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Text Book

Wireless Communications and


Networks, by William Stallings,
Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition, 2005
This textbook will be followed for
most of the course.
The material on multihop and
sensor networks will be taken
from research papers,
and other collections.
Prerequisites
Computer Communications And Networks
Digital Communications
Introduction

Chapter 1
Wireless Comes of Age
Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in
1896
Communication by encoding alphanumeric characters in
analog signal
Sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean
Communications satellites launched in 1960s
Advances in wireless technology
Radio, television, mobile telephone, communication satellites
More recently
Satellite communications, wireless networking, cellular
technology, ad hoc networks, Sensor networks
Broadband Wireless Technology
Higher data rates obtainable with broadband
wireless technology
Graphics, video, audio
Shares same advantages of all wireless services:
convenience and reduced cost
Service can be deployed faster than fixed service
No cost of cable plant
Service is mobile, deployed almost anywhere
Future Generations
Other Tradeoffs:
Rate Rate vs. Coverage
802.11n Rate vs. Delay
4G
Rate vs. Cost
Rate vs. Energy
802.11b WLAN
3G

2G Wimax/3G

2G Cellular

Mobility

Fundamental Design Breakthroughs Needed


Evolution of Current Systems
Wireless systems today
3G Cellular: ~200-300 Kbps.
WLANs: ~450 Mbps (and growing).
Next Generation is in the works
4G Cellular: Likely OFDM/MIMO
4G WLANs: Wide open, 3G just being finalized

Technology Enhancements
Hardware: Better batteries. Better
circuits/processors.
Link: Antennas, modulation, coding, adaptivity, DSP,
BW.
Network: more efficient resource allocation
Application Application

Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Radio Medium

Scope of this course:


Anything above and related protocols
Wireless communication systems
Target information systems: Anytime,
Anywhere, Anyform
Applications: Ubiquitous computing and
information access
Market in continuous growth:
35-60% annual growth of PCS (Personal Communications
Services)
Number of subscribers:
by 2001: over 700M mobile phones
by 2003: 1 billion wireless subscribers (source Ericsson)
300% growth in wireless data from 1995-1997
Large diversity of standards and products
Confusing terminology
Limitations and Difficulties of
Wireless Technologies
Wireless is convenient and less expensive
Limitations and political and technical difficulties
inhibit wireless technologies
Lack of an industry-wide standard
Device limitations
E.g., small LCD on a mobile telephone can only
displaying a few lines of text
E.g., browsers of most mobile wireless devices use
wireless markup language (WML) instead of HTML
Radio frequency spectrum

Wireless technologies have gradually


migrated to higher frequencies
Wireless & Mobility
Wireless:
Limited bandwidth
Broadcast medium: requires multiple access schemes
Variable link quality (noise, interference)
High latency, higher jitter
Heterogeneous air interfaces
Security: easier snooping
Mobility:
User location may change with time
Speed of mobile impacts wireless bandwidth
Need mechanism for handoff
Security: easier spoofing
Portability
Limited battery, storage, computing, and GUI
Challenges in Mobile Networking

Three major challenges:


Wireless Channel
Mobility

Device Limitation
Part One: Background
Provides preview and context for rest of book
Covers basic topics
Data Communications
TCP/IP
Chapter 2: Transmission
Fundamentals
Basic overview of transmission topics
Data communications concepts
Includes techniques of analog and digital data
transmission
Channel capacity
Transmission media
Multiplexing
Chapter 3: Communication
Networks
Comparison of basic communication network
technologies
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Frame relay
ATM
Chapter 4: Protocols and the
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Protocol architecture
Overview of TCP/IP
Open systems interconnection (OSI) reference
model
Internetworking
Part Two: Wireless
Communication Technology
Underlying technology of wireless transmission
Encoding of analog and digital data for wireless
transmission
Chapter 5: Antennas and
Propagation
Principles of radio and microwave
Antenna performance
Wireless transmission modes
Fading
Chapter 6: Signal Encoding
Techniques
Wireless transmission
Analog and digital data
Analog and digital signals
Chapter 7: Spread Spectrum
Frequency hopping
Direct sequence spread spectrum
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Chapter 8: Coding and Error
Control
Forward error correction (FEC)
Using redundancy for error detection
Automatic repeat request (ARQ) techniques
Part Three: Wireless Networking
Examines major types of networks
Satellite-based networks
Cellular networks
Cordless systems
Fixed wireless access schemes
Use of mobile IP and Wireless Access Protocol
(WAP) to provide Internet and Web access
Chapter 9: Satellite
Communications
Geostationary satellites (GEOS)
Low-earth orbiting satellites (LEOS)
Medium-earth orbiting satellites (MEOS)
Capacity allocation
Chapter 10: Cellular Wireless
Networks
Cellular wireless network design issues
First generation analog (traditional
mobile telephony service)
Second generation digital cellular networks
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
Code-division multiple access (CDMA)
Third generation networks
Chapter 11: Cordless Systems and
Wireless Local Loop
Cordless systems
Wireless local loop (WLL)
Sometimes called radio in the loop (RITL) or fixed
wireless access (FWA)
Chapter 12: Mobile IP and
Wireless Access Protocol
Modifications to IP protocol to accommodate
wireless access to Internet
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
Provides mobile users access to telephony and
information services including Internet and Web
Includes wireless phones, pagers and personal digital
assistants (PDAs)
Part Four: Wireless Local Area
Networks
Examines underlying wireless LAN technology
Examines standardized approaches to local wireless
networking
Chapter 13: Wireless LAN
Technology
Overview of LANs and wireless LAN technology
and applications
Transmission techniques of wireless LANs
Spread spectrum
Narrowband microwave
Infrared
Chapter 14: IEEE 802.11 Wireless
LAN Standard
Wireless LAN standards defined by IEEE 802.11
committee
Chapter 15: Bluetooth
Bluetooth is an open specification for wireless
communication and networking
Personal computers
Mobile phones
Other wireless devices
Internet and Web Resources
Web page for this book
WilliamStallings.com/Wireless1e.html
Useful web sites, errata sheet, figures, tables, slides,
internet mailing list, wireless courses
Computer Science Student Support Site
WilliamStallings.com/StudentSupport.html
Newsgroups
comp.std.wireless
comp.dcom.*
Transmission
Fundamentals
Chapter 2
Electromagnetic Signal
Function of time
Can also be expressed as a function of frequency
Signal consists of components of different frequencies
Time-Domain Concepts
Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over time
No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant
level for some period of time and then changes to
another constant level
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that
repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < +
where T is the period of the signal
Time-Domain Concepts
Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that doesn't repeat over time
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of
the signal over time; typically measured in volts
Frequency (f )
Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the
signal repeats
Time-Domain Concepts
Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one
repetition of the signal
T = 1/f
Phase () - measure of the relative position in time
within a single period of a signal
Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single
cycle of the signal
Or, the distance between two points of corresponding
phase of two consecutive cycles
Sine Wave Parameters
General sine wave
s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the
three parameters
(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, = 0; thus T = 1s
(b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T =
(d) Phase shift; = /4 radians (45 degrees)
note: 2 radians = 360 = 1 period
Sine Wave Parameters
Time vs. Distance
When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2.3,
graphs display the value of a signal at a given point
in space as a function of time
With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the
value of a signal at a given point in time as a
function of distance
At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal
varies as a function of distance from the source
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Fundamental frequency - when all frequency
components of a signal are integer multiples of one
frequency, its referred to as the fundamental
frequency
Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal
contains
Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a
signal
Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow
band of frequencies that most of the signals energy
is contained in
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist
of a collection of periodic analog signals (sine
waves) at different amplitudes, frequencies, and
phases
The period of the total signal is equal to the period
of the fundamental frequency
Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
Conclusions
Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth
that can be transmitted
AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth
transmitted, the greater the cost
HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions
Data Communication Terms
Data - entities that convey meaning, or information
Signals - electric or electromagnetic representations
of data
Transmission - communication of data by the
propagation and processing of signals
Examples of Analog and Digital
Data
Analog
Video
Audio
Digital
Text
Integers
Analog Signals
A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency
Examples of media:
Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
Fiber optic cable
Atmosphere or space propagation
Analog signals can propagate analog and digital
data
Digital Signals
A sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a copper wire medium
Generally cheaper than analog signaling
Less susceptible to noise interference
Suffer more from attenuation
Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data
Analog Signaling
Digital Signaling
Reasons for Choosing Data and
Signal Combinations
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-
analog equipment
Analog data, digital signal
Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals
Examples include optical fiber and satellite
Analog data, analog signal
Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Analog Transmission
Transmit analog signals without regard to content
Attenuation limits length of transmission link
Cascaded amplifiers boost signals energy for longer
distances but cause distortion
Analog data can tolerate distortion
Introduces errors in digital data
Digital Transmission
Concerned with the content of the signal
Attenuation endangers integrity of data
Digital Signal
Repeaters achieve greater distance
Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
Analog signal carrying digital data
Retransmission device recovers the digital data from
analog signal
Generates new, clean analog signal
About Channel Capacity
Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can
be achieved
For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit
data rate?
Channel Capacity the maximum rate at which data
can be transmitted over a given communication
path, or channel, under given conditions
Concepts Related to Channel
Capacity
Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated
(bps)
Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal
as constrained by the transmitter and the nature of
the transmission medium (Hertz)
Noise - average level of noise over the
communications path
Error rate - rate at which errors occur
Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
Nyquist Bandwidth
For binary signals (two voltage levels)
C = 2B
With multilevel signaling
C = 2B log2 M
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise thats present at a particular
point in the transmission
Typically measured at a receiver
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
signal power
( SNR) dB 10 log10
noise power
A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low
number of required intermediate repeaters
SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
Shannon Capacity Formula
Equation:
C B log2 1 SNR
Represents theoretical maximum that can be
achieved
In practice, only much lower rates achieved
Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
Impulse noise is not accounted for
Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted
for
Classifications of Transmission
Media
Transmission Medium
Physical path between transmitter and receiver
Guided Media
Waves are guided along a solid medium
E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical
fiber
Unguided Media
Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
Usually referred to as wireless transmission
E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Unguided Media
Transmission and reception are achieved by means
of an antenna
Configurations for wireless transmission
Directional
Omnidirectional
General Frequency Ranges
Microwave frequency range
1 GHz to 40 GHz
Directional beams possible
Suitable for point-to-point transmission
Used for satellite communications
Radio frequency range
30 MHz to 1 GHz
Suitable for omnidirectional applications
Infrared frequency range
Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within
confined areas
Terrestrial Microwave
Description of common microwave antenna
Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna
Located at substantial heights above ground level
Applications
Long haul telecommunications service
Short point-to-point links between buildings
Satellite Microwave
Description of communication satellite
Microwave relay station
Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on
another frequency (downlink)
Applications
Television distribution
Long-distance telephone transmission
Private business networks
Broadcast Radio
Description of broadcast radio antennas
Omnidirectional
Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment
Applications
Broadcast radio
VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
Multiplexing
Capacity of transmission medium usually exceeds
capacity required for transmission of a single signal
Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a single
medium
More efficient use of transmission medium
Multiplexing
Reasons for Widespread Use of
Multiplexing
Cost per kbps of transmission facility declines with
an increase in the data rate
Cost of transmission and receiving equipment
declines with increased data rate
Most individual data communicating devices
require relatively modest data rate support
Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of
the medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given
signal
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate of
the medium exceeds the required data rate of a digital
signal
Frequency-division Multiplexing
Time-division Multiplexing
Communication
Networks
Chapter 3
Types of Communication
Networks
Traditional
Traditional local area network (LAN)
Traditional wide area network (WAN)
Higher-speed
High-speed local area network (LAN)
Metropolitan area network (MAN)
High-speed wide area network (WAN)
Speed and Distance of
Communications Networks
Characteristics of WANs
Covers large geographical areas
Circuits provided by a common carrier
Consists of interconnected switching nodes
Traditional WANs provide modest capacity
64000 bps common
Business subscribers using T-1 service 1.544 Mbps
common
Higher-speed WANs use optical fiber and
transmission technique known as asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM)
10s and 100s of Mbps common
Characteristics of LANs
Like WAN, LAN interconnects a variety of devices
and provides a means for information exchange
among them
Traditional LANs
Provide data rates of 1 to 20 Mbps
High-speed LANS
Provide data rates of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps
Differences between LANs and
WANs
Scope of a LAN is smaller
LAN interconnects devices within a single building or
cluster of buildings
LAN usually owned by organization that owns the
attached devices
For WANs, most of network assets are not owned by
same organization
Internal data rate of LAN is much greater
The Need for MANs
Traditional point-to-point and switched network
techniques used in WANs are inadequate for
growing needs of organizations
Need for high capacity and low costs over large area
MAN provides:
Service to customers in metropolitan areas
Required capacity
Lower cost and greater efficiency than equivalent service
from telephone company
Switching Terms
Switching Nodes:
Intermediate switching device that moves data
Not concerned with content of data
Stations:
End devices that wish to communicate
Each station is connected to a switching node
Communications Network:
A collection of switching nodes
Switched Network
Observations of Figure 3.3
Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g., 5 and
7)
Some nodes connect to one or more stations
Node-station links usually dedicated point-to-point
links
Node-node links usually multiplexed links
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
Not a direct link between every node pair
Techniques Used in Switched
Networks
Circuit switching
Dedicated communications path between two stations
E.g., public telephone network
Packet switching
Message is broken into a series of packets
Each node determines next leg of transmission for each
packet
Phases of Circuit Switching
Circuit establishment
An end to end circuit is established through switching
nodes
Information Transfer
Information transmitted through the network
Data may be analog voice, digitized voice, or binary data
Circuit disconnect
Circuit is terminated
Each node deallocates dedicated resources
Characteristics of Circuit
Switching
Can be inefficient
Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
Utilization not 100%
Delay prior to signal transfer for establishment
Once established, network is transparent to users
Information transmitted at fixed data rate with only
propagation delay
Components of Public
Telecommunications Network
Subscribers - devices that attach to the network;
mostly telephones
Subscriber line - link between subscriber and
network
Also called subscriber loop or local loop
Exchanges - switching centers in the network
A switching centers that support subscribers is an end
office
Trunks - branches between exchanges
How Packet Switching Works
Data is transmitted in blocks, called packets
Before sending, the message is broken into a series
of packets
Typical packet length is 1000 octets (bytes)
Packets consists of a portion of data plus a packet header
that includes control information
At each node en route, packet is received, stored
briefly and passed to the next node
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
Packet Switching Advantages
Line efficiency is greater
Many packets over time can dynamically share the same
node to node link
Packet-switching networks can carry out data-rate
conversion
Two stations with different data rates can exchange
information
Unlike circuit-switching networks that block calls
when traffic is heavy, packet-switching still accepts
packets, but with increased delivery delay
Priorities can be used
Disadvantages of Packet
Switching
Each packet switching node introduces a delay
Overall packet delay can vary substantially
This is referred to as jitter
Caused by differing packet sizes, routes taken and
varying delay in the switches
Each packet requires overhead information
Includes destination and sequencing information
Reduces communication capacity
More processing required at each node
Packet Switching Networks -
Datagram
Each packet treated independently, without
reference to previous packets
Each node chooses next node on packets path
Packets dont necessarily follow same route and
may arrive out of sequence
Exit node restores packets to original order
Responsibility of exit node or destination to detect
loss of packet and how to recover
Packet Switching Networks
Datagram
Advantages:
Call setup phase is avoided
Because its more primitive, its more flexible
Datagram delivery is more reliable
Packet Switching Networks
Virtual Circuit
Preplanned route established before packets sent
All packets between source and destination follow
this route
Routing decision not required by nodes for each
packet
Emulates a circuit in a circuit switching network but
is not a dedicated path
Packets still buffered at each node and queued for output
over a line
Packet Switching Networks
Virtual Circuit
Advantages:
Packets arrive in original order
Packets arrive correctly
Packets transmitted more rapidly without routing
decisions made at each node
Effect of Packet Size on
Transmission
Effect of Packet Size on
Transmission
Breaking up packets decreases transmission time
because transmission is allowed to overlap
Figure 3.9a
Entire message (40 octets) + header information (3
octets) sent at once
Transmission time: 129 octet-times
Figure 3.9b
Message broken into 2 packets (20 octets) + header (3
octets)
Transmission time: 92 octet-times
Effect of Packet Size on
Transmission
Figure 3.9c
Message broken into 5 packets (8 octets) + header (3
octets)
Transmission time: 77 octet-times
Figure 3.9d
Making the packets too small, transmission time starts
increases
Each packet requires a fixed header; the more packets,
the more headers
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM)
Also known as cell relay
Operates at high data rates
Resembles packet switching
Involves transfer of data in discrete chunks, like packet
switching
Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed
over a single physical interface
Minimal error and flow control capabilities reduces
overhead processing and size
Fixed-size cells simplify processing at ATM nodes
ATM Terminology
Virtual channel connection (VCC)
Logical connection in ATM
Basic unit of switching in ATM network
Analogous to a virtual circuit in packet switching
networks
Exchanges variable-rate, full-duplex flow of fixed-size
cells
Virtual path connection (VPC)
Bundle of VCCs that have the same end points
Advantages of Virtual Paths
Simplified network architecture
Increased network performance and reliability
Reduced processing and short connection setup time
Enhanced network services
Call Establishment
Virtual Channel Connection Uses
Between end users
Can carry end-to-end user data or control signaling
between two users
Between an end user and a network entity
Used for user-to-network control signaling
Between two network entities
Used for network traffic management and routing
functions
Virtual Path/Virtual Channel
Characteristics
Quality of service
Specified by parameters such as cell loss ratio and cell
delay variation
Switched and semipermanent virtual channel
connections
Cell sequence integrity
Traffic parameter negotiation and usage monitoring
Virtual channel identifier restriction within a VPC
ATM Cell Header Format
Generic flow control (GFC) 4 bits, used only in
user-network interface
Used to alleviate short-term overload conditions in
network
Virtual path identifier (VPI) 8 bits at the user-
network interface, 12 bits at network-network
interface
Routing field
Virtual channel identifier (VCI) 8 bits
Used for routing to and from end user
ATM Cell Header Format
Payload type (PT) 3 bits
Indicates type of information in information field
Cell loss priority (CLP) 1 bit
Provides guidance to network in the event of congestion
Header error control (HEC) 8 bit
Error code
ATM Service Categories
Real-time service
Constant bit rate (CBR)
Real-time variable bit rate (rt-VBR)
Non-real-time service
Non-real-time variable bit rate (nrt-VBR)
Available bit rate (ABR)
Unspecified bit rate (UBR)
Examples of CBR Applications
Videoconferencing
Interactive audio (e.g., telephony)
Audio/video distribution (e.g., television, distance
learning, pay-per-view)
Audio/video retrieval (e.g., video-on-demand, audio
library)
Examples of UBR applications
Text/data/image transfer, messaging, distribution,
retrieval
Remote terminal (e.g., telecommuting)
Protocols and the
TCP/IP Suite
Chapter 4
Key Features of a Protocol
Syntax
Concerns the format of the data blocks
Semantics
Includes control information for coordination and error
handling
Timing
Includes speed matching and sequencing
Agents Involved in
Communication
Applications
Exchange data between computers (e.g., electronic mail)
Computers
Connected to networks
Networks
Transfers data from one computer to another
TCP/IP Layers
Physical layer
Network access layer
Internet layer
Host-to-host, or transport layer
Application layer
TCP/IP Physical Layer
Covers the physical interface between a data
transmission device and a
transmission medium or network
Physical layer specifies:
Characteristics of the transmission medium
The nature of the signals
The data rate
Other related matters
TCP/IP Network Access Layer
Concerned with the exchange of data between an
end system and the network to which it's attached
Software used depends on type of network
Circuit switching
Packet switching (e.g., X.25)
LANs (e.g., Ethernet)
Others
T:TCP/IP Internet Layer
Uses internet protocol (IP)
Provides routing functions to allow data to traverse
multiple interconnected networks
Implemented in end systems and routers
TCP/IP Host-to-Host, or
Transport Layer
Commonly uses transmission control protocol (tcp)
Provides reliability during data exchange
Completeness
Order
TCP/IP Application Layer
Logic supports user applications
Uses separate modules that are peculiar to each
different type of application
Protocol Data Units (PDUs)
Common TCP/IP Applications
Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
Provides a basic electronic mail facility
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Allows files to be sent from one system to another
TELNET
Provides a remote logon capability
Layers of the OSI Model
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data link
Physical
OSI Application Layer
Provides access to the OSI environment for users
Provides distributed information services
OSI Presentation Layer
Provides independence to the application processes
from differences in data representation (syntax)
OSI Session Layer
Provides the control structure for communication
between applications
Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
(sessions) between cooperating applications
OSI Transport Layer
Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data
between end points
Provides end-to-end error recovery and flow control
OSI Network Layer
Provides upper layers with independence from the
data transmission and switching technologies used
to connect systems
Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating connections
OSI Data link Layer
Provides for the reliable transfer of information
across the physical link
Sends blocks (frames) with the necessary
synchronization, error control, and flow control
OSI Physical Layer
Concerned with transmission of unstructured bit
stream over physical medium
Deals with accessing the physical medium
Mechanical characteristics
Electrical characteristics
Functional characteristics
Procedural characteristics
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
TCP/IP Architecture Dominance
TCP/IP protocols matured quicker than similar OSI
protocols
When the need for interoperability across networks was
recognized, only TCP/IP was available and ready to go
OSI model is unnecessarily complex
Accomplishes in seven layers what TCP/IP does with
fewer layers
Elements of Standardization
within OSI Framework
Protocol Specification
Format of protocol data units (PDUs) exchanged
Semantics of all fields
Allowable sequence of PDUs
Service Definition
Functional description that defines what services are
provided, but not how the services are to be provided
Addressing
Entities are referenced by means of a service access point
(SAP)
Internetworking Terms
Communication network facility that provides a
data transfer service among devices attached to the
network
Internet collection of communication networks,
interconnected by bridges/routers
Intranet internet used by an organization for
internal purposes
Provides key Internet applications
Can exist as an isolated, self-contained internet
Internetworking Terms
End System (ES) device used to support end-user
applications or services
Intermediate System (IS) device used to connect
two networks
Bridge an IS used to connect two LANs that use
similar LAN protocols
Router - an IS used to connect two networks that
may or may not be similar
Functions of a Router
Provide a link between networks
Provide for the routing and delivery of data between
processes on end systems attached to different
networks
Provide these functions in such a way as not to
require modifications of the networking architecture
of any of the attached subnetworks
Network Differences Routers
Must Accommodate
Addressing schemes
Different schemes for assigning addresses
Maximum packet sizes
Different maximum packet sizes requires segmentation
Interfaces
Differing hardware and software interfaces
Reliability
Network may provide unreliable service
Antennas and
Propagation
Chapter 5
Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of
conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into
space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can
be used for transmission and reception
Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of an
antenna
Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Beam width (or half-power beam width)
Measure of directivity of antenna
Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation pattern
Types of Antennas
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all directions
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that
produced in any direction by a perfect omnidirectional
antenna (isotropic antenna)
Effective area
Related to physical size and shape of antenna
Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective
area
4Ae 4f Ae 2
G
2 c2
G = antenna gain
Ae = effective area
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light ( 3 108 m/s)
= carrier wavelength
Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
AM radio
Sky Wave Propagation
Sky Wave Propagation
Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere
back down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples
Amateur radio
CB radio
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within
line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
Ground communication antennas within effective line
of site due to refraction
Refraction bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
When wave changes medium, speed changes
Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight
d 3.57 h
Effective, or radio, line of sight
d 3.57 h
d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of
thumb K = 4/3
Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two antennas for LOS
propagation:


3.57 h1 h2
h1 = height of antenna one
h2 = height of antenna two
LOS Wireless Transmission
Impairments
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Free space loss
Noise
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath
Refraction
Thermal noise
Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error
Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing
distortion
Free Space Loss
Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna
Pt 4d 4fd
2 2

Pr 2
c 2

Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna


Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
= carrier wavelength
d = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light ( 3 10 8 m/s)
where d and are in the same units (e.g., meters)
Free Space Loss
Free space loss equation can be recast:

Pt 4d
LdB 10 log 20 log
Pr

20 log 20 logd 21.98 dB

4fd
20 log 20 log f 20 logd 147.56 dB
c
Free Space Loss
Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas
Pt 4 d d cd
2 2 2 2
2
Pr Gr Gt 2
Ar At f Ar At
Gt = gain of transmitting antenna
Gr = gain of receiving antenna
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
Free Space Loss
Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas can be recast as

LdB 20 log 20 logd 10 log At Ar

20 log f 20 logd 10 log At Ar 169.54dB


Categories of Noise
Thermal Noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise
Thermal Noise
Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
Present in all electronic devices and transmission
media
Cannot be eliminated
Function of temperature
Particularly significant for satellite communication
Thermal Noise
Amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth
of 1Hz in any device or conductor is:

N 0 kT W/Hz
N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 10-23 J/K
T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)
Thermal Noise
Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency
Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz (in
watts):
N kTB
or, in decibel-watts

N 10 log k 10 log T 10 log B


228.6 dBW 10 log T 10 log B
Noise Terminology
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with
different frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency
that is the sum or difference of original frequencies
Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal
paths
Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system
Expression Eb/N0
Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power density
per Hertz
Eb S / R S

N0 N0 kTR

The bit error rate for digital data is a function of


Eb/N0
Given a value for Eb/N0 to achieve a desired error rate,
parameters of this formula can be selected
As bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must
increase to maintain required Eb/N0
Other Impairments
Atmospheric absorption water vapor and oxygen
contribute to attenuation
Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that multiple
copies with varying delays are received
Refraction bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere
Multipath Propagation
Multipath Propagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the
signal
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable
body that is large compared to wavelength of radio
wave
Scattering occurs when incoming signal hits an
object whose size in the order of the wavelength of
the signal or less
The Effects of Multipath
Propagation
Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different
phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to
noise declines, making detection more difficult
Intersymbol interference (ISI)
One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the
same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit
Types of Fading
Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Error Compensation Mechanisms
Forward error correction
Adaptive equalization
Diversity techniques
Forward Error Correction
Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data block
Code is a function of the data bits
Receiver calculates error-correcting code from
incoming data bits
If calculated code matches incoming code, no error
occurred
If error-correcting codes dont match, receiver attempts
to determine bits in error and correct
Adaptive Equalization
Can be applied to transmissions that carry analog or
digital information
Analog voice or video
Digital data, digitized voice or video
Used to combat intersymbol interference
Involves gathering dispersed symbol energy back
into its original time interval
Techniques
Lumped analog circuits
Sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
Diversity Techniques
Diversity is based on the fact that individual
channels experience independent fading events
Space diversity techniques involving physical
transmission path
Frequency diversity techniques where the signal is
spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or
carried on multiple frequency carriers
Time diversity techniques aimed at spreading the
data out over time
Signal Encoding
Techniques
Chapter 6
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment less complex and expensive than digital-to-
analog modulation equipment
Analog data, digital signal
Permits use of modern digital transmission and switching
equipment
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
Analog data, analog signal
Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted easily
and cheaply
Done with voice transmission over voice-grade lines
Signal Encoding Criteria
What determines how successful a receiver will be
in interpreting an incoming signal?
Signal-to-noise ratio
Data rate
Bandwidth
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data
rate
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal spectrum
With lack of high-frequency components, less bandwidth
required
With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer
possible
Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges
Clocking
Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit
position
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal interference and noise immunity
Performance in the presence of noise
Cost and complexity
The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate,
the greater the cost
Basic Encoding Techniques
Digital data to analog signal
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Frequency difference near carrier frequency
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
Phase of carrier signal shifted
Basic Encoding Techniques
Amplitude-Shift Keying
One binary digit represented by presence of carrier,
at constant amplitude
Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier

A cos2f c t
binary1
s t
0 binary 0

where the carrier signal is Acos(2fct)


Amplitude-Shift Keying
Susceptible to sudden gain changes
Inefficient modulation technique
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency

A cos2f1t
binary1
s t
A cos2f 2t
binary 0

where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but


opposite amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
Less susceptible to error than ASK
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio
transmission
Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that use
coaxial cable
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
More than two frequencies are used
More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to
error
si t A cos 2f i t 1 i M

f i = f c + (2i 1 M)f d
f c = the carrier frequency
f d = the difference frequency
M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
To match data rate of input bit stream, each
output signal element is held for:
Ts=LT seconds
where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
So, one signal element encodes L bits
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Total bandwidth required
2Mfd
Minimum frequency separation required 2fd=1/Ts
Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Two-level PSK (BPSK)
Uses two phases to represent binary digits

A cos2f c t
binary1
s t
A cos2f ct
binary 0

A cos2f c t
binary1

A cos2f c t
binary 0
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Differential PSK (DPSK)
Phase shift with reference to previous bit
Binary 0 signal burst of same phase as previous signal burst
Binary 1 signal burst of opposite phase to previous signal
burst
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Four-level PSK (QPSK)
Each element represents more than one bit

A cos 2f ct
4
11

3
A cos 2f ct
s t
01
4
3
A cos 2f ct 00
4

A cos 2f c t 10
4
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Multilevel PSK
Using multiple phase angles with each angle having
more than one amplitude, multiple signals elements
can be achieved
R R
D
L log 2 M

D = modulation rate, baud


R = data rate, bps
M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
ASK, PSK BT=(1+r)R
FSK BT=2DF+(1+r)R

R = bit rate
0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
1 r 1 r
MPSK BT R R
L log 2 M
MFSK 1 r M
BT R
log 2 M
L = number of bits encoded per signal element
M = number of different signal elements
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
Two different signals sent simultaneously on the same
carrier frequency

st d1 t cos 2f ct d 2 t sin 2f ct
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
Reasons for Analog Modulation
Modulation of digital signals
When only analog transmission facilities are available,
digital to analog conversion required
Modulation of analog signals
A higher frequency may be needed for effective
transmission
Modulation permits frequency division multiplexing
Basic Encoding Techniques
Analog data to analog signal
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation

st 1 na xt cos 2f ct
cos2fct = carrier
x(t) = input signal
na = modulation index
Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier
a.k.a double sideband transmitted carrier (DSBTC)
Spectrum of AM signal
Amplitude Modulation
Transmitted power
na 2

Pt Pc 1

2
Pt = total transmitted power in s(t)
Pc = transmitted power in carrier
Single Sideband (SSB)
Variant of AM is single sideband (SSB)
Sends only one sideband
Eliminates other sideband and carrier
Advantages
Only half the bandwidth is required
Less power is required
Disadvantages
Suppressed carrier cant be used for synchronization
purposes
Angle Modulation
Angle modulation

st Ac cos2f ct t
Phase modulation
Phase is proportional to modulating signal

t n p mt
np = phase modulation index
Angle Modulation
Frequency modulation
Derivative of the phase is proportional to modulating
signal

' t n f mt
nf = frequency modulation index
Angle Modulation
Compared to AM, FM and PM result in a signal
whose bandwidth:
is also centered at fc
but has a magnitude that is much different
Angle modulation includes cos( (t)) which produces a wide
range of frequencies
Thus, FM and PM require greater bandwidth than
AM
Angle Modulation
Carsons rule

where BT 2 1B
n p Am for PM

F n f Am
B 2B for FM
The formula for FM becomes

BT 2F 2 B
Basic Encoding Techniques
Analog data to digital signal
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Delta modulation (DM)
Analog Data to Digital Signal
Once analog data have been converted to digital
signals, the digital data:
can be transmitted using NRZ-L
can be encoded as a digital signal using a code other than
NRZ-L
can be converted to an analog signal, using previously
discussed techniques
Pulse Code Modulation
Based on the sampling theorem
Each analog sample is assigned a binary code
Analog samples are referred to as pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM) samples
The digital signal consists of block of n bits, where
each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is only
approximated
Leads to quantizing noise
Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise
SNR dB 20 log 2n 1.76 dB 6.02n 1.76 dB

Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by 6 dB, or


a factor of 4
Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by staircase function
Moves up or down by one quantization level () at each
sampling interval
The bit stream approximates derivative of analog
signal (rather than amplitude)
1 is generated if function goes up
0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation
Two important parameters
Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
Sampling rate
Accuracy improved by increasing sampling rate
However, this increases the data rate
Advantage of DM over PCM is the simplicity of its
implementation
Reasons for Growth of Digital
Techniques
Growth in popularity of digital techniques for
sending analog data
Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
No additive noise
TDM is used instead of FDM
No intermodulation noise
Conversion to digital signaling allows use of more
efficient digital switching techniques
Spread Spectrum
Chapter 7
Spread Spectrum
Input is fed into a channel encoder
Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth
Signal is further modulated using sequence of digits
Spreading code or spreading sequence
Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number
generator
Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of
signal to be transmitted
Spread Spectrum
On receiving end, digit sequence is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal
Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover data
Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum
What can be gained from apparent waste of
spectrum?
Immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath
distortion
Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
Several users can independently use the same higher
bandwidth with very little interference
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of
radio frequencies
A number of channels allocated for the FH signal
Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of input
signal
Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed
intervals
Transmitter operates in one channel at a time
Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme
At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is
selected
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
Receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with transmitter, picks up message
Advantages
Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips
Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at
knocking out a few bits
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
FHSS Using MFSK
MFSK signal is translated to a new frequency every
Tc seconds by modulating the MFSK signal with the
FHSS carrier signal
For data rate of R:
duration of a bit: T = 1/R seconds
duration of signal element: Ts = LT seconds
Tc Ts - slow-frequency-hop spread spectrum
Tc < Ts - fast-frequency-hop spread spectrum
FHSS Performance
Considerations
Large number of frequencies used
Results in a system that is quite resistant to jamming
Jammer must jam all frequencies
With fixed power, this reduces the jamming power in any
one frequency band
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple
bits in the transmitted signal
Spreading code spreads signal across a wider
frequency band
Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
One technique combines digital information stream
with the spreading code bit stream using exclusive-
OR (Figure 7.6)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
DSSS Using BPSK
Multiply BPSK signal,
sd(t) = A d(t) cos(2 fct)
by c(t) [takes values +1, -1] to get
s(t) = A d(t)c(t) cos(2 fct)
A = amplitude of signal
fc = carrier frequency
d(t) = discrete function [+1, -1]
At receiver, incoming signal multiplied by c(t)
Since, c(t) x c(t) = 1, incoming signal is recovered
DSSS Using BPSK
Code-Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
Basic Principles of CDMA
D = rate of data signal
Break each bit into k chips
Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern
Chip data rate of new channel = kD
CDMA Example
If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
For a 1 bit, A sends code as chip pattern
<c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>
For a 0 bit, A sends complement of code
<-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>
Receiver knows senders code and performs
electronic decode function
Su d d1 c1 d 2 c2 d 3 c3 d 4 c4 d 5 c5 d 6 c6

<d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern


<c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = senders code
CDMA Example
User A code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>
To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>
To send a 0 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>
User B code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>
To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>
Receiver receiving with As code
(As code) x (received chip pattern)
User A 1 bit: 6 -> 1
User A 0 bit: -6 -> 0
User B 1 bit: 0 -> unwanted signal ignored
CDMA for Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum
Categories of Spreading
Sequences
Spreading Sequence Categories
PN sequences
Orthogonal codes
For FHSS systems
PN sequences most common
For DSSS systems not employing CDMA
PN sequences most common
For DSSS CDMA systems
PN sequences
Orthogonal codes
PN Sequences
PN generator produces periodic sequence that
appears to be random
PN Sequences
Generated by an algorithm using initial seed
Sequence isnt statistically random but will pass many
test of randomness
Sequences referred to as pseudorandom numbers or
pseudonoise sequences
Unless algorithm and seed are known, the sequence is
impractical to predict
Important PN Properties
Randomness
Uniform distribution
Balance property
Run property
Independence
Correlation property
Unpredictability
Linear Feedback Shift Register
Implementation
Properties of M-Sequences
Property 1:
Has 2n-1 ones and 2n-1-1 zeros
Property 2:
For a window of length n slid along output for N (=2n-1)
shifts, each n-tuple appears once, except for the all zeros
sequence
Property 3:
Sequence contains one run of ones, length n
One run of zeros, length n-1
One run of ones and one run of zeros, length n-2
Two runs of ones and two runs of zeros, length n-3
2n-3 runs of ones and 2n-3 runs of zeros, length 1
Properties of M-Sequences
Property 4:
The periodic autocorrelation of a 1 m-sequence is

1 0, N, 2N, ...
R 1
otherwise
N
Definitions
Correlation
The concept of determining how much similarity one set
of data has with another
Range between 1 and 1
1 The second sequence matches the first sequence
0 There is no relation at all between the two sequences
-1 The two sequences are mirror images
Cross correlation
The comparison between two sequences from different
sources rather than a shifted copy of a sequence with
itself
Advantages of Cross Correlation
The cross correlation between an m-sequence and
noise is low
This property is useful to the receiver in filtering out
noise
The cross correlation between two different m-
sequences is low
This property is useful for CDMA applications
Enables a receiver to discriminate among spread
spectrum signals generated by different m-sequences
Gold Sequences
Gold sequences constructed by the XOR of two m-
sequences with the same clocking
Codes have well-defined cross correlation
properties
Only simple circuitry needed to generate large
number of unique codes
In following example (Figure 7.16a) two shift
registers generate the two m-sequences and these
are then bitwise XORed
Gold Sequences
Orthogonal Codes
Orthogonal codes
All pairwise cross correlations are zero
Fixed- and variable-length codes used in CDMA systems
For CDMA application, each mobile user uses one
sequence in the set as a spreading code
Provides zero cross correlation among all users
Types
Welsh codes
Variable-Length Orthogonal codes
Walsh Codes
Set of Walsh codes of length n consists of the n
rows of an n n Walsh matrix:

W1 = (0) Wn W2 n
W2 n
Wn Wn
n = dimension of the matrix
Every row is orthogonal to every other row and to
the logical not of every other row
Requires tight synchronization
Cross correlation between different shifts of Walsh
sequences is not zero
Typical Multiple Spreading
Approach
Spread data rate by an orthogonal code
(channelization code)
Provides mutual orthogonality among all users in the
same cell
Further spread result by a PN sequence (scrambling
code)
Provides mutual randomness (low cross correlation)
between users in different cells
Coding and Error
Control
Chapter 8
Coping with Data Transmission
Errors
Error detection codes
Detects the presence of an error
Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
Block of data with error is discarded
Transmitter retransmits that block of data
Error correction codes, or forward correction codes
(FEC)
Designed to detect and correct errors
Error Detection Probabilities
Definitions
Pb : Probability of single bit error (BER)
P1 : Probability that a frame arrives with no bit errors
P2 : While using error detection, the probability that a frame
arrives with one or more undetected errors
P3 : While using error detection, the probability that a frame
arrives with one or more detected bit errors but no undetected
bit errors
Error Detection Probabilities
With no error detection
P1 1 Pb
F

P2 1 P1
P3 0
F = Number of bits per frame
Error Detection Process
Transmitter
For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits) is
calculated from data bits
Check bits are appended to data bits
Receiver
Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits
Calculates check bits from received data bits
Compares calculated check bits against received check
bits
Detected error occurs if mismatch
Error Detection Process
Parity Check
Parity bit appended to a block of data
Even parity
Added bit ensures an even number of 1s
Odd parity
Added bit ensures an odd number of 1s
Example, 7-bit character [1110001]
Even parity [11100010]
Odd parity [11100011]
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Transmitter
For a k-bit block, transmitter generates an (n-k)-bit frame
check sequence (FCS)
Resulting frame of n bits is exactly divisible by
predetermined number
Receiver
Divides incoming frame by predetermined number
If no remainder, assumes no error
CRC using Modulo 2 Arithmetic
Exclusive-OR (XOR) operation
Parameters:
T = n-bit frame to be transmitted
D = k-bit block of data; the first k bits of T
F = (n k)-bit FCS; the last (n k) bits of T
P = pattern of nk+1 bits; this is the predetermined divisor
Q = Quotient
R = Remainder
CRC using Modulo 2 Arithmetic
For T/P to have no remainder, start with
nk
T 2 DF
Divide 2n-kD by P gives quotient and remainder

2nk D R
Use remainder as FCS Q
P P

nk
T 2 DR
CRC using Modulo 2 Arithmetic
Does R cause T/P have no remainder?
T 2nk D R 2nk D R

P P P P
Substituting,
T R R RR
Q Q Q
P P P P
No remainder, so T is exactly divisible by P
CRC using Polynomials
All values expressed as polynomials
Dummy variable X with binary coefficients

X n k D X R X
Q X
P X P X
T X X n k D X R X
CRC using Polynomials
Widely used versions of P(X)
CRC12
X12 + X11 + X3 + X2 + X + 1
CRC16
X16 + X15 + X2 + 1
CRC CCITT
X16 + X12 + X5 + 1
CRC 32
X32 + X26 + X23 + X22 + X16 + X12 + X11 + X10 + X8 + X7 + X5 +
X4 + X2 + X + 1
CRC using Digital Logic
Dividing circuit consisting of:
XOR gates
Up to n k XOR gates
Presence of a gate corresponds to the presence of a term in the
divisor polynomial P(X)
A shift register
String of 1-bit storage devices
Register contains n k bits, equal to the length of the FCS
Digital Logic CRC
Wireless Transmission Errors
Error detection requires retransmission
Detection inadequate for wireless applications
Error rate on wireless link can be high, results in a large
number of retransmissions
Long propagation delay compared to transmission time
Block Error Correction Codes
Transmitter
Forward error correction (FEC) encoder maps each k-bit
block into an n-bit block codeword
Codeword is transmitted; analog for wireless
transmission
Receiver
Incoming signal is demodulated
Block passed through an FEC decoder
Forward Error Correction Process
FEC Decoder Outcomes
No errors present
Codeword produced by decoder matches original
codeword
Decoder detects and corrects bit errors
Decoder detects but cannot correct bit errors;
reports uncorrectable error
Decoder detects no bit errors, though errors are
present
Block Code Principles
Hamming distance for 2 n-bit binary sequences,
the number of different bits
E.g., v1=011011; v2=110001; d(v1, v2)=3
Redundancy ratio of redundant bits to data bits
Code rate ratio of data bits to total bits
Coding gain the reduction in the required Eb/N0 to
achieve a specified BER of an error-correcting
coded system
Hamming Code
Designed to correct single bit errors
Family of (n, k) block error-correcting codes with
parameters:
Block length: n = 2m 1
Number of data bits: k = 2m m 1
Number of check bits: n k = m
Minimum distance: dmin = 3
Single-error-correcting (SEC) code
SEC double-error-detecting (SEC-DED) code
Hamming Code Process
Encoding: k data bits + (n -k) check bits
Decoding: compares received (n -k) bits with
calculated (n -k) bits using XOR
Resulting (n -k) bits called syndrome word
Syndrome range is between 0 and 2(n-k)-1
Each bit of syndrome indicates a match (0) or conflict (1)
in that bit position
Cyclic Codes
Can be encoded and decoded using linear feedback
shift registers (LFSRs)
For cyclic codes, a valid codeword (c0, c1, , cn-1),
shifted right one bit, is also a valid codeword (cn-1,
c0, , cn-2)
Takes fixed-length input (k) and produces fixed-
length check code (n-k)
In contrast, CRC error-detecting code accepts arbitrary
length input for fixed-length check code
BCH Codes
For positive pair of integers m and t, a (n, k) BCH
code has parameters:
Block length: n = 2m 1
Number of check bits: n k mt
Minimum distance:dmin 2t + 1
Correct combinations of t or fewer errors
Flexibility in choice of parameters
Block length, code rate
Reed-Solomon Codes
Subclass of nonbinary BCH codes
Data processed in chunks of m bits, called symbols
An (n, k) RS code has parameters:
Symbol length: m bits per symbol
Block length: n = 2m 1 symbols = m(2m 1) bits
Data length: k symbols
Size of check code: n k = 2t symbols = m(2t) bits
Minimum distance: dmin = 2t + 1 symbols
Block Interleaving
Data written to and read from memory in different
orders
Data bits and corresponding check bits are
interspersed with bits from other blocks
At receiver, data are deinterleaved to recover
original order
A burst error that may occur is spread out over a
number of blocks, making error correction possible
Block Interleaving
Convolutional Codes
Generates redundant bits continuously
Error checking and correcting carried out
continuously
(n, k, K) code
Input processes k bits at a time
Output produces n bits for every k input bits
K = constraint factor
k and n generally very small
n-bit output of (n, k, K) code depends on:
Current block of k input bits
Previous K-1 blocks of k input bits
Convolutional Encoder
Decoding
Trellis diagram expanded encoder diagram
Viterbi code error correction algorithm
Compares received sequence with all possible
transmitted sequences
Algorithm chooses path through trellis whose coded
sequence differs from received sequence in the fewest
number of places
Once a valid path is selected as the correct path, the
decoder can recover the input data bits from the output
code bits
Automatic Repeat Request
Mechanism used in data link control and transport
protocols
Relies on use of an error detection code (such as
CRC)
Flow Control
Error Control
Flow Control
Assures that transmitting entity does not overwhelm
a receiving entity with data
Protocols with flow control mechanism allow
multiple PDUs in transit at the same time
PDUs arrive in same order theyre sent
Sliding-window flow control
Transmitter maintains list (window) of sequence
numbers allowed to send
Receiver maintains list allowed to receive
Flow Control
Reasons for breaking up a block of data before
transmitting:
Limited buffer size of receiver
Retransmission of PDU due to error requires smaller
amounts of data to be retransmitted
On shared medium, larger PDUs occupy medium for
extended period, causing delays at other sending stations
Flow Control
Error Control
Mechanisms to detect and correct transmission
errors
Types of errors:
Lost PDU : a PDU fails to arrive
Damaged PDU : PDU arrives with errors
Error Control Requirements
Error detection
Receiver detects errors and discards PDUs
Positive acknowledgement
Destination returns acknowledgment of received, error-
free PDUs
Retransmission after timeout
Source retransmits unacknowledged PDU
Negative acknowledgement and retransmission
Destination returns negative acknowledgment to PDUs
in error
Go-back-N ARQ
Acknowledgments
RR = receive ready (no errors occur)
REJ = reject (error detected)
Contingencies
Damaged PDU
Damaged RR
Damaged REJ
Satellite
Communications
Chapter 9
Satellite-Related Terms
Earth Stations antenna systems on or near earth
Uplink transmission from an earth station to a
satellite
Downlink transmission from a satellite to an earth
station
Transponder electronics in the satellite that
convert uplink signals to downlink signals
Ways to Categorize
Communications Satellites
Coverage area
Global, regional, national
Service type
Fixed service satellite (FSS)
Broadcast service satellite (BSS)
Mobile service satellite (MSS)
General usage
Commercial, military, amateur, experimental
Classification of Satellite Orbits
Circular or elliptical orbit
Circular with center at earths center
Elliptical with one foci at earths center
Orbit around earth in different planes
Equatorial orbit above earths equator
Polar orbit passes over both poles
Other orbits referred to as inclined orbits
Altitude of satellites
Geostationary orbit (GEO)
Medium earth orbit (MEO)
Low earth orbit (LEO)
Geometry Terms
Elevation angle - the angle from the horizontal to
the point on the center of the main beam of the
antenna when the antenna is pointed directly at the
satellite
Minimum elevation angle
Coverage angle - the measure of the portion of the
earth's surface visible to the satellite
Minimum Elevation Angle
Reasons affecting minimum elevation angle of earth
stations antenna (>0o)
Buildings, trees, and other terrestrial objects block the
line of sight
Atmospheric attenuation is greater at low elevation
angles
Electrical noise generated by the earth's heat near its
surface adversely affects reception
GEO Orbit
Advantages of the the GEO orbit
No problem with frequency changes
Tracking of the satellite is simplified
High coverage area
Disadvantages of the GEO orbit
Weak signal after traveling over 35,000 km
Polar regions are poorly served
Signal sending delay is substantial
LEO Satellite Characteristics
Circular/slightly elliptical orbit under 2000 km
Orbit period ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours
Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
Round-trip signal propagation delay less than 20 ms
Maximum satellite visible time up to 20 min
System must cope with large Doppler shifts
Atmospheric drag results in orbital deterioration
LEO Categories
Little LEOs
Frequencies below 1 GHz
5MHz of bandwidth
Data rates up to 10 kbps
Aimed at paging, tracking, and low-rate messaging
Big LEOs
Frequencies above 1 GHz
Support data rates up to a few megabits per sec
Offer same services as little LEOs in addition to voice
and positioning services
MEO Satellite Characteristics
Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to
12,000 km
Orbit period of 6 hours
Diameter of coverage is 10,000 to 15,000 km
Round trip signal propagation delay less than 50 ms
Maximum satellite visible time is a few hours
Frequency Bands Available for
Satellite Communications
Satellite Link Performance
Factors
Distance between earth station antenna and satellite
antenna
For downlink, terrestrial distance between earth
station antenna and aim point of satellite
Displayed as a satellite footprint (Figure 9.6)
Atmospheric attenuation
Affected by oxygen, water, angle of elevation, and higher
frequencies
Satellite Footprint
Satellite Network Configurations
Capacity Allocation Strategies
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
Time division multiple access (TDMA)
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Alternative uses of channels in point-to-point
configuration
1200 voice-frequency (VF) voice channels
One 50-Mbps data stream
16 channels of 1.544 Mbps each
400 channels of 64 kbps each
600 channels of 40 kbps each
One analog video signal
Six to nine digital video signals
Frequency-Division Multiple
Access
Factors which limit the number of subchannels
provided within a satellite channel via FDMA
Thermal noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Forms of FDMA
Fixed-assignment multiple access (FAMA)
The assignment of capacity is distributed in a fixed
manner among multiple stations
Demand may fluctuate
Results in the significant underuse of capacity
Demand-assignment multiple access (DAMA)
Capacity assignment is changed as needed to respond
optimally to demand changes among the multiple
stations
FAMA-FDMA
FAMA logical links between stations are
preassigned
FAMA multiple stations access the satellite by
using different frequency bands
Uses considerable bandwidth
DAMA-FDMA
Single channel per carrier (SCPC) bandwidth
divided into individual VF channels
Attractive for remote areas with few user stations near
each site
Suffers from inefficiency of fixed assignment
DAMA set of subchannels in a channel is treated
as a pool of available links
For full-duplex between two earth stations, a pair of
subchannels is dynamically assigned on demand
Demand assignment performed in a distributed fashion
by earth station using CSC
Reasons for Increasing Use of
TDM Techniques
Cost of digital components continues to drop
Advantages of digital components
Use of error correction
Increased efficiency of TDM
Lack of intermodulation noise
FAMA-TDMA Operation
Transmission in the form of repetitive sequence of
frames
Each frame is divided into a number of time slots
Each slot is dedicated to a particular transmitter
Earth stations take turns using uplink channel
Sends data in assigned time slot
Satellite repeats incoming transmissions
Broadcast to all stations
Stations must know which slot to use for
transmission and which to use for reception
FAMA-TDMA Uplink
FAMA-TDMA Downlink
Cellular Wireless
Networks
Chapter 10
Cellular Network Organization
Use multiple low-power transmitters (100 W or
less)
Areas divided into cells
Each served by its own antenna
Served by base station consisting of transmitter, receiver,
and control unit
Band of frequencies allocated
Cells set up such that antennas of all neighbors are
equidistant (hexagonal pattern)
Frequency Reuse
Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to
avoid interference or crosstalk
Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
Transmission power controlled to limit power at that
frequency escaping to adjacent cells
The issue is to determine how many cells must intervene
between two cells using the same frequency
Approaches to Cope with
Increasing Capacity
Adding new channels
Frequency borrowing frequencies are taken from
adjacent cells by congested cells
Cell splitting cells in areas of high usage can be
split into smaller cells
Cell sectoring cells are divided into a number of
wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own set of
channels
Microcells antennas move to buildings, hills, and
lamp posts
Cellular System Overview
Cellular Systems Terms
Base Station (BS) includes an antenna, a
controller, and a number of receivers
Mobile telecommunications switching office
(MTSO) connects calls between mobile units
Two types of channels available between mobile
unit and BS
Control channels used to exchange information having
to do with setting up and maintaining calls
Traffic channels carry voice or data connection
between users
Steps in an MTSO Controlled
Call between Mobile Users
Mobile unit initialization
Mobile-originated call
Paging
Call accepted
Ongoing call
Handoff
Additional Functions in an MTSO
Controlled Call
Call blocking
Call termination
Call drop
Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber
Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
Signal strength
Must be strong enough between base station and mobile
unit to maintain signal quality at the receiver
Must not be so strong as to create too much cochannel
interference with channels in another cell using the same
frequency band
Fading
Signal propagation effects may disrupt the signal and
cause errors
Handoff Performance Metrics
Cell blocking probability probability of a new call
being blocked
Call dropping probability probability that a call is
terminated due to a handoff
Call completion probability probability that an
admitted call is not dropped before it terminates
Probability of unsuccessful handoff probability
that a handoff is executed while the reception
conditions are inadequate
Handoff Performance Metrics
Handoff blocking probability probability that a
handoff cannot be successfully completed
Handoff probability probability that a handoff occurs
before call termination
Rate of handoff number of handoffs per unit time
Interruption duration duration of time during a
handoff in which a mobile is not connected to either
base station
Handoff delay distance the mobile moves from the
point at which the handoff should occur to the point at
which it does occur
Handoff Strategies Used to
Determine Instant of Handoff
Relative signal strength
Relative signal strength with threshold
Relative signal strength with hysteresis
Relative signal strength with hysteresis and
threshold
Prediction techniques
Power Control
Design issues making it desirable to include
dynamic power control in a cellular system
Received power must be sufficiently above the
background noise for effective communication
Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal
from the mobile
Reduce cochannel interference, alleviate health concerns, save
battery power
In SS systems using CDMA, its desirable to equalize the
received power level from all mobile units at the BS
Types of Power Control
Open-loop power control
Depends solely on mobile unit
No feedback from BS
Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to
fluctuations in signal strength
Closed-loop power control
Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on
metric of performance
BS makes power adjustment decision and communicates
to mobile on control channel
Traffic Engineering
Ideally, available channels would equal number of
subscribers active at one time
In practice, not feasible to have capacity handle all
possible load
For N simultaneous user capacity and L subscribers
L < N nonblocking system
L > N blocking system
Blocking System Performance
Questions
Probability that call request is blocked?
What capacity is needed to achieve a certain upper
bound on probability of blocking?
What is the average delay?
What capacity is needed to achieve a certain
average delay?
Traffic Intensity
Load presented to a system:
A h
= mean rate of calls attempted per unit time
h = mean holding time per successful call
A = average number of calls arriving during average holding
period, for normalized
Factors that Determine the Nature
of the Traffic Model
Manner in which blocked calls are handled
Lost calls delayed (LCD) blocked calls put in a queue
awaiting a free channel
Blocked calls rejected and dropped
Lost calls cleared (LCC) user waits before another attempt
Lost calls held (LCH) user repeatedly attempts calling
Number of traffic sources
Whether number of users is assumed to be finite or
infinite
First-Generation Analog
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
In North America, two 25-MHz bands allocated to
AMPS
One for transmission from base to mobile unit
One for transmission from mobile unit to base
Each band split in two to encourage competition
Frequency reuse exploited
AMPS Operation
Subscriber initiates call by keying in phone number
and presses send key
MTSO verifies number and authorizes user
MTSO issues message to users cell phone
indicating send and receive traffic channels
MTSO sends ringing signal to called party
Party answers; MTSO establishes circuit and
initiates billing information
Either party hangs up; MTSO releases circuit, frees
channels, completes billing
Differences Between First and
Second Generation Systems
Digital traffic channels first-generation systems
are almost purely analog; second-generation
systems are digital
Encryption all second generation systems provide
encryption to prevent eavesdropping
Error detection and correction second-generation
digital traffic allows for detection and correction,
giving clear voice reception
Channel access second-generation systems allow
channels to be dynamically shared by a number of
users
Mobile Wireless TDMA Design
Considerations
Number of logical channels (number of time slots in
TDMA frame): 8
Maximum cell radius (R): 35 km
Frequency: region around 900 MHz
Maximum vehicle speed (Vm):250 km/hr
Maximum coding delay: approx. 20 ms
Maximum delay spread (m): 10 s
Bandwidth: Not to exceed 200 kHz (25 kHz per
channel)
Steps in Design of TDMA
Timeslot
GSM Network Architecture
Mobile Station
Mobile station communicates across Um interface
(air interface) with base station transceiver in same
cell as mobile unit
Mobile equipment (ME) physical terminal, such
as a telephone or PCS
ME includes radio transceiver, digital signal processors
and subscriber identity module (SIM)
GSM subscriber units are generic until SIM is
inserted
SIMs roam, not necessarily the subscriber devices
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
BSS consists of base station controller and one or
more base transceiver stations (BTS)
Each BTS defines a single cell
Includes radio antenna, radio transceiver and a link to a
base station controller (BSC)
BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages handoff of
mobile unit from one cell to another within BSS,
and controls paging
Network Subsystem (NS)
NS provides link between cellular network and
public switched telecommunications networks
Controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs
Authenticates users and validates accounts
Enables worldwide roaming of mobile users
Central element of NS is the mobile switching
center (MSC)
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
Databases
Home location register (HLR) database stores
information about each subscriber that belongs to it
Visitor location register (VLR) database
maintains information about subscribers currently
physically in the region
Authentication center database (AuC) used for
authentication activities, holds encryption keys
Equipment identity register database (EIR) keeps
track of the type of equipment that exists at the
mobile station
TDMA Format Time Slot Fields
Trail bits allow synchronization of transmissions
from mobile units
Encrypted bits encrypted data
Stealing bit - indicates whether block contains data or
is "stolen"
Training sequence used to adapt parameters of
receiver to the current path propagation characteristics
Strongest signal selected in case of multipath propagation
Guard bits used to avoid overlapping with other
bursts
GSM Speech Signal Processing
GSM Signaling Protocol
Architecture
Functions Provided by Protocols
Protocols above the link layer of the GSM signaling
protocol architecture provide specific functions:
Radio resource management
Mobility management
Connection management
Mobile application part (MAP)
BTS management
Advantages of CDMA Cellular
Frequency diversity frequency-dependent
transmission impairments have less effect on signal
Multipath resistance chipping codes used for
CDMA exhibit low cross correlation and low
autocorrelation
Privacy privacy is inherent since spread spectrum
is obtained by use of noise-like signals
Graceful degradation system only gradually
degrades as more users access the system
Drawbacks of CDMA Cellular
Self-jamming arriving transmissions from
multiple users not aligned on chip boundaries unless
users are perfectly synchronized
Near-far problem signals closer to the receiver are
received with less attenuation than signals farther
away
Soft handoff requires that the mobile acquires the
new cell before it relinquishes the old; this is more
complex than hard handoff used in FDMA and
TDMA schemes
Mobile Wireless CDMA Design
Considerations
RAKE receiver when multiple versions of a signal
arrive more than one chip interval apart, RAKE
receiver attempts to recover signals from multiple
paths and combine them
This method achieves better performance than simply
recovering dominant signal and treating remaining
signals as noise
Soft Handoff mobile station temporarily
connected to more than one base station
simultaneously
Principle of RAKE Receiver
Types of Channels Supported by
Forward Link
Pilot (channel 0) - allows the mobile unit to acquire
timing information, provides phase reference and
provides means for signal strength comparison
Synchronization (channel 32) - used by mobile
station to obtain identification information about
cellular system
Paging (channels 1 to 7) - contain messages for one
or more mobile stations
Traffic (channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63) the
forward channel supports 55 traffic channels
Forward Traffic Channel
Processing Steps
Speech is encoded at a rate of 8550 bps
Additional bits added for error detection
Data transmitted in 2-ms blocks with forward error
correction provided by a convolutional encoder
Data interleaved in blocks to reduce effects of errors
Data bits are scrambled, serving as a privacy mask
Forward Traffic Channel
Processing Steps (cont.)
Power control information inserted into traffic
channel
DS-SS function spreads the 19.2 kbps to a rate of
1.2288 Mbps using one row of 64 x 64 Walsh
matrix
Digital bit stream modulated onto the carrier using
QPSK modulation scheme
ITUs View of Third-Generation
Capabilities
Voice quality comparable to the public switched
telephone network
144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed
motor vehicles over large areas
384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving
slowly over small areas
Support for 2.048 Mbps for office use
Symmetrical / asymmetrical data transmission rates
Support for both packet switched and circuit switched
data services
ITUs View of Third-Generation
Capabilities
An adaptive interface to the Internet to reflect
efficiently the common asymmetry between
inbound and outbound traffic
More efficient use of the available spectrum in
general
Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services
and technologies
Alternative Interfaces
CDMA Design Considerations
Bandwidth limit channel usage to 5 MHz
Chip rate depends on desired data rate, need for
error control, and bandwidth limitations; 3 Mcps or
more is reasonable
Multirate advantage is that the system can flexibly
support multiple simultaneous applications from a
given user and can efficiently use available capacity
by only providing the capacity required for each
service
Cordless Systems and
Wireless Local Loop
Chapter 11
Cordless System Operating
Environments
Residential a single base station can provide in-
house voice and data support
Office
A single base station can support a small office
Multiple base stations in a cellular configuration can
support a larger office
Telepoint a base station set up in a public place,
such as an airport
Design Considerations for
Cordless Standards
Modest range of handset from base station, so low-
power designs are used
Inexpensive handset and base station, dictating
simple technical approaches
Frequency flexibility is limited, so the system needs
to be able to seek a low-interference channel
whenever used
Time Division Duplex (TDD)
TDD also known as time-compression multiplexing
(TCM)
Data transmitted in one direction at a time, with
transmission between the two directions
Simple TDD
TDMA TDD
Simple TDD
Bit stream is divided into equal segments,
compressed in time to a higher transmission rate,
and transmitted in bursts
Effective bits transmitted per second:
R = B/2(Tp+Tb+Tg)
R = effective data rate
B = size of block in bits
Tp = propagation delay
Tb = burst transmission time
Tg = guard time
Simple TDD
Actual data rate, A:
A = B /Tb
Combined with previous equation:
T p Tg
A 2 R1
Tb
The actual data rate is more than double the
effective data rate seen by the two sides
TDMA TDD
Wireless TDD typically used with TDMA
A number of users receive forward channel signals in
turn and then transmit reverse channel signals in turn, all
on same carrier frequency
Advantages of TDMA/TDD:
Improved ability to cope with fast fading
Improved capacity allocation
DECT Frame Format
Preamble (16 bits) alert receiver
Sync (16 bits) enable receiver to synchronize on
beginning of time slot
A field (64 bits) used for network control
B field (320 bits) contains user data
X field (4 bits) parity check bits
Guard (60 bits) guard time, Tg
A Field Logical Control Channels
Q channel used to broadcast general system
information from base station to all terminals
P channel provides paging from the base station to
terminals
M channel used by terminal to exchange medium
access control messages with base station
N channel provides handshaking protocol
C channel provides call management for active
connections
B Field
B field transmits data in two modes
Unprotected mode - used to transmit digitized voice
Protected mode - transmits nonvoice data traffic
DECT Protocol Architecture
DECT Protocol Architecture
Physical layer data transmitted in TDMA-TDD
frames over one of 10 RF carriers
Medium access control (MAC) layer selects/
establishes/releases connections on physical
channels; supports three services:
Broadcast
Connection oriented
Connectionless
Data link control layer provides for the reliable
transmission of messages using traditional data link
control procedures
Differential Quantization
Speech signals tend not to change much between
two samples
Transmitted PCM values contain considerable
redundancy
Transmit difference value between adjacent samples
rather than actual value
If difference value between two samples exceeds
transmitted bits, receiver output will drift from the
true value
Encoder could replicate receiver output and additionally
transmit that difference
Differential PCM (DPCM)
Since voice signals change relatively slowly, value
of kth sample can be estimated by preceding
samples
Transmit difference between sample and estimated
sample
Difference value should be less than difference between
successive samples
At the receiver, incoming difference value is added
to the estimate of the current sample
Same estimation function is used
Adaptive Differential PCM
(ADPCM)
Improve DPCM performance using adaptive
prediction and quantization
Predictor and difference quantizer adapt to the changing
characteristics of the speech
Modules
Adaptive quantizer
Inverse adaptive quantizer
Adaptive predictor
ADPCM Encoder
ADPCM Decoder
Subject Measurement of Coder
Performance
Subjective measurements of quality are more
relevant than objective measures
Mean opinion score (MOS) group of subjects
listen to a sample of coded speech; classify output
on a 5-point scale
MOS scale is used in a number of specifications as
a standard for quality
Wireless Local Loop
Wired technologies responding to need for reliable,
high-speed access by residential, business, and
government subscribers
ISDN, xDSL, cable modems
Increasing interest shown in competing wireless
technologies for subscriber access
Wireless local loop (WLL)
Narrowband offers a replacement for existing
telephony services
Broadband provides high-speed two-way voice and
data service
WLL Configuration
Advantages of WLL over Wired
Approach
Cost wireless systems are less expensive due to
cost of cable installation thats avoided
Installation time WLL systems can be installed in
a small fraction of the time required for a new wired
system
Selective installation radio units installed for
subscribers who want service at a given time
With a wired system, cable is laid out in anticipation of
serving every subscriber in a given area
Propagation Considerations for
WLL
Most high-speed WLL schemes use millimeter
wave frequencies (10 GHz to about 300 GHz)
There are wide unused frequency bands available above
25 GHz
At these high frequencies, wide channel bandwidths can
be used, providing high data rates
Small size transceivers and adaptive antenna arrays can
be used
Propagation Considerations for
WLL
Millimeter wave systems have some undesirable
propagation characteristics
Free space loss increases with the square of the
frequency; losses are much higher in millimeter wave
range
Above 10 GHz, attenuation effects due to rainfall and
atmospheric or gaseous absorption are large
Multipath losses can be quite high
Fresnel Zone
How much space around direct path between transmitter
and receiver should be clear of obstacles?
Objects within a series of concentric circles around the line of
sight between transceivers have constructive/destructive
effects on communication
For point along the direct path, radius of first Fresnel
zone:

SD
R
S = distance from transmitterS D
D = distance from receiver
Atmospheric Absorption
Radio waves at frequencies above 10 GHz are
subject to molecular absorption
Peak of water vapor absorption at 22 GHz
Peak of oxygen absorption near 60 GHz
Favorable windows for communication:
From 28 GHz to 42 GHz
From 75 GHz to 95 GHz
Effect of Rain
Attenuation due to rain
Presence of raindrops can severely degrade the reliability
and performance of communication links
The effect of rain depends on drop shape, drop size, rain
rate, and frequency
Estimated attenuation due to rain:

A aR b

A = attenuation (dB/km)
R = rain rate (mm/hr)
a and b depend on drop sizes and frequency
Effects of Vegetation
Trees near subscriber sites can lead to multipath
fading
Multipath effects from the tree canopy are
diffraction and scattering
Measurements in orchards found considerable
attenuation values when the foliage is within 60%
of the first Fresnel zone
Multipath effects highly variable due to wind
Multipoint Distribution Service
(MDS)
Multichannel multipoint distribution service
(MMDS)
Also referred to as wireless cable
Used mainly by residential subscribers and small
businesses
Local multipoint distribution service (LMDS)
Appeals to larger companies with greater bandwidth
demands
Advantages of MMDS
MMDS signals have larger wavelengths and can
travel farther without losing significant power
Equipment at lower frequencies is less expensive
MMDS signals don't get blocked as easily by
objects and are less susceptible to rain absorption
Advantages of LMDS
Relatively high data rates
Capable of providing video, telephony, and data
Relatively low cost in comparison with cable
alternatives
802.16 Standards Development
Use wireless links with microwave or millimeter
wave radios
Use licensed spectrum
Are metropolitan in scale
Provide public network service to fee-paying
customers
Use point-to-multipoint architecture with stationary
rooftop or tower-mounted antennas
802.16 Standards Development
Provide efficient transport of heterogeneous traffic
supporting quality of service (QoS)
Use wireless links with microwave or millimeter
wave radios
Are capable of broadband transmissions (>2 Mbps)
IEEE 802.16 Protocol Architecture
Protocol Architecture
Physical and transmission layer functions:
Encoding/decoding of signals
Preamble generation/removal
Bit transmission/reception
Medium access control layer functions:
On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address
and error detection fields
On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address
recognition and error detection
Govern access to the wireless transmission medium
Protocol Architecture
Convergence layer functions:
Encapsulate PDU framing of upper layers into native
802.16 MAC/PHY frames
Map upper layers addresses into 802.16 addresses
Translate upper layer QoS parameters into native 802.16
MAC format
Adapt time dependencies of upper layer traffic into
equivalent MAC service
IEEE 802.16.1 Services
Digital audio/video multicast
Digital telephony
ATM
Internet protocol
Bridged LAN
Back-haul
Frame relay
IEEE 802.16.3 Services
Voice transport
Data transport
Bridged LAN
IEEE 802.16.1 Frame Format
IEEE 802.16.1 Frame Format
Header - protocol control information
Downlink header used by the base station
Uplink header used by the subscriber to convey
bandwidth management needs to base station
Bandwidth request header used by subscriber to
request additional bandwidth
Payload either higher-level data or a MAC control
message
CRC error-detecting code
MAC Management Messages
Uplink and downlink channel descriptor
Uplink and downlink access definition
Ranging request and response
Registration request, response and acknowledge
Privacy key management request and response
Dynamic service addition request, response and
acknowledge
MAC Management Messages
Dynamic service change request, response, and
acknowledge
Dynamic service deletion request and response
Multicast polling assignment request and response
Downlink data grant type request
ARQ acknowledgment
Physical Layer Upstream
Transmission
Uses a DAMA-TDMA technique
Error correction uses Reed-Solomon code
Modulation scheme based on QPSK
Physical Layer Downstream
Transmission
Continuous downstream mode
For continuous transmission stream (audio, video)
Simple TDM scheme is used for channel access
Duplexing technique is frequency division duplex (FDD)
Burst downstream mode
Targets burst transmission stream (IP-based traffic)
DAMA-TDMA scheme is used for channel access
Duplexing techniques are FDD with adaptive
modulation, frequency shift division duplexing (FSDD),
time division duplexing (TDD)
Mobile IP and Wireless
Application Protocol
Chapter 12
Mobile IP Uses
Enable computers to maintain Internet connectivity
while moving from one Internet attachment point to
another
Mobile user's point of attachment changes
dynamically and all connections are automatically
maintained despite the change
Nomadic - user's Internet connection is terminated
each time the user moves and a new connection is
initiated when the user dials back in
New, temporary IP address is assigned
Operation of Mobile IP
Mobil node is assigned to a particular network
home network
IP address on home network is static home
address
Mobile node can move to another network foreign
network
Mobile node registers with network node on foreign
network foreign agent
Mobile node gives care-of address to agent on home
network home agent
Capabilities of Mobile IP
Discovery mobile node uses discovery procedure
to identify prospective home and foreign agents
Registration mobile node uses an authenticated
registration procedure to inform home agent of its
care-of address
Tunneling used to forward IP datagrams from a
home address to a care-of address
Discovery
Mobile node is responsible for ongoing discovery
process
Must determine if it is attached to its home network or a
foreign network
Transition from home network to foreign network
can occur at any time without notification to the
network layer
Mobile node listens for agent advertisement
messages
Compares network portion of the router's IP address with
the network portion of home address
Agent Solicitation
Foreign agents are expected to issue agent
advertisement messages periodically
If a mobile node needs agent information
immediately, it can issue ICMP router solicitation
message
Any agent receiving this message will then issue an
agent advertisement
Move Detection
Mobile node may move from one network to
another due to some handoff mechanism without IP
level being aware
Agent discovery process is intended to enable the agent
to detect such a move
Algorithms to detect move:
Use of lifetime field mobile node uses lifetime field as
a timer for agent advertisements
Use of network prefix mobile node checks if any
newly received agent advertisement messages are on the
same network as the node's current care-of address
Co-Located Addresses
If mobile node moves to a network that has no
foreign agents, or all foreign agents are busy, it can
act as its own foreign agent
Mobile agent uses co-located care-of address
IP address obtained by mobile node associated with
mobile node's current network interface
Means to acquire co-located address:
Temporary IP address through an Internet service, such
as DHCP
May be owned by the mobile node as a long-term
address for use while visiting a given foreign network
Registration Process
Mobile node sends registration request to foreign
agent requesting forwarding service
Foreign agent relays request to home agent
Home agent accepts or denies request and sends
registration reply to foreign agent
Foreign agent relays reply to mobile node
Registration Operation Messages
Registration request message
Fields = type, S, B, D, M, V, G, lifetime, home address,
home agent, care-of-address, identification, extensions
Registration reply message
Fields = type, code, lifetime, home address, home agent,
identification, extensions
Registration Procedure Security
Mobile IP designed to resist attacks
Node pretending to be a foreign agent sends registration
request to a home agent to divert mobile node traffic to
itself
Agent replays old registration messages to cut mobile
node from network
For message authentication, registration request and
reply contain authentication extension
Fields = type, length, security parameter index (SPI),
authenticator
Types of Authentication
Extensions
Mobile-home provides for authentication of
registration messages between mobile node and
home agent; must be present
Mobile-foreign may be present when a security
association exists between mobile node and foreign
agent
Foreign-home may be present when a security
association exists between foreign agent and home
agent
Tunneling
Home agent intercepts IP datagrams sent to mobile
node's home address
Home agent informs other nodes on home network that
datagrams to mobile node should be delivered to home
agent
Datagrams forwarded to care-of address via
tunneling
Datagram encapsulated in outer IP datagram
Mobile IP Encapsulation Options
IP-within-IP entire IP datagram becomes payload
in new IP datagram
Original, inner IP header unchanged except TTL
decremented by 1
Outer header is a full IP header
Minimal encapsulation new header is inserted
between original IP header and original IP payload
Original IP header modified to form new outer IP
header
Generic routing encapsulation (GRE) developed
prior to development of Mobile IP
Wireless Application Protocol
(WAP)
Open standard providing mobile users of wireless
terminals access to telephony and information
services
Wireless terminals include wireless phones, pagers and
personal digital assistants (PDAs)
Designed to work with all wireless network technologies
such as GSM, CDMA, and TDMA
Based on existing Internet standards such as IP, XML,
HTML, and HTTP
Includes security facilities
WAP Protocol Stack
WAP Programming Model
Wireless Markup Language
(WML) Features
Text and image support formatting and layout
commands
Deck/card organizational metaphor WML
documents subdivided into cards, which specify one
or more units of interaction
Support for navigation among cards and decks
includes provisions for event handling; used for
navigation or executing scripts
WMLScript
Scripting language for defining script-type
programs in a user device with limited processing
power and memory
WMLScript capabilities:
Check validity of user input before its sent
Access device facilities and peripherals
Interact with user without introducing round trips to
origin server
WMLScript
WMLScript features:
JavaScript-based scripting language
Procedural logic
Event-based
Compiled implementation
Integrated into WAE
Wireless Application
Environment (WAE)
WAE specifies an application framework for wireless
devices
WAE elements:
WAE User agents software that executes in the wireless
device
Content generators applications that produce standard
content formats in response to requests from user agents in
the mobile terminal
Standard content encoding defined to allow a WAE user
agent to navigate Web content
Wireless telephony applications (WTA) collection of
telephony-specific extensions for call and feature control
mechanisms
WAE Client Components
Wireless Session Protocol (WSP)
Transaction-oriented protocol based on the concept
of a request and a reply
Provides applications with interface for two session
services:
Connection-oriented session service operates above
reliable transport protocol WTP
Connectionless session service operates above
unreliable transport protocol WDP
Connection-mode WSP Services
Establish reliable session from client to server and
release
Agree on common level of protocol functionality
using capability negotiation
Exchange content between client and server using
compact encoding
Suspend and resume a session
Push content from server to client in an
unsynchronized manner
WSP Transaction Types
Session establishment client WSP user requests
session with server WSP user
Session termination client WSP user initiates
termination
Session suspend and resume initiated with suspend
and resume requests
Transaction exchange of data between a client and
server
Nonconfirmed data push used to send unsolicited
information from server to client
Confirmed data push server receives delivery
confirmation from client
Wireless Transaction Protocol
(WTP)
Lightweight protocol suitable for "thin" clients and
over low-bandwidth wireless links
WTP features
Three classes of transaction service
Optional user-to-user reliability: WTP user triggers
confirmation of each received message
Optional out-of-band data on acknowledgments
PDU concatenation and delayed acknowledgment to
reduce the number of messages sent
Asynchronous transactions
WTP Transaction Classes
Class 0: Unreliable invoke message with no result
message
Class 1: Reliable invoke message with no result
message
Class 2: Unreliable invoke message with one
reliable result message
WTP PDU Types
Invoke PDU used to convey a request from an
initiator to a responder
ACK PDU used to acknowledge an Invoke or Result
PDU
Result PDU used to convey response of the server to
the client
Abort PDU used to abort a transaction
Segmented invoke PDU and segmented result PDU
used for segmentation and reassembly
Negative acknowledgment PDU used to indicate that
some packets did not arrive
Examples of WTP Operation
Wireless Transport Layer Security
(WTLS) Features
Data integrity ensures that data sent between
client and gateway are not modified, using message
authentication
Privacy ensures that the data cannot be read by a
third party, using encryption
Authentication establishes authentication of the
two parties, using digital certificates
Denial-of-service protection detects and rejects
messages that are replayed or not successfully
verified
WTLS Protocol Stack
WTLS consists of two layers of protocols
WTLS Record Protocol provides basic security
services to various higher-layer protocols
Higher-layer protocols:
The Handshake Protocol
The Change Cipher Spec Protocol
The Alert Protocol
WTLS Protocol Stack
WTLS Record Protocol Operation
Phases of the Handshake Protocol
Exchange
First phase used to initiate a logical connection
and establish security capabilities
Second phase used for server authentication and
key exchange
Third phase used for client authentication and key
exchange
Forth phase completes the setting up of a secure
connection
Wireless Datagram Protocol
(WDP)
Used to adapt higher-layer WAP protocol to the
communication mechanism used between mobile
node and WAP gateway
WDP hides details of the various bearer networks
from the other layers of WAP
Adaptation may include:
Partitioning data into segments of appropriate size for the
bearer
Interfacing with the bearer network
Wireless Control Message
Protocol (WCMP)
Performs the same support function for WDP as
ICMP does for IP
Used in environments that dont provide IP bearer
and dont lend themselves to the use of ICMP
Used by wireless nodes and WAP gateways to
report errors encountered in processing WDP
datagrams
Can also be used for informational and diagnostic
purposes
Wireless LAN
Technology
Chapter 13
Wireless LAN Applications
LAN Extension
Cross-building interconnect
Nomadic Access
Ad hoc networking
LAN Extension
Wireless LAN linked into a wired LAN on same
premises
Wired LAN
Backbone
Support servers and stationary workstations
Wireless LAN
Stations in large open areas
Manufacturing plants, stock exchange trading floors, and
warehouses
Multiple-cell Wireless LAN
Cross-Building Interconnect
Connect LANs in nearby buildings
Wired or wireless LANs
Point-to-point wireless link is used
Devices connected are typically bridges or routers
Nomadic Access
Wireless link between LAN hub and mobile data
terminal equipped with antenna
Laptop computer or notepad computer
Uses:
Transfer data from portable computer to office server
Extended environment such as campus
Ad Hoc Networking
Temporary peer-to-peer network set up to meet
immediate need
Example:
Group of employees with laptops convene for a meeting;
employees link computers in a temporary network for
duration of meeting
Wireless LAN Requirements
Throughput
Number of nodes
Connection to backbone LAN
Service area
Battery power consumption
Transmission robustness and security
Collocated network operation
License-free operation
Handoff/roaming
Dynamic configuration
Wireless LAN Categories
Infrared (IR) LANs
Spread spectrum LANs
Narrowband microwave
Strengths of Infrared Over
Microwave Radio
Spectrum for infrared virtually unlimited
Possibility of high data rates
Infrared spectrum unregulated
Equipment inexpensive and simple
Reflected by light-colored objects
Ceiling reflection for entire room coverage
Doesnt penetrate walls
More easily secured against eavesdropping
Less interference between different rooms
Drawbacks of Infrared Medium
Indoor environments experience infrared
background radiation
Sunlight and indoor lighting
Ambient radiation appears as noise in an infrared
receiver
Transmitters of higher power required
Limited by concerns of eye safety and excessive power
consumption
Limits range
IR Data Transmission Techniques
Directed Beam Infrared
Ominidirectional
Diffused
Directed Beam Infrared
Used to create point-to-point links
Range depends on emitted power and degree of
focusing
Focused IR data link can have range of kilometers
Cross-building interconnect between bridges or routers
Ominidirectional
Single base station within line of sight of all other
stations on LAN
Station typically mounted on ceiling
Base station acts as a multiport repeater
Ceiling transmitter broadcasts signal received by IR
transceivers
IR transceivers transmit with directional beam aimed at
ceiling base unit
Diffused
All IR transmitters focused and aimed at a point on
diffusely reflecting ceiling
IR radiation strikes ceiling
Reradiated omnidirectionally
Picked up by all receivers
Spread Spectrum LAN
Configuration
Multiple-cell arrangement (Figure 13.2)
Within a cell, either peer-to-peer or hub
Peer-to-peer topology
No hub
Access controlled with MAC algorithm
CSMA
Appropriate for ad hoc LANs
Spread Spectrum LAN
Configuration
Hub topology
Mounted on the ceiling and connected to backbone
May control access
May act as multiport repeater
Automatic handoff of mobile stations
Stations in cell either:
Transmit to / receive from hub only
Broadcast using omnidirectional antenna
Narrowband Microwave LANs
Use of a microwave radio frequency band for signal
transmission
Relatively narrow bandwidth
Licensed
Unlicensed
Licensed Narrowband RF
Licensed within specific geographic areas to avoid
potential interference
Motorola - 600 licenses in 18-GHz range
Covers all metropolitan areas
Can assure that independent LANs in nearby locations
dont interfere
Encrypted transmissions prevent eavesdropping
Unlicensed Narrowband RF
RadioLAN introduced narrowband wireless LAN in
1995
Uses unlicensed ISM spectrum
Used at low power (0.5 watts or less)
Operates at 10 Mbps in the 5.8-GHz band
Range = 50 m to 100 m
IEEE 802.11 Wireless
LAN Standard
Chapter 14
IEEE 802 Protocol Layers
Protocol Architecture
Functions of physical layer:
Encoding/decoding of signals
Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)
Bit transmission/reception
Includes specification of the transmission medium
Protocol Architecture
Functions of medium access control (MAC) layer:
On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address
and error detection fields
On reception, disassemble frame and perform address
recognition and error detection
Govern access to the LAN transmission medium
Functions of logical link control (LLC) Layer:
Provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow
and error control
Separation of LLC and MAC
The logic required to manage access to a shared-
access medium not found in traditional layer 2 data
link control
For the same LLC, several MAC options may be
provided
MAC Frame Format
MAC control
Contains Mac protocol information
Destination MAC address
Destination physical attachment point
Source MAC address
Source physical attachment point
CRC
Cyclic redundancy check
Logical Link Control
Characteristics of LLC not shared by other control
protocols:
Must support multiaccess, shared-medium nature of the
link
Relieved of some details of link access by MAC layer
LLC Services
Unacknowledged connectionless service
No flow- and error-control mechanisms
Data delivery not guaranteed
Connection-mode service
Logical connection set up between two users
Flow- and error-control provided
Acknowledged connectionless service
Cross between previous two
Datagrams acknowledged
No prior logical setup
Differences between LLC and
HDLC
LLC uses asynchronous balanced mode of operation
of HDLC (type 2 operation)
LLC supports unacknowledged connectionless
service (type 1 operation)
LLC supports acknowledged connectionless service
(type 3 operation)
LLC permits multiplexing by the use of LLC
service access points (LSAPs)
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
Distribution system (DS)
Access point (AP)
Basic service set (BSS)
Stations competing for access to shared wireless medium
Isolated or connected to backbone DS through AP
Extended service set (ESS)
Two or more basic service sets interconnected by DS
IEEE 802.11 Services
Distribution of Messages Within a
DS
Distribution service
Used to exchange MAC frames from station in one BSS
to station in another BSS
Integration service
Transfer of data between station on IEEE 802.11 LAN
and station on integrated IEEE 802.x LAN
Transition Types Based On
Mobility
No transition
Stationary or moves only within BSS
BSS transition
Station moving from one BSS to another BSS in same
ESS
ESS transition
Station moving from BSS in one ESS to BSS within
another ESS
Association-Related Services
Association
Establishes initial association between station and AP
Reassociation
Enables transfer of association from one AP to another,
allowing station to move from one BSS to another
Disassociation
Association termination notice from station or AP
Access and Privacy Services
Authentication
Establishes identity of stations to each other
Deathentication
Invoked when existing authentication is terminated
Privacy
Prevents message contents from being read by
unintended recipient
IEEE 802.11 Medium Access
Control
MAC layer covers three functional areas:
Reliable data delivery
Access control
Security
Reliable Data Delivery
More efficient to deal with errors at the MAC level
than higher layer (such as TCP)
Frame exchange protocol
Source station transmits data
Destination responds with acknowledgment (ACK)
If source doesnt receive ACK, it retransmits frame
Four frame exchange
Source issues request to send (RTS)
Destination responds with clear to send (CTS)
Source transmits data
Destination responds with ACK
Access Control
Medium Access Control Logic
Interframe Space (IFS) Values
Short IFS (SIFS)
Shortest IFS
Used for immediate response actions
Point coordination function IFS (PIFS)
Midlength IFS
Used by centralized controller in PCF scheme when
using polls
Distributed coordination function IFS (DIFS)
Longest IFS
Used as minimum delay of asynchronous frames
contending for access
IFS Usage
SIFS
Acknowledgment (ACK)
Clear to send (CTS)
Poll response
PIFS
Used by centralized controller in issuing polls
Takes precedence over normal contention traffic
DIFS
Used for all ordinary asynchronous traffic
MAC Frame Format
MAC Frame Fields
Frame Control frame type, control information
Duration/connection ID channel allocation time
Addresses context dependant, types include
source and destination
Sequence control numbering and reassembly
Frame body MSDU or fragment of MSDU
Frame check sequence 32-bit CRC
Frame Control Fields
Protocol version 802.11 version
Type control, management, or data
Subtype identifies function of frame
To DS 1 if destined for DS
From DS 1 if leaving DS
More fragments 1 if fragments follow
Retry 1 if retransmission of previous frame
Frame Control Fields
Power management 1 if transmitting station is in
sleep mode
More data Indicates that station has more data to
send
WEP 1 if wired equivalent protocol is
implemented
Order 1 if any data frame is sent using the Strictly
Ordered service
Control Frame Subtypes
Power save poll (PS-Poll)
Request to send (RTS)
Clear to send (CTS)
Acknowledgment
Contention-free (CF)-end
CF-end + CF-ack
Data Frame Subtypes
Data-carrying frames
Data
Data + CF-Ack
Data + CF-Poll
Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll
Other subtypes (dont carry user data)
Null Function
CF-Ack
CF-Poll
CF-Ack + CF-Poll
Management Frame Subtypes
Association request
Association response
Reassociation request
Reassociation response
Probe request
Probe response
Beacon
Management Frame Subtypes
Announcement traffic indication message
Dissociation
Authentication
Deauthentication
Wired Equivalent Privacy
Authentication
Open system authentication
Exchange of identities, no security benefits
Shared Key authentication
Shared Key assures authentication
Physical Media Defined by
Original 802.11 Standard
Direct-sequence spread spectrum
Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band
Data rates of 1 and 2 Mbps
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum
Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band
Data rates of 1 and 2 Mbps
Infrared
1 and 2 Mbps
Wavelength between 850 and 950 nm
IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b
IEEE 802.11a
Makes use of 5-GHz band
Provides rates of 6, 9 , 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbps
Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM)
Subcarrier modulated using BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM or
64-QAM
IEEE 802.11b
Provides data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps
Complementary code keying (CCK) modulation scheme
Bluetooth Techniques
Chapter 15
Overview
Universal short-range wireless capability
Uses 2.4-GHz band
Available globally for unlicensed users
Devices within 10 m can share up to 720 kbps of
capacity
Supports open-ended list of applications
Data, audio, graphics, video
Bluetooth Application Areas
Data and voice access points
Real-time voice and data transmissions
Cable replacement
Eliminates need for numerous cable attachments for
connection
Ad hoc networking
Device with Bluetooth radio can establish connection
with another when in range
Bluetooth Standards Documents
Core specifications
Details of various layers of Bluetooth protocol
architecture
Profile specifications
Use of Bluetooth technology to support various
applications
Protocol Architecture
Bluetooth is a layered protocol architecture
Core protocols
Cable replacement and telephony control protocols
Adopted protocols
Core protocols
Radio
Baseband
Link manager protocol (LMP)
Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP)
Service discovery protocol (SDP)
Protocol Architecture
Cable replacement protocol
RFCOMM
Telephony control protocol
Telephony control specification binary (TCS BIN)
Adopted protocols
PPP
TCP/UDP/IP
OBEX
WAE/WAP
Usage Models
File transfer
Internet bridge
LAN access
Synchronization
Three-in-one phone
Headset
Piconets and Scatternets
Piconet
Basic unit of Bluetooth networking
Master and one to seven slave devices
Master determines channel and phase
Scatternet
Device in one piconet may exist as master or slave in
another piconet
Allows many devices to share same area
Makes efficient use of bandwidth
Wireless Network Configurations
Radio Specification
Classes of transmitters
Class 1: Outputs 100 mW for maximum range
Power control mandatory
Provides greatest distance
Class 2: Outputs 2.4 mW at maximum
Power control optional
Class 3: Nominal output is 1 mW
Lowest power
Frequency Hopping in Bluetooth
Provides resistance to interference and multipath
effects
Provides a form of multiple access among co-
located devices in different piconets
Frequency Hopping
Total bandwidth divided into 1MHz physical
channels
FH occurs by jumping from one channel to another
in pseudorandom sequence
Hopping sequence shared with all devices on
piconet
Piconet access:
Bluetooth devices use time division duplex (TDD)
Access technique is TDMA
FH-TDD-TDMA
Frequency Hopping
Physical Links between Master
and Slave
Synchronous connection oriented (SCO)
Allocates fixed bandwidth between point-to-point
connection of master and slave
Master maintains link using reserved slots
Master can support three simultaneous links
Asynchronous connectionless (ACL)
Point-to-multipoint link between master and all slaves
Only single ACL link can exist
Bluetooth Packet Fields
Access code used for timing synchronization,
offset compensation, paging, and inquiry
Header used to identify packet type and carry
protocol control information
Payload contains user voice or data and payload
header, if present
Types of Access Codes
Channel access code (CAC) identifies a piconet
Device access code (DAC) used for paging and
subsequent responses
Inquiry access code (IAC) used for inquiry
purposes
Access Code
Preamble used for DC compensation
0101 if LSB of sync word is 0
1010 if LSB of synch word is 1
Sync word 64-bits, derived from:
7-bit Barker sequence
Lower address part (LAP)
Pseudonoise (PN) sequence
Trailer
0101 if MSB of sync word is 1
1010 if MSB of sync word is 0
Packet Header Fields
AM_ADDR contains active mode address of
one of the slaves
Type identifies type of packet
Flow 1-bit flow control
ARQN 1-bit acknowledgment
SEQN 1-bit sequential numbering schemes
Header error control (HEC) 8-bit error detection
code
Payload Format
Payload header
L_CH field identifies logical channel
Flow field used to control flow at L2CAP level
Length field number of bytes of data
Payload body contains user data
CRC 16-bit CRC code
Error Correction Schemes
1/3 rate FEC (forward error correction)
Used on 18-bit packet header, voice field in HV1 packet
2/3 rate FEC
Used in DM packets, data fields of DV packet, FHS
packet and HV2 packet
ARQ
Used with DM and DH packets
ARQ Scheme Elements
Error detection destination detects errors, discards
packets
Positive acknowledgment destination returns
positive acknowledgment
Retransmission after timeout source retransmits if
packet unacknowledged
Negative acknowledgment and retransmission
destination returns negative acknowledgement for
packets with errors, source retransmits
Logical Channels
Link control (LC)
Link manager (LM)
User asynchronous (UA)
User isochronous (UI)
Use synchronous (US)
Channel Control
States of operation of a piconet during link
establishment and maintenance
Major states
Standby default state
Connection device connected
Channel Control
Interim substates for adding new slaves
Page device issued a page (used by master)
Page scan device is listening for a page
Master response master receives a page response from
slave
Slave response slave responds to a page from master
Inquiry device has issued an inquiry for identity of
devices within range
Inquiry scan device is listening for an inquiry
Inquiry response device receives an inquiry response
State Transition Diagram
Inquiry Procedure
Potential master identifies devices in range that
wish to participate
Transmits ID packet with inquiry access code (IAC)
Occurs in Inquiry state
Device receives inquiry
Enter Inquiry Response state
Returns FHS packet with address and timing information
Moves to page scan state
Page Procedure
Master uses devices address to calculate a page
frequency-hopping sequence
Master pages with ID packet and device access code
(DAC) of specific slave
Slave responds with DAC ID packet
Master responds with its FHS packet
Slave confirms receipt with DAC ID
Slaves moves to Connection state
Slave Connection State Modes
Active participates in piconet
Listens, transmits and receives packets
Sniff only listens on specified slots
Hold does not support ACL packets
Reduced power status
May still participate in SCO exchanges
Park does not participate on piconet
Still retained as part of piconet
Bluetooth Audio
Voice encoding schemes:
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Continuously variable slope delta (CVSD) modulation
Choice of scheme made by link manager
Negotiates most appropriate scheme for application
Bluetooth Link Security
Elements:
Authentication verify claimed identity
Encryption privacy
Key management and usage
Security algorithm parameters:
Unit address
Secret authentication key
Secret privacy key
Random number
LMP PDUs
General response
Security Service
Authentication
Pairing
Change link key
Change current link key
Encryption
LMP PDUs
Time/synchronization
Clock offset request
Slot offset information
Timing accuracy information request
Station capability
LMP version
Supported features
LMP PDUs
Mode control
Switch master/slave role
Name request
Detach
Hold mode
Sniff mode
Park mode
Power control
LMP PDUs
Mode control (cont.)
Channel quality-driven change between DM and DH
Quality of service
Control of multislot packets
Paging scheme
Link supervision
L2CAP
Provides a link-layer protocol between entities with
a number of services
Relies on lower layer for flow and error control
Makes use of ACL links, does not support SCO
links
Provides two alternative services to upper-layer
protocols
Connection service
Connection-mode service
L2CAP Logical Channels
Connectionless
Supports connectionless service
Each channel is unidirectional
Used from master to multiple slaves
Connection-oriented
Supports connection-oriented service
Each channel is bidirectional
Signaling
Provides for exchange of signaling messages between
L2CAP entities
L2CAP Packet Fields for
Connectionless Service
Length length of information payload, PSM fields
Channel ID 2, indicating connectionless channel
Protocol/service multiplexer (PSM) identifies
higher-layer recipient for payload
Not included in connection-oriented packets
Information payload higher-layer user data
Signaling Packet Payload
Consists of one or more L2CAP commands, each
with four fields
Code identifies type of command
Identifier used to match request with reply
Length length of data field for this command
Data additional data for command, if necessary
L2CAP Signaling Command
Codes
L2CAP Signaling Commands
Command reject command
Sent to reject any command
Connection commands
Used to establish new connections
Configure commands
Used to establish a logical link transmission contract
between two L2CAP entities
L2CAP Signaling Commands
Disconnection commands
Used to terminate logical channel
Echo commands
Used to solicit response from remote L2CAP entity
Information commands
Used to solicit implementation-specific information from
remote L2CAP entity
Flow Specification Parameters
Service type
Token rate (bytes/second)
Token bucket size (bytes)
Peak bandwidth (bytes/second)
Latency (microseconds)
Delay variation (microseconds)

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