Secondary Side Inductance (Push-Pull): Ls,pushpull = n
( np )2
s
Lp,f lyback
Secondary Side Inductance (Flyback): Ls,f lyback = n
( np )2
s
n
(Vin (Vout +Vf ) np )t1
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = Lp,f lyback
s
n
(Vout +Vf ) np t
s 1
Magnetization Current: Imag = Lp,pushpull

1 Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: t1 = 2fswitch ns
Vin n p
1
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = 2fswitch t1
(Vout +Vf )Iout 1
Average Input Pulse Current: Iin,pulse,avg = Vin 2D
Iripple
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min = Iin,pulse,avg 2
Iripple
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Iin,pulse,avg + 2
Np

Np
TI.com/powertopologies Weinberg Converter
15.2. Primary Side Flyback Inductor Np
15.2.1. CCM.
Np
Figure 15.2.1. Weinberg - Primary Side Flyback Inductor Np Voltage Waveform in CCM
Np
Figure 15.2.2. Weinberg - Primary Side Flyback Inductor Np Current Waveform in CCM
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average Primary Flyback Inductor Current: INp ,avg = 2 t1 2 fswitch
Min. Primary Flyback Inductor Current: INp ,min = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Flyback Inductor Current: INp ,max = Ipri,max

np
Min. Primary Flyback Inductor Voltage: VNp ,min = (Vout + Vf ) ns
np
Max. Primary Flyback Inductor Voltage: VNp i,max = Vin (Vout + Vf ) ns

Ns
15.3. Secondary Side Flyback Inductor Ns
15.3.1. CCM.
Ns
Figure 15.3.1. Weinberg - Secondary Side Flyback Inductor Ns Voltage Waveform in CCM
Ns
Figure 15.3.2. Weinberg - Secondary Side Flyback Inductor Ns Current Waveform in CCM
np
Min. Secondary Flyback Transformer Current: INs ,min = Ipri,min ns
np
Max. Secondary Flyback Transformer Current: INs ,max = Ipri,max ns
INs ,min +INs ,max

Average Secondary Flyback Transformer Current: INs ,avg = 2 t2 2 fswitch
ns
Min. Secondary Flyback Transformer Voltage: VNs ,min = VNp ,max np
ns
Max. Secondary Flyback Transformer Voltage: VNs ,max = VNp ,min np

Np1 Np2
15.4. Primary Side Push-Pull Transformer Windings Np1 & Np2
15.4.1. CCM.
Np1 Np2
Figure 15.4.1. Weinberg - Primary Side Push-Pull Transformer Windings Np1 and Np2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Np1 Np2
Figure 15.4.2. Weinberg - Primary Side Push-Pull Transformer Windings Np1 and Np2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average Primary Push-Pull Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. Primary Push-Pull Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,min = Ipri,min
Max. Primary Push-Pull Transformer Current: INp1/p2 ,max = Ipri,max

np
Min. Primary Push-Pull Transformer Voltage: VNp1/p2 ,min = (Vout + Vf ) ns
np
Max. Primary Push-Pull Transformer Voltage: VNp1/p2 ,max = (Vout + Vf ) ns

Weinberg Converter Ns1 NN Ns2
TI.com/powertopologies
s1s2
15.5. Secondary Side Push-Pull Transformer Windings Ns1 & Ns2
15.5.1. CCM.
Ns1 Ns1Ns2 Ns2
Figure 15.5.1. Weinberg - Secondary Side Push-Pull Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Ns1 Ns1Ns2 Ns2
Figure 15.5.2. Weinberg - Secondary Side Push-Pull Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms in CCM
(1D)I(1D)I np np
Min. Secondary Push-Pull Transformer Current during tt11:
mag
ItN1s1/s2I,min,t
Ns1/s2 = (Ipri,min
1 ,min,t 1 = (Ipri,min
+ +2 )2 mag
ns ) ns
(1+D)I(1+D)I np np
Max. Secondary Push-Pull Transformer Current during tt11:
mag
INt1s1/s2I,max,t = (Ipri,min
Ns1/s21,max,t1

= (Ipri,min 2 )2 mag
ns ) ns
Min. Secondary Push-Pull Transformer Current during tt22: ItN2s1/s2I,min,t

Ns1/s2 = IN2s1/s2
2 ,min,t
= I,min,t
Ns1/s2 IN1s ,min
1 ,min,t
INs ,min
Max. Secondary Push-Pull Transformer Current during tt22: INt2s1/s2I,max,t = IN2s1/s2

Ns1/s22,max,t = I,max,t IN1s ,min
Ns1/s21,max,t INs ,min
Average Secondary Push-Pull Transformer Current:

IN INs1/s2
,min,t +INs1/s2
1 ,min,t
+INs1/s2
1 ,max,t 1 ,max,t1
IN INs1/s2
,min,t +INs1/s2
2 ,min,t
+INs1/s2
2 ,max,t 2 ,max,t2
INs1/s2I,avg = ,avgs1/s2
Ns1/s2 = 2 2 t1 fswitch
t1 f+ s1/s2
switch + 2 2 t2 fswitch
t2 fswitch
Min. Secondary Push-Pull Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2V,min =,min

Ns1/s2 VNp1/p2
= V,min nn,min
Np1/p2
s
p
ns
np
ns ns
Max. Secondary Push-Pull Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2V,max =,max
Ns1/s2 VNp1/p2
= V,max ,max
Np1/p2 np np

Q1 Q2
15.6. FET Q1 & Q2
15.6.1. CCM.
Q1 Q2
Figure 15.6.1. Weinberg - FET Q1 and Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Q1 Q2
Figure 15.6.2. Weinberg - FET Q1 and Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Average FET Current: IQ1/2 ,avg = INp ,avg
FET Voltage (t2 of other FET): VQ1/2 ,otherof f = Vin

np
FET Voltage (t1 of other FET): VQ1/2 ,otheron = 2 ns (Vout + Vf )
np
Max. FET Voltage (t2 of FET): VQ1/2 ,max = Vin + 2 ns (Vout + Vf )

D1 D2
15.7. Push-Pull Rectifier Diodes D1 & D2
15.7.1. CCM.
D1 D2
Figure 15.7.1. Weinberg - Push-Pull Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
D1 D2
Figure 15.7.2. Weinberg - Push-Pull Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Average Rectifier Diode Current: ID1/2 ,avg = Ipushpull,sec,avg
Min. Rectifier Diode Current during t1t:1 ID1/2 ,min,t1 = INs1/s2 ,min,t1
Max. Rectifier Diode Current during tt11: ID1/2 ,max,t1 = INs1/s2 ,max,t1
Min. Rectifier Diode Current during t2t:2 ID1/2 ,min,t2 = INs1/s2 ,min,t2
Max. Rectifier Diode Current during tt22: ID1/2 ,max,t2 = INs1/s2 ,max,t2
ns
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1/2 ,min = 2 VNp1/p2 ,min np

D3
15.8. Flyback Demagnetization Diode D3
15.8.1. CCM.
D3
Figure 15.8.1. Weinberg - Flyback Demagnetization Diode D3 Voltage Waveform in CCM
D3
Figure 15.8.2. Weinberg - Flyback Demagnetization Diode D3 Current Waveform in CCM
Average Demagnetization Diode Current: ID3 ,avg = INs ,avg
Demagnetization Diode Current duringtt11: ID3 ,t1 = 0A
Min. Demagnetization Diode Current during t2t:2 ID3 ,min,t2 = INs ,min
Max. Demagnetization Diode Current during t2t:2 ID3 ,max,t2 = INs ,max
Min. Demagnetization Diode Voltage: VD3 ,min = VNs ,min Vout
Max. Demagnetization Diode Voltage: VD3 ,max = Vf

Ci
15.9.1. CCM.
Ci
Figure 15.9.1. Weinberg - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveform in CCM
Ci
Figure 15.9.2. Weinberg - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveform in CCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1:t1 ICi ,min,t1 = INp ,avg INp1/p2 ,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t: 1 ICi ,max,t1 = INp ,avg INp1/p2 ,min
Input Capacitor Current during t2t:2 ICi ,t2 = INp ,avg

Co
15.10.1. CCM.
Co
Figure 15.10.1. Weinberg - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveform in CCM
Co
Figure 15.10.2. Weinberg - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveform in CCM
Min. Output Capacitor Current during t1:t1 ICo ,min,t1 = ID1/2 ,min,t1 Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during t1t: 1 ICo ,max,t1 = ID1/2 ,max,t1 Iout
Min. Output Capacitor Current during t2:t2 ICo ,min,t2 = ID3 ,min,t2 + ID1/2 ,min,t2 Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during t2t: 2 ICo ,max,t2 = ID3 ,max,t2 + ID1/2 ,max,t2 Iout

CHAPTER 16
Half-Bridge Converter
Half-Bridge Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Half-Bridge regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output voltage level.
Figure 16.0.1. Schematic of a Half-Bridge converter
15.1. General
Lp
( nnps )

Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = LL1111 ( 1212 VVin
ripple =
nnss
in nnpp
VVff VVout
Vout +Vf
out ) 1t1Vin ns
1
2fswitch
2 np
Magnetization Current: Imag = 1

2 Vin t1
Lp

TI.com/powertopologies Half-Bridge Converter
1 Vout +Vf
t1 = fswitch ns
Vin n
1
t2 = 2fswitch t1
Vout +Vf
FET on, increasing current: 1
t1 = fswitch Vin ns
n
Isec,minp = Iout 12 Iripple
FET off, decreasing current: 1
t2 = 2fswitch t1
(V +V )I
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Vout +Vf
1 ns

ns
2fswitch 2 Vin np Vf Vout ( 12 Vin n p
)
1 ns
2 Vin np
FET off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 (Vout +Vf ) t1 Vout +Vf
t1 = 2 Iout L1 ns

ns
2fswitch 12 Vin n p
Vf Vout ( 12 Vin n p
)
FET off, demagnetization: 1 t3 = ns 2f
1
t 1 t 2
2 Vin np switch
1
t3 = 2fswitch t1 t2
Isec,min = 0A
Isec,max = Iripple
2 Imag
Ipri,max = 0A
(V +V )I
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Iin,avg = Vin

Half-Bridge Converter Np TI.com/powertopologies
16.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Np
Figure 16.2.1. Half-Bridge - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Np
Figure 16.2.2. Half-Bridge - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Average Primary Transformer Current: INp ,avg = 0A
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,min = 12 Vin
Max. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,max = 1

2 Vin
np
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage during t3t:3 VNp ,t3 = (Vout + Vf ) ns

16.3. Secondary Side Transformer Winding Ns1 & Ns2
16.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 16.3.1. Half-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.3.2. Half-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.3.3. Half-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 16.3.4. Half-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms in DCM

Min. Secondary Current (tt11of FET): INs1/s2 ,min,t1 = Isec,min
Max. Secondary Current (tt11of FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t1 = Isec,max

Ipri,max Iripple
Min. Secondary Current (tt22of other FET): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other = ns
2 n
2
p
Ipri,max
Max. Secondary Current (tt22of other FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other = ns
2 n p
Min. Secondary Current (tt22of FET, CCM): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 = Isec,min INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other
Min. Secondary Current (tt22of FET, DCM): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 = 0A
Max. Secondary Current (tt22of FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t2 = Isec,max INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other
Min. Secondary Current (tt33of other FET): INs1/s2 ,min,t3 ,other = 0A
Max. Secondary Current (tt33of other FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t3 ,other = INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other INs1/s2 ,max,t2
Secondary Current (tt3 of FET): INs1/s2 ,t3 = 0A
Average Secondary Current:

INs1/s2 ,max,t2 +INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other INs1/s2 ,min,t2 +INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other

I +I
INs1/s2 ,avg = fswitch sec,min 2 sec,max t1 + 2 t2 + 2 t2
Min. Secondary Voltage: VNs1/s2 ,min = 12 Vin ns

np
Max. Secondary Voltage: VNs1/s2 ,max = 1

2 Vin ns
np
Secondary Voltage during tt33: VNs1/s2 ,max,t3 = Vout + Vf
L1
L1

16.4. Inductor L1
16.4.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 16.4.1. Half-Bridge - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 16.4.2. Half-Bridge - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,max +Isec,min
Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = 1

2 Vin ns
np Vf Vout
Q1 Q2

16.5. FET Q1 & Q2
16.5.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 16.5.1. Half-Bridge - FETs Q1 and Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.5.2. Half-Bridge - FETs Q1 and Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.5.3. Half-Bridge - FETs Q1 and Q2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 16.5.4. Half-Bridge - FETs Q1 and Q2 Current Waveforms in DCM

Q1 Q2
Ipri,min +Ipri,max
Average FET Current: IQ1/2 ,avg = 2 t1 fswitch
Min. FET Voltage during t1:t1 VQ1/2 ,min,t1 = 0V
Max. FET Voltage during t1:t1 VQ1/2 ,max,t1 = Vin
FET Voltage during t2:t2 VQ1/2 ,t2 = 1

2 Vin
np
Min. FET Voltage during t3:t3 Q1/2 ,min,t3 = Vin
2 (Vout + Vf ) ns
np
Max. FET Voltage during t3:t3 Q1/2 ,max,t3 = Vin
2 + (Vout + Vf ) ns

16.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 16.6.1. Half-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.6.2. Half-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.6.3. Half-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 16.6.4. Half-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in DCM

Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t1t1of FET): ID1/2 ,min = INs1/s2 ,min
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (tt11of FET): ID1/2 ,max = INs1/s2 ,max
Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t2t2of other FET): ID1/2 ,min,t2 ,other = INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (tt22of other FET): ID1/2 ,max,t2 ,other = INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other
Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t2t2of FET): ID1/2 ,min,t2 = INs1/s2 ,min,t2
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (tt22of FET): ID1/2 ,max,t2 = INs1/s2 ,max,t2
Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t3t3of other FET): ID1/2 ,min,t3 ,other = INs1/s2 ,min,t3
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (tt33of other FET): ID1/2 ,max,t3 ,other = INs1/s2 ,max,t3
Rectifier Diode Current (t3t3of FET): ID1/2 ,t3 = 0A
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1/2 ,min = Vin ns

np + Vf

np
Rectifier Diode Voltage during t33: VD1/2 ,t3 = Vin ns
C1 C2
C1 C2
C1 C2

16.7. Input Capacitor C1 & C2
16.7.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 16.7.1. Half-Bridge - Input Capacitor C1 and C2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.7.2. Half-Bridge - Input Capacitor C1 and C2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 16.7.3. Half-Bridge - Input Capacitor C1 and C2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 16.7.4. Half-Bridge - Input Capacitor C1 and C2 Current Waveforms in DCM

C1 C2
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1:t1 IC1/2 ,min,t1 = IQ1/2 ,avg INp ,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1:t1 IC1/2 ,max,t1 = IQ1/2 ,avg INp ,min
Input Capacitor Current during t2tand

2 t3:t3 IC1/2 ,t2/3 = IQ1/2 ,avg
Average Input Capacitor Current: IC1/2 ,avg = 0A
Input Capacitor Voltage: VC1/2 = Vin
Co
16.8.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 16.8.1. Half-Bridge - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 16.8.2. Half-Bridge - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Min. Output Capacitor Current during t3: t3 ICo ,min,t3 = Isec,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during t3: t3 ICo ,max,t3 = INs1/s2 ,max,t3 Iout

CHAPTER 17
Full-Bridge Converter
Full-Bridge Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Full-Bridge regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative output voltage level.
Figure 17.0.1. Schematic of a Full-Bridge converter
17.1. General
Lp
( nnps )

11 nss Vout +Vf
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = L
L11 in npp Vf Vout ) t1Vin ns
(VVin 1
2fswitch
np
Vin t1

TI.com/powertopologies Full-Bridge Converter
1 Vout +Vf
t1 = 2fswitch ns
Vin n
1
t2 = 2fswitch t1
Vout +Vf
FETs on, increasing current: 1
t1 = 2fswitch Vin ns
n
Isec,min =p Iout 12 Iripple
FETs off, decreasing current: 1
t2 = 2fswitch t1
(V +V )I
(Vout +Vf )Iout

Vout +Vf
FETs on, increasing current: t1 = 2 Iout L1
ns

ns
2fswitch Vin n p
Vf Vout (Vin n p
)
ns
Vin n
FETs off, decreasing current: t2 = t1 (Vout +Vpf ) t
1
Vout +Vf
t1 = 2 Iout L1 ns

ns
2fswitch Vin n p
Vf Vout (Vin n p
)
FETs off, demagnetization: 1
tV3in= ns2fswitch t1 t 2
np
1
t3 = 2fswitch t1 t 2
Isec,min = 0A
Isec,max = Iripple
2 Imag
Ipri,max = 0A
(V +V )I
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Iin,avg = Vin

Full-Bridge Converter Np TI.com/powertopologies
17.2.1. CCM & DCM.
Np
Figure 17.2.1. Full-Bridge - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Np
Figure 17.2.2. Full-Bridge - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,min = Vin

np
Primary Transformer Voltage during t3t:3 VNp ,t3 = (Vout + Vf ) ns

17.3.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 17.3.1. Full-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 17.3.2. Full-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 17.3.3. Full-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 17.3.4. Full-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms in DCM

Min. Secondary Transformer Current (tt11of FET): INs1/s2 ,min = Isec,min
Max. Secondary Transformer Current (tt22 of FET): INs1/s2 ,max = Isec,max

Ipri,max Iripple
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (tt22of other FET): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other = ns
2 n
2
p
Ipri,max
Max. Secondary Transformer Current (tt22 of other FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other = ns
2 n
p
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (tt22of FET, CCM): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 = Isec,min INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (tt22of FET, DCM): INs1/s2 ,min,t2 = 0A
Max. Secondary Transformer Current (tt22 of FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t2 = Isec,max INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other
Min. Secondary Transformer Current (tt33of other FET): INs1/s2 ,min,t3 ,other = 0A
Max. Secondary Transformer Current (tt33 of other FET): INs1/s2 ,max,t3 ,other = INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other Itrans,sec,max,t2
Secondary Transformer Current (tt3 of FET): INs1/s2 ,t3 = 0A
Average Secondary Current:

IN +IN IN +IN
I +I s1/s2 ,max,t2 s1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other s1/s2 ,min,t2 s1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other
INs1/s2 ,avg = fswitch sec,min 2 sec,max t1 + 2 t2 + 2 t2
ns
Min. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2 ,min = Vin np
ns
Max. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2 ,max = Vin np
Secondary Transformer Voltage during tt33: VNs1/s2 ,max,t3 = Vout Vf
L1
L1

17.4. Inductor L1
17.4.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 17.4.1. Full-Bridge - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 17.4.2. Full-Bridge - Inductor L1 Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Isec,max +Isec,min
Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = Vin ns

np Vf Vout
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

17.5. FET Q1, Q2, Q3 & Q4
17.5.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 17.5.1. Full-Bridge - FETs Q1=Q3 and Q2=Q4 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 17.5.2. Full-Bridge - FETs Q1=Q3 and Q2=Q4 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 17.5.3. Full-Bridge - FETs Q1=Q3 and Q2=Q4 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 17.5.4. Full-Bridge - FETs Q1=Q3 and Q2=Q4 Current Waveforms in DCM

Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4
Average FET Current: IQ1/2/3/4 ,avg =

Ipri,min +Ipri,max
2 t1 fswitch
Min. FET Current: IQ1/2/3/4 ,min = Ipri,min
Max. FET Current: IQ1/2/3/4 ,max = Ipri,max
Min. FET Voltage during t1: t1 VQ1/2/3/4 ,min,t1 = 0V
Max. FET Voltage during t1 (tt11 oft1 other FET): VQ1/2/3/4 ,max,t1 = Vin
FET Voltage during t2: t2 VQ1/2/3/4 ,t2 = 1

2 Vin

Min. FET Voltage during t3 (tt33 oft3other FET): Q1/2/3/4 ,min,t3 = 1
2
n
Vin (Vout + Vf ) nps

Max. FET Voltage during t3: t3 Q1/2/3/4 ,max,t3 = Vin 21 Vin + (Vout + Vf )
np
ns

17.6.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 17.6.1. Full-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 17.6.2. Full-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 17.6.3. Full-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in DCM
Figure 17.6.4. Full-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in DCM

Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t1t1of FET): ID1/2 ,min = INs1/s2 ,min
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (t1t1of FET): ID1/2 ,max = INs1/s2 ,max
Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t2t2of other FET): ID1/2 ,min,t2 ,other = INs1/s2 ,min,t2 ,other
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (t2t2of other FET): ID1/2 ,max,t2 ,other = INs1/s2 ,max,t2 ,other
Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t2t2of FET): ID1/2 ,min,t2 = INs1/s2 ,min,t2
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (t2t2of FET): ID1/2 ,max,t2 = INs1/s2 ,max,t2
Min. Rectifier Diode Current (t3t3of other FET): ID1/2 ,min,t3 ,other = INs1/s2 ,min,t3
Max. Rectifier Diode Current (t3t3of other FET): ID1/2 ,max,t3 ,other = INs1/s2 ,max,t3
Rectifier Diode Current (t3t3of FET): ID1/2 ,t3 = 0A
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1/2 ,min = 2 Vin ns

np + Vf
Rectifier Diode Voltage during tt33: VD1/2 ,t3 = 2 Vout
Ci
Ci
Ci

17.7.1. CCM & DCM.
Figure 17.7.1. Full-Bridge - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Figure 17.7.2. Full-Bridge - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1: t1 ICi ,min,t1 = 2 IQ1/2/3/4 ,avg Ipri,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1: t1 ICi ,max,t1 = 2 IQ1/2/3/4 ,avg Ipri,min
Input Capacitor Current during t2 and

t2 t3: t3 ICi ,t2/3 = 2 IQ1/2/3/4 ,avg
Co
Co
t1 ICi ,max,t1 = 2 IQ1/2/3/4 ,avg Ipri,min
t2 t3 ICi ,t2/3 = 2 IQ1/2/3/4 ,avg
ICi ,avg = 0A
VCi = Vin

Co
17.8.1. CCM & DCM.
Co
Figure 17.8.1. Full-Bridge - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Co
Figure 17.8.2. Full-Bridge - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveforms in CCM and DCM
Min. Output Capacitor Current during t3: t3 ICo ,min,t3 = Isec,min Iout
Max. Output Capacitor Current during t3:t3 ICo ,max,t3 = INs1/s2 ,max,t3 Iout

CHAPTER 18
Phase-Shifted
Full-Bridge Converter
Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge Converter TI.com/powertopologies
A Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge regulator converts an input voltage to a higher or lower, positive or negative
output voltage level. The energy is transferred to the output when the switches in one leg are both conducting.
Calculations are made for Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) between 50% and 100% load.
Figure 18.0.1. Schematic of a Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge converter
18.1. General
Lp
( nnps )
Voltage across primary Transformer Main Winding: VNp = Vin
Lp
Lp +Lsh

V
Inductor Current Ripple: Iripple = LL1111 (V
ripple =
nsns V V
pn
N p n
Vin p
Vf fVout out t+V
)Vout
in
f
1ns
1
2fswitch
np

Vout +Vf
Duty Cycle Transformer: D= ns
VN p n p
The duty cycle of the FETs is 50%.
FETs on, increasing current: t1 = 1

fswitch D
2
FETs off, decreasing current: t2 = 1

fswitch t1
Phaseshift-time: t3 = 1
2fswitch t1

Lp +Lsh
Min. Secondary Current: Isec,min = Iout 1

2 Iripple
Max. Secondary Current: Isec,max = Iout + 1

2 Iripple
Min. Primary Current: Ipri,min = Isec,min ns

np 1
2 Imag
Max. Primary Current: Ipri,max = Isec,max ns

np + 1
2 Imag
(Vout +Vf )Iout
Np
TI.com/powertopologies Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge Converter
18.2.1. CCM.
Figure 18.2.1. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Voltage Waveform in CCM
Figure 18.2.2. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Primary Side Transformer Winding Np Current Waveform in CCM

Iripple
Primary Transformer Current (freewheeling): INp ,min,f w = INp ,max n
2 nps
Min. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,min = VNp
Max. Primary Transformer Voltage: VNp ,max = VNp
Ns1 Ns2
Ns1
VNp ,max
VNp ,max
= VN=p
VNp
Ns1 Ns1Ns2 Ns2
18.3.1. CCM.
Ns1 Ns1
Ns2 Ns2
Figure 18.3.1. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Voltage Waveforms
in CCM
Ns1 Ns1
Ns2 Ns2
Figure 18.3.2. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Secondary Side Transformer Windings Ns1 and Ns2 Current Waveforms
in CCM
Min. Secondary Transformer Current: INs1/s2

IN,min = I = Isec,min
s1/s2 ,minsec,min
Max. Secondary Transformer Current: INs1/s2

IN,max = I = Isec,max
s1/s2 ,maxsec,max
Average Secondary Transformer Current:

IN IN,min +I
,min +IN,max
Ns1/s2 s1/s2 ,max
IN IN,max +I
,max +IN,min
Ns1/s2 s1/s2 ,min
INs1/s2
IN,avg ( s1/s2
= f = fswitch
s1/s2 ,avgswitch
( s1/s22 2 (t1
(tt1ph) + s1/s2 s1/s2
tph ) + 2 2 tph ) tph )
ns ns
Min. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2
VN,min = V=NV
s1/s2 ,min p n
Npp np
Max. Secondary Transformer Voltage: VNs1/s2

VN,max = V = VnnNpsp
s1/s2 ,maxNp
ns
np

L1
18.4. Inductor L1
18.4.1. CCM.
L1
Figure 18.4.1. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Inductor L1 Voltage Waveform in CCM
L1
Figure 18.4.2. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Inductor L1 Current Waveform in CCM
Isec,max +Isec,min

ns
Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = Vin np Vf Vout

18.5. FET Q1, Q2, Q3 & Q4
18.5.1. CCM.
Figure 18.5.1. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - FETs Q1 and Q2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 18.5.2. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - FETs Q1 and Q2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Figure 18.5.3. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - FETs Q3 and Q4 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
Figure 18.5.4. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - FETs Q3 and Q4 Current Waveforms in CCM

Min. FET Current (t1 of

t1 FET, all FETs): IQ1/2/3/4 ,min = Ipri,min
t1 Max. FET
IQ1/2/3/4 Current
,min (t1 tof
= Ipri,min 1 FET, all FETs): IQ1/2/3/4 ,max = Ipri,max
tt11 Min. FET

IQ1/2/3/4 Current
,max
,min (freewheeling,
= IIpri,min
= pri,maxt1 Q3 & Q4): IQ1/2/3/4
3/4 ,min,t
,min
ph
= IN p ,min
pri,min
t1 Max.
IQ3/4 FET
,min,t
1/2/3/4 ,maxCurrent
ph
= (freewheeling,
= IINpri,max
p ,min t1 Q3 & Q4): IQ1/2/3/4
3/4 ,max,t
,max
ph
= IN p ,max
pri,max
Min. FET ph
IQ3/4 ,max,t
,min,t Current
ph = IN (freewheeling, Q1 & Q2):
= INpp,min
,max IQ3/4
1/2 ,min,tph
= II
NpN p ,max
,min
Max.
IQ1/2 FETph
3/4 ,min,t
,max,t Current
ph
= I
= p(freewheeling,
INpN,max
,max Q1 & Q2): IQ3/4
1/2 ,max,tph
= II
NpN p ,min
,max
IQ ,min +IQ1/2/3/4 ,max IQ3/4 ,min,tph +IQ3/4 ,max,tph

Average
,min,tFET
IQ1/2 ,max,t ph =Current
ph
IN
= I (Q3 & Q4):
Npp,max
,min IQ1/2 ,avg =
3/4 ,min,t ph
( = 1/2/3/4
INp ,max2 (t1 tph ) + 2 tph ) fswitch
IQ ,min +IQ1/2/3/4 ,max IQ ,min,t I+I
Q Q
ph 1/2/3/4 ,min +IQ
,max,t
ph 1/2/3/4 ,max IQ1/2 ,min,tph +IQ1/2 ,max,tph
IQ3/4
1/2 ,avg
=ph( =1/2/3/4
,max,t INp ,min2 IQ1/23/4
(t1 tph ) + ,avg =ph( =
,max,t
3/4
2 INp ,min2 tph ) fswitch
(t1 tph ) + 2 tph ) fswitch
IQ ,min +IQ IQ ,min,t I+I
Q Q ,min +I
,max,t IQ3/4 ,min,tph +IQ3/4 ,max,tph
Average FET
( Current 2 1 & Q2):
(Q
1/2/3/4 1/2/3/4 ,max 1/2 ph 1/2/3/4
1/2 ph Q1/2/3/4 ,max
IQ3/4
1/2 ,avg =
(t1 tph ) + 3/4
IVQQ3/4 =(=
,avg ,min
1/2/3/4 2 0V
3/4
2
tph ) fswitch
IQ ,min +IQ1/2/3/4 ,max IQ ,min,t I+I
Q Q ,min +I
,max,t ph Q1/2/3/4 ,max
IQ1/2 ,min,tph +IQ1/2 ,max,tph
V
IQQ1/2 = ( =1/2/3/4
,avg ,min
1/2/3/4
0V 2
1/2
IVQQ1/2
(t1 tph ) + = ph
( =
,avg ,max
1/2/3/4 2
1/2/3/4
V1/2
in 2 tph ) fswitch
Min. FET,max
VQ1/2/3/4 Voltage:
,min = 0V
= Vin VQ1/2/3/4 ,min = 0V
D1 D2
Max. FET
VQ1/2/3/4 Voltage:
,max = Vin VQ1/2/3/4 ,max = Vin
D1 D2
D1 D2 D1 D2
D1 D2
D1 D2
D1 D2 D1 D2
D1 D2
D1 D2
D1 D2 D1 D2
ID1/2 ,avg = INs1/s2 ,avg
VQ1/2/3/4 ,min = 0V
VQ1/2/3/4 ,max = Vin
D1 D2
18.6. Rectifier Diodes D1 & D2
18.6.1. CCM.
D1 D2
Figure 18.6.1. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Voltage Waveforms in CCM
D1 D2
Figure 18.6.2. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Rectifier Diodes D1 and D2 Current Waveforms in CCM
Min. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1/2 ,min = INs1/s2 ,min
Max. Rectifier Diode Current: ID1/2 ,max = INs1/s2 ,max

ns
Min. Rectifier Diode Voltage: VD1/2 ,min = 2 VNp np + Vf

Ci
18.7.1. CCM.
Ci
Figure 18.7.1. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Input Capacitor Ci Voltage Waveform in CCM
Ci
Figure 18.7.2. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Input Capacitor Ci Current Waveform in CCM
Min. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,min,t1 = 2 Iin,avg INp ,max
Max. Input Capacitor Current during t1t:1 ICi ,max,t1 = 2 Iin,avg INp ,min
Input Capacitor Current during tt22: ICi ,t2 = 2 Iin,avg

Co
18.8.1. CCM.
Co
Figure 18.8.1. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Output Capacitor Co Voltage Waveform in CCM
Co
Figure 18.8.2. Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge - Output Capacitor Co Current Waveform in CCM
Min. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,min = Iout Isec,max
Max. Output Capacitor Current: ICo ,max = Iout Isec,min

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Power Topologies

chapter 1 Abbrevations and General Information 5

chapter 2 General Equations for Calculating RMS and AC Currents 9

chapter 3 Buck Converter 15

chapter 4 Boost Converter 23

chapter 5 Inverting Buck-Boost Converter 31

chapter 7 Cuk Converter 49

chapter 8 Zeta Converter 59

chapter 9 Flyback Converter 69

chapter 10 Two Switch Flyback Converter 81

chapter 11 Active Clamp Forward Converter 91

chapter 12 Single Switch Forward Converter 105

chapter 13 Two Switch Forward Converter 119

chapter 14 Push-Pull Converter 131

chapter 15 Weinberg Converter 145

chapter 16 Half-Bridge Converter 157

chapter 17 Full-Bridge Converter 171

chapter 18 Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge Converter 185

Power Topologies Handbook 3

Continuous Conduction Mode CCM

Discontinuous Conduction Mode DCM

Alternating Current VV VinAC

Root Mean Square VV VRMS

6 Power Topologies Handbook

About Discontinuous Conduction Mode

About Inductors and Transformers

About How waveforms are being displayed

Figure 1.0.1.Example of how the waveforms of a Flyback converter are displayed.

About Right Half Plane Zero

Power Topologies Handbook 7

2.1. Positive triangular waveforms without offset

Figure 2.1.1. Positive triangular waveforms without offset

Figure 2.1.2. Positive triangular waveforms without offset

10 Power Topologies Handbook

2.2. Positive triangular waveforms with offset

Figure 2.2.1. Positive triangular waveforms with offset

Figure 2.2.2. Positive triangular waveforms with offset

Power Topologies Handbook 11

2.3. Positive and negative triangular waveforms without offset

Figure 2.3.1. Positive and negative triangular waveforms without offset

Figure 2.3.2. Positive and negative triangular waveforms without offset

12 Power Topologies Handbook

2.4. Positive and negative triangular waveforms with offset

Figure 2.4.1. Positive and negative triangular waveforms with offset

Figure 2.4.2. Positive and negative triangular waveforms with offset

min1 +max1 t1 min1 +max2 t2 min1 +max1 t1 min1 +max2 t2

Power Topologies Handbook 13

Figure 2.5.1. Positive and negative triangular waveforms with offset

min1 +max1 t1 min2 +max2 t2 min3 +max3 t3

14 Power Topologies Handbook

Figure 3.0.1. Schematic of a non-synchronous Buck converter

Figure 3.0.2. Schematic of a synchronous Buck converter

16 Power Topologies Handbook

3.1.1. Continuous Conduction Mode & Synchronous forced PWM.

3.1.2. Discontinuous Conduction Mode.

Max. Inductor Current: Imin ==0A1 (Vin Vout ) t1

Vout Iout Vf Imin +Imax

L1 Power Topologies Handbook 17

Average Inductor Current: IL1 ,avg = Imin +Imax

Min. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,min = Vout Vf

Max. Inductor Voltage: VL1 ,max = Vin Vout

Inductor Voltage during tt33: VL1 ,t3 = 0V

3.3.1. CCM, DCM & Synchronous forced PWM.

Min. FET Voltage: VQ1 ,min = 0V