your on-line toolbox for efficient textile production

Thank you for downloading this document from www.e-textile.org, the on-line toolbox for
efficient textile production. E-textile.org provides a wide range of useful, informative and
sector-specific features, such as benchmarks, success stories, tips for action, regulations,
links and contacts. Key features of e-textile are three tools, namely
• e-learning: an on-line course providing background information on efficient textile
production,
• e-efficiency: a management tool for identifying improvement options and increase a
companies overall performance,
• e-solutions: a database containing descriptions of well over 200 efficiency measures.

This document is part of the e-learning tool.

Process analysis of textile manufacturing

Impact of the major process chemicals on human health

Moustafa S. Moussa

UNESCO - IHE, Delft, The Netherlands

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org

CONTENTS

2. PROCESS ANALYSIS OF TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

2.1 INTRODUCTION 1

2.2 TEXTILE INDUSTRY OVERVIEW 2

2.3. PROCESSES OF TEXTILE MANUFACTURING 3

2.3.1 YARN FABRICATION 3
2.3.1.1 Natural fibers 4
2.3.1.2 Manmade fibers 6
2.3.2 FABRIC PRODUCTION 7
2.3.3 FABRIC PROCESSING (WET PROCESSING) 8
2.3.3.1 Pre-treatment 9
2.3.3.2 Dyeing 9
2.3.3.3 Printing 10
2.3.3.4 Finishing 11
2.3.4 GARMENT MANUFACTURING / FABRICATION 12
2.3.5 STOCK AND YARN FABRICATION 12
2.3.6 CARPET FABRICATION 13

2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 14

2.4.1 AIR POLLUTION 16
2.4.2 WATER POLLUTION 18
2.4.3 SOLID WASTE POLLUTION 19

2.5. IMPACT OF THE MAJOR PROCESS CHEMICALS ON HUMAN HEALTH

21
2.5.1 CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES 21
2.5.2 DUST AND FUMES 21
2.5.3 NOISE 22

REFERENCES 24

APPENDICES 25

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org

2.5. IMPACT OF THE MAJOR PROCESS CHEMICALS ON HUMAN
HEALTH
During fabrication, workers can be exposed to a variety of bleaching, scouring and
dyeing agents. Toxic substances are not usually employed in the spinning and weaving
of natural fibers. However, exposure to fiber dust is of concern. Raw cotton may also be
contaminated with desiccants, defoliants and bacteria; while raw wool may be
contaminated by pesticides applied previously to sheep as dips and medicated
treatments.

The effect of the exposures to chemical substances, dust-laden and noise are
discussed further.

2.5.1 CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

Toxic chemicals are used in the manufacture of synthetic
fibers. Toxic dangers also exist in the dyeing and finishing
sections of the textile industry. In dyeing and printing,
workers are frequently exposed to dyes, a variety of acids
such as formic, sulfuric and acetic acids, fluorescent
brightness, organic solvents and fixatives. Workers in the
finishing operations are frequently exposed to crease-
resistant agents, to flame retardant, and to a number of toxic
solvents used for degreasing and spotting. Care must be
taken in the use of these substances to prevent contact with
the skin and suitable measures taken to ensure there is no
escape of the material or its vapor into the atmosphere. Skin
diseases of the dermatitis type are common in bleaching, dyeing and finishing, in the
preparation of flax and in the use of solvents for making synthetic fibers. Certain
dyestuff intermediates can produce bladder cancer. Chrome eczema or chrome
poisoning is a hazard from the use of potassium or sodium dichromate in the textile
industry (6). The effect of chemicals substances to which workers in the textile
manufacturing industry may be exposed to are listed in appendix 3.

2.5.2 DUST AND FUMES

It has been general practice to discharge dust-laden air, removed from textile mills, to
the atmosphere. In modern mills, re-circulation and filtration are now employed, but this
may not be the case in some countries. Volatile organic emissions (from oils added
during spinning and from solvents) are largely uncontrolled and are used in texturing,
heat-setting, finishing, dyeing and printing operations (6).

A summary of some of the most common dust and foams and their effect on human
health is presented in table 2.7 (3).

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 21

 Table 2.7 The impact of dust and fumes on human health.

Chemical
Substance Emission Action Toxic Effect
Process
Carbon 3 Narcotic, Contact with skin can cause
disulphide hemolytic, severe pain and damage
neurotoxic Contact for more than a few
minutes can cause second
degree burns. Inhalation of
100-1000ppm can cause
fatigue, vomiting, headaches
and constipation. Lethal dose
around l0ml. 150ppm in air is
dangerous.
Carbon 3 Reduces blood Dizziness, weakness,
monoxide oxygen-carrying headache. Concentrations
capacity. above 1000ppm can be fatal
within 1 hour.
Hydrogen 3 Irritant and Violent headache, muscular
sulphide narcotic weakness and feeble pulse.
TLV 50ppm.
Kerosene 3 3 Nausea, vomiting, coughing,
leading to respiratory
paralysis.
Nitrogen 3 Sever irritation of eyes and
oxides respiratory tract. High
oncentrations can cause
immediate asphyxia.
Sulphur oxides 3 Irritant Inhalation of low
concentrations causes rhinitis
and burning pain in chest.
Particulates 3 Irritant Irritation of respiratory system.
Fever and coughing are
frequent symptoms.

2.5.3 NOISE
At birth the inner ear is fully developed and has its full
complement of hair cells, supporting cells and nerve
fibers. Unlike most other tissues in the body, mammalian
hair cells and nerve fibers do not regenerate when
damaged. The response of the human ear to sound
depends both on the sound frequency

(measured in Hertz, Hz) and the sound pressure,

measured in decibels (dB). A normal ear in a healthy
young person can detect sounds with frequencies from
20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Speech frequency ranges from 100
to 6000 Hz.

Noise can cause hearing impairment, interfere with communication, disturb sleep,
cause cardiovascular and psycho-physiological effects, reduce performance, and
provoke annoyance responses and changes in social behavior. The main social
consequence of hearing impairment is the inability to understand speech in normal
conditions, which is considered a severe social handicap.

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 22

The many and varied sources of noise in industrial machinery and processes include:
rotors, gears, turbulent fluid flow, impact processes, electrical machines, internal
combustion engines, pneumatic equipment, drilling, crushing, blasting, pumps and
compressors. Furthermore, the emitted sounds are reflected from floors, ceiling and
equipment. Noise is a common occupational hazard in many workplaces.

Average sound level range between 92 and 96 dB in industries such as foundries,

shipyards, breweries, weaving factories, paper and saw mills. The recorded peak
values were between 117 and 136 dB.

Cheaper, more cost-effective production is a driving force in economic development.

However, new processes introduced on grounds of cost-effectiveness are often noisier
than previous ones. The associated rise in noise levels is often overlooked. Thus, even
though noise-reducing measures may have been incorporated in the design of
machinery, greater output may generate higher noise levels. For example, for every
doubling of the speed of rotary machines the noise emission rises by about 7 dB, of
warp knitting looms – 12 dB, of diesel engines – 9 dB, of petrol engines – 15 dB, and of
fans – between 18 to 24 dB (7).

• Exposure for more than 8 hours a day to sound in excess of 85 dB is potentially

hazardous.

• After exposure to a typical hazardous industrial sound around 90 dB for an 8-

hour workday, the ear tires and hearing is temporarily impaired.

• It is 10 times less expensive (unit cost per decibel reduction) to make noise-
generating processes quieter than to make a barrier to screen the noise

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 23

 References
1. UNEP, The textile industry and the environmental, 1994

2. USEPA, Best Management Practices for Pollution Prevention in the

Textile Industry, 1996

3. SEAM Project Cleaner Production Opportunities; Textile Sector Report,

Egypt, 1999

4. IPPC, Integrated Pollution Prevention and control, Guidance for textile

sector (IPPC S6.05) http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk

5. Saxena, A. K., Pervez, M. J.,Gupta, Rajat K., Sinha, Divya. (1998).

From waste to profits. National productivity council, New Delhi.

6. WHO, Hazardous chemicals in human and environmental health

(WHO/PCS/00.1)http://www.who.int/pcs/training_material/hazardous_chemicals/s
ection_1.htm

7. WHO, Information Fact Sheet N° 258 February 2001

http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact258.html

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 24

 Appendices 1
Typical characteristics of dyes used in the wet processing of textile (3)
Typical
Fibres Typically Typical pollutants Associated with
Dye Class Description Method Fixation
Applied Various Dyes
(%)
Acid Water-soluble anionic Exhaust/Beck/Continuous Wool 80-93 Colour; organic acids; unfixed dyes
compounds (carpet) Nylon
Basic Water-soluble, applied Exhaust/Beck Acrylic 97-98 N/A
in weakly acidic Some polyesters
dyebaths; very bright
dyes
Direct Water-soluble, anionic Exhaust/Beck/Continuous Cotton 70-95 Colour; salt; unfixed dye; cationic fixing
compounds; can be Rayon agents; surfactant; defoamer; levelling and
applied directly to Other cellulose retarding agents; finish; diluents
cellulose fibres without fibres
mordants (or metals like
chromium and copper)
Not water-soluble High temperature exhaust Polyester 80-92 Colour; organic acids; carriers; levelling
Disperse Continuous Acetate agents; phosphates; defoamers; lubricants;
Other synthetics dispersants; delustrants; diluents
Reactive Water-soluble, anionic Exhaust/Beck/Cold-pad Cotton 60-90 Colour; salt; alkali; unfixed dye; surfactants;
compounds; largest dye batch/Continuous Other cellulose defoamer; diluents; finish
class fibres
Wool
Sulphur Organic compounds Continuous/ Exhaust Cotton 60-70 Colour; alkali; oxidising agent; reducing agent;
containing sulphur or Other cellulose unfixed dye
sodium sulphide fibres
Vat Oldest dyes; more Exhaust/Package/Continuous Cotton 80-95 Colour; alkali; oxidising agents; reducing
chemically complex; Other cellulose agents
water-insoluble fibres

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 25

 Appendix 2
a) Water consumption and median raw waste concentrations by subcategory (2)

COD/ Color
Water Usage (L/kg) BOD COD TSS O&G Phenol Chromium Sulfide
Subcategory BOD APHA
Min. Mod. Max. (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) (µg/L) Units
1. Wool scouring 4.2 11.7 77.6 2,270 7,030 3.1 3,310 580 ID ID ID ID
2. Wool finishing 110. 283.6 657.2 170 590 3.5 60 ID ID ID ID ID
9
3. Low water use 0.8 9.2 140.1 293 692 2.4 ID ID ID ID ID ID
Processing
4. Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing 12.5 78.4 275.2 270 900 3.3 60 70 50 40 70 800
b. Complex processing 10.8 86.7 276.9 350 1,060 3.0 110 45 55 110 100 ID
c. Complex processing 5.0 113.4 507.9 420 1,240 3.0 155 70 145 1,100 ID ID
plus desizing
5. Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing 8.3 135.9 392.8 210 870 4.1 55 85 110 80 55 400
b. Complex processing 20.0 83.4 377.8 270 790 2.9 60 50 100 80 150 750
c. Hosiery processing 5.8 69.2 289.4 320 1,370 4.5 80 100 60 80 560 450
6. Carpet finishing 8.3 46.7 162.6 440 1,190 2.7 65 20 130 30 180 490
7. Stock and yam 3.3 100.1 557.1 180 680 3.77 40 20 170 100 200 570
finishing
8. Nonwoven finishing 2.5 40.0 82.6 180 2,360 13.1 80 ID ID ID ID ID
9. Felted fabric finishing 33.4 212.7 930.7 200 550 2.75 120 30 580 ID ID ID

O&G = oil and gas.

ID = insufficient data to report values.

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 26

 Appendix 2

b) Water consumption and median raw waste lads by subcategory (2)

Water Usage (L/kg) BOD COD TSS O&G Phenol Chromium Sulfide
Subcategory
Min. Mod. Max. (Kg/ ton) (Kg/ ton) (Kg/ ton) (Kg/ ton) (g/ ton) (g/ ton) (g/ ton)
1. Wool scouring 4.2 11.7 77.6 41.8 1289 43.1 10.3 ID ID ID
2. Wool finishing 110. 283.6 657.2 59.8 204.8 17.2 ID ID ID ID
9
3. Low water use 0.8 9.2 140.1 2.3 14.5 1.6 ID ID ID ID
Processing
4. Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing 12.5 78.4 275.2 22.6 92.4 8.0 9.1 8.2 4.3 7.6
b. Complex processing 10.8 86.7 276.9 32.7 110.6 9.6 3.8 7.7 2.6 12.5
c. Complex processing 5.0 113.4 507.9 45.1 122.6 14.8 4.1 13.1 20.9 ID
plus desizing
5. Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing 8.3 135.9 392.8 27.7 81.1 6.3 4.0 8.7 7.8 13.0
b. Complex processing 20.0 83.4 377.8 22.1 115.4 6.9 3.5 12.0 4.7 14.0
c. Hosiery processing 5.8 69.2 289.4 26.4 89.4 6.7 6.6 4.2 6.4 23.8
6. Carpet finishing 8.3 46.7 162.6 25.6 82.3 4.7 1.1 11.3 3.4 9.4
7. Stock and yam 3.3 100.1 557.1 20.7 62.7 4.6 1.6 15.0 12.0 27.8
finishing
8. Nonwoven finishing 2.5 40.0 82.6 6.7 38.4 2.2 ID ID 0.5 ID
9. Felted fabric finishing 33.4 212.7 930.7 70.2 186.0 64.1 11.2 247.4 ID ID

O&G = oil and gas.

ID = insufficient data to report values.

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 27

 Appendix 3

Textile process chemicals and their effect on human health (3).

Process
Substance Emission Action Toxic Effect
Chemical
1. Acids

Acetic acid 3 3 Irritant and Exposure to gas or spray can

corrosive cause intense irritation of the
eyes, nose and throat and
causes skin damage.
Boric acid 3 Mild Mildly cytotoxic. Estimated
antiseptic lethal dose for an adult 10 g.

Formic acid 3 3 Vapour irritates respiratory

tract and eyes. Liquid burns
the eyes and skin and
produces severe gastro-
intestinal irritation if
swallowed. Estimated lethal
dose 30g.
Hydrochloric 3 Irritant and Exposure to gas or spray can
acid corrosive cause intense irritation of the
eyes, nose and throat and
causes skin damage.
Oxalic acid 3 Reduces Acid mildly corrosive and
ionisable hypocalcaemic. Estimated
calcium in lethal dose for adults 2-5g.
the body.
Sulphuric acid 3 corrosive Stains the skin brown to
yellow. Can cause severe
eye damage. Lethal dose
5ml, but 1 ml can cause
lethal shock.
2. Bases

Ammonia 3 3 Powerful Vapour severe irritant to

irritant and eyes. I OOppm causes
moderately irritation, vomiting, diarrhoea,
corrosive to sweating and coughing. High
skin concentrations can cause
respiratory arrest. Splashes
in the eyes can cause severe
pain and damage. Lethal
dose l 0ml.
Sodium 3 Powerful Skin damage on repeated or
hydroxide corrosive. prolonged exposure. Dust
Solids can can cause severe eye
burn skin in damage.
presence of
water.

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 28

 Process
Substance Emission Action Toxic Effect
Chemical
3. Bleaching
Agents
Hypochlorite 3 Severe Chlorine gas released,
irritation, causing severe irritation of
skin and respiratory tract and eyes.
mucous Lethal dose of Cl2 500ppm,
membrane
damage.

Hydrogen 3 Oxidising Strong solutions can produce

peroxide agent. burns if left on the skin.

4. Carriers

Perchloro- 3 3 Can cause dizziness and

ethylene affect kidney and liver.

Methyl salicylate 3 3 irritant Prolonged exposure may

cause kidney and liver
degeneration. Skin irritant.
Chlorinated 3 3 Carcinogenic
aromatics
5. Detergents
(surfactants)

Anionic 3 Ingestion can increase

absorption rate of other
chemicals. May cause
bloating and Diarrhea.
Non-ionic 3 Irritant Irritant to eyes and skin.
Cationic 3 Significantly more toxic and
irritating than other
detergents. Estimated lethal
dose for a quaternary
ammonium surfactant for
adults 1-3g.
6. Dyestuffs

Non-benzidiniu 3 Non-toxic
m direct
Vat 3 Non-toxic
Benzidinium 3 Carcinogenic

Reactive 3 Toxicity depends on structure

Acid 3 Mostly non-toxic, except::
acid black 52, acid yellow 38,
acid blue 113, acid green 25,
acid blue 25, acid yellow 151
Disperse 3 Mostly non-toxic, except for
example disperse blue 33
and disperse blue 7.

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 29

 Process
Substance Emission Action Toxic Effect
Chemical
Basic 3 Generally toxic, particularly
those used on triphenyl
methane (e.g. crystal violet)
Aniline black:
a) aniline 3 3 Irritant, Lethal dose 1-4g.
depressant
(b) potassium 3 Cytotoxic Can cause dermatitis and
dichromate and irritant ulceration. Carcinogenic.
(c) sodium 3 Convulsant Moderately irritating to skin.
chlorate
7. Finishing
Agents

Formaldehyde 3 3 Formaldehy Intense irritation of eyes and

based resins de kills nose and headaches.
tissues and Carcinogenic. TLV 5ppm.
depresses
cell
functions
Flame-proof 3 Organophosphorus is highly
finishes toxic and carcinogenic.
8. Sequestering
Agents

Polyphosphates 3 Irritant Vomiting, bladder irritation.

© e-textile toolbox. This document was downloaded from www.e-textile.org 30