E LEC TRIC POWER

RE SE A RC H INS T IT U T E

Field Guide: Bearing Damage Mechanisms

1026566
Field Guide: Bearing Damage Mechanisms

1026566

Final Report, October 2012

EPRI Project Manager

G. Lanthorn

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE
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THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATION, UNDER CONTRACT TO EPRI, PREPARED THIS REPORT:

Altran Solutions Corporation

NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or e-mail askepri@epri.com.
Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHERSHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright 2012 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
Acknowledgements
The following organization, under contract to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), prepared this report:
Altran Solutions Corporation
451 D Street
Boston, MA 02090
Principal Investigator
R. Martin
This field guide describes research sponsored by EPRI. The technical content of this field guide was obtained in its entirety from EPRI report
1021780, Manual of Bearing Failures and Repair in Power Plant Rotating Equipment: 2011 Update. The technical staff at Altran Solu-
tions worked to reorganize the information therein and present it in a compact and practical format that would be convenient for field use.
The following individuals significantly contributed to the selection and compilation of the information contained in this field guide and its
presentation in a readily usable format for the plant engineer:
Hui Lu
Metodi Zlatinov

This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner: Field Guide: Bearing Damage
Mechanisms. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012. 1026566.

iii
Product Description
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) report 1021780, Manual
of Bearing Failures and Repair in Power Plant Rotating Equipment,
2011 Update, is a comprehensive document on the subject of fluid
film bearing damage modes. This field guide provides a pocket
reference based upon the content of that report.
Background
EPRI is pursuing a series of field manual style projects that seek to
reformat EPRI and industry knowledge into a more user-friendly for-
mat. This guide is designed to be portable and includes information
useful for personnel seeking to identify failures in the field. By creat-
ing guides in a more portable format that are graphics-intensive,
while retaining references to more in-depth sources, EPRI believes
that the research done by the Institute will be made more available
and useful to plant staff.
Objectives
Following a correct identification of the mode of failure for a
bearing, the next logical step is to determine the root cause. This
is undoubtedly the most challenging part of an investigation.
Although the path from failure symptoms to an identification of the
mode of failure is more or less direct, a number of different causes
may have provided the necessary conditions for initiating the dam-
age mechanism. Considerable supplementary information is usually
needed, including equipment records, running conditions, past and
present experience, and other circumstantial evidence, before the
specific cause of failure can be isolated.
This field guide presents a number possible causes for each dam-
age mode and juxtaposes these with suggested remedial actions.
The list of causes and remedies is not necessarily exhaustive, but
will provide some initial leads in the investigation.
v
Approach Keywords
This field guide was developed from the content of EPRI report Bearings
1021780, Manual of Bearing Failures and Repair in Power Plant Bearing damage
Rotating Equipment: 2011 Update. Bearing refurbishment
Bearing repair
Results Turbine generator
Fluid film bearings of the type used in power plant equipment
are susceptible to more than a dozen categories of bearing
damage. These can lead to substantial outages and costly repairs.
Recognizing the damage mechanism responsible for a given failure
and associating it with a root cause is a key step in avoiding future
incidents. Visual inspection, combined with an understanding of
specific plant conditions, can usually provide the necessary clues to
diagnose the problem.
Applications, Value, and Use
This field guide provides the plant engineer and other personnel
with guidance in determining the origin of a given bearing failure
and indicates how best to address the contributing causes.

vi
Contents
1. Introduction......................................................................1
Background...........................................................................2
Purpose.................................................................................3
Scope...................................................................................3
Organization.........................................................................5
References to Report...............................................................5
2. Terms And Definitions.........................................................7
Types of Bearings...................................................................8
Bearing Operation...............................................................15
Materials and Lubricants.......................................................18
3. Modes of Bearing Failure.................................................19
Abrasion (A)........................................................................21
Bond Failure (B)...................................................................31
Tin Migration (Unbonding) (TM).............................................35
Corrosion (C).......................................................................37
Electrical Pitting (EP).............................................................41
Erosion (E)...........................................................................47
Fatigue (F)...........................................................................53
Fretting (FR).........................................................................63
Moderate Chromium Damage (MC)........................................67
Hydrogen Blisters (HB)..........................................................71
Electromagnetic Tracking (EM)...............................................75
Liner Material Nonhomogeneity (N)........................................79
Overheating (OH)................................................................83
Seizure (S)..........................................................................91
Structural Damage (SD).........................................................95
Surface Wear (SW)..............................................................99
Tin Oxide Damage (TO)......................................................107
Wiping (W).......................................................................111
vii
Contents (continued)
4. Diagnostic and Remedial Procedure ................................117
Diagnostic-Remedial Procedure............................................118
Advanced Diagnostic Tools .................................................120
Bearing Refurbishment and Repair........................................123
Contact Information............................................................127
Other EPRI Visual Field Guides.............................................127

viii
 1. Introduction

1
1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction

Background
Turbine bearing system failures constitute one of the leading
causes of unplanned outages at power plants. An industry survey
presented at the 1982 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
workshop on turbine bearings and rotor dynamics [1] revealed
that contaminated oil, breakdown of the lubricant supply system,
and rotor vibration were the major causes of failures of turbine
generator bearings and that these were responsible for outages
amounting to 1.1%1.8% of theoretical generation. Bearing system
malfunction is also a major problem in other rotating equipment,
such as pumps, fans, auxiliary turbines, and motors. Because of
the serious consequences of such breakdowns, determination of the
causes of bearing failure is of paramount importance.
This field guide provides the plant engineer and other personnel
with guidance in determining the origin of a given bearing failure
and indicates how best to address the contributing causes. The field
guide draws upon and condenses the resources contained in EPRI
report 1021780, Manual of Bearing Failures and Repair in Power
Plant Rotating Equipment, 2011 Update.
In no case should the information presented in this field guide
be used to the exclusion of established and applicable codes,
standards, plant procedures, and criteria. This includes the
notification of responsible personnel at your plant for investigation
of degradation that may be noted.

2
Purpose
The purpose of this field guide is to provide a practical and
convenient presentation of information on bearing system
malfunction. This field guide is based on the EPRI report, 1021780,
Manual of Bearing Failures and Repair in Power Plant Rotating
Equipment: 2011 Update, which covers the subject in more detail.
Scope
Although much of what is presented here is valid for fluid film
bearings in general, this field guide deals primarily with babbitted
journal and thrust bearings that are typical of the turbogenerator
sets and auxiliary equipment of electric power plants.
Two generic tool groups are available to help identify the mode of
bearing damage. The first group consists of a visual, and possibly
microscopic, inspection of the damaged surface and a comparison
of its appearance with catalogued photographs of classified
damage modes. The second group consists of various laboratory
1. INTRODUCTION
techniques, ranging from using a simple hand tool to highly
sophisticated diagnostic procedures, including spectroscopy, lasers,
electron scanning, and other advanced physical and chemical
analyses. Noting that most of the latter tools are unavailable on a
routine basis and that this field guide is meant to serve the practical
needs of personnel in electric utilities, the emphasis here will be on
the first category of diagnostics, with selective mention of available
laboratory tools.
This field guide covers more than a dozen modes of bearing failure
that are likely to occur in the rotating equipment of an electric
utility. These are listed in summary form in Table 1-1.
3
Introduction

Table 1-1 Abbreviation Mode Other Names

Modes of bearing damage.
HB Hydrogen blisters
Abbreviation Mode Other Names
Electromagnetic
EM Worm tracks; spark tracks
Gouging; scoring; grooving; tracking
A Abrasion
scratching
N Nonhomogeneity Blistering; porosity
B Bond failure Spalling
Mottling; anisotropy;
OH Overheating
C Corrosion Chemical attack ratcheting; sweating
EP Electrical pitting Frosting S Seizure
Worm tracks; cavitation Structural
E Erosion SD
erosion damage
F Fatigue SW Surface wear Polishing; wear
FR Fretting Fretting corrosion TM Tin migration
Moderate Tin oxide
TO Black scale
MC chromium Wire-wool; black scab damage
damage
W Wiping Smearing; polishing
4
Organization
To accomplish its role, this field guide is organized as follows:
Section 1 gives an overview of the reports background, purpose,
scope, organization, and approach to references.
Section 2 introduces some relevant terminology, including types of
bearings, bearing operation, and terminology relevant to materials
and lubricants.
Section 3 make up the bulk of the field guide and focuses on the 18
individual modes of bearing failure catalogued in Table 1-1. This
section contains background material and an extensive collection of
photographs for these damage modes. To facilitate the navigation
of this rather lengthy section, the one- or two-letter ID assigned to
each mode of damage in Table 1-1 is listed at the bottom of the
pages, addressing that specific mode of damage.
Section 4 contains a brief overview of the diagnostic and remedial
procedure, including an example diagnostic tree, a list of
available advanced diagnostic tools, and approaches to minor
1. INTRODUCTION
repairs (major repairs are beyond the scope of this field guide). For
further details on these topics, the reader is referred to EPRI report
1021780 and the references therein.
References to Report
Throughout this field guide, table and figure numbering matches
that in EPRI report 1021780, Manual of Bearing Failures and
Repair in Power Plant Rotating Equipment: 2011 Update. If the
reader requires further information beyond what is presented in this
field guide, the consistent figure numbering provides an easy way
to relate to the more extensive discussion in the EPRI report.
Various citations are made in this field guide, typically in figures
and captions, to a reference source. These are also consistent with
the references in the EPRI report, and the reader is referred there
for references and bibliography content.
5
 2. Terms And Definitions

2. TERMS AND 7
DEFINITIONS
Terms and Definitions
This section will attempt to define and clarify terms with unfamiliar
meanings. The terms selected do not belong to any single technical
or topical category, but have been chosen solely on the basis of
their relevance to the present text.
Types of Bearings
Bumper thrust bearing A thrust bearing, usually lightly loaded,
attached in the form of a flange or buildup of bearing liner material
on the end of a journal bearing (see Figure 2-9).
Collar/runner The rotating part of a thrust bearing. In a hydro-
electric unit, the term is expanded to thrust runner to prevent confu-
sion with a hydraulic turbine.
Elliptical bearing A two-axial groove bearing with preload. In this
design, the center of curvature of the upper and lower halves is
offset vertically from a centered position (see Figure 2-2).
8
Guide bearing A circular journal bearing used in a vertical
orientation with at least two axial grooves distributed symmetrically
around the circumference.
Journal The rotating part of a radial bearing.
Multistep bearing A lobed bearing in which each of the lobes has
a step (pressure dam) (see Figure 2-5a).
Offset half bearing A two-axial groove bearing with the center of
curvature of each of the halves offset horizontally (rather than verti-
cally, as in an elliptical bearing) (see Figure 2-5c).
Overshot groove bearing A two-axial groove bearing, with or
without preload, whose unloaded (top) pad is traversed by a deep
circumferential channel extending across most, or all, of the arc of
the pad (see Figure 2-3).
Pocket bearing A two-axial groove bearing with a reduced
angle of the loaded pad. It may include an overshot groove in the
unloaded pad. It is also referred to as a partial arc bearing when
the unloaded pad is omitted (see Figure 2-6).
Preloaded bearing Any circular journal bearing with pads
whose center of curvature (or center of machined surface) does not
coincide with the geometric center of the bearing. The amount of
preload, often called ellipticity or offset, is the distance between the
two centers divided by the clearance, or d/C.
Pressure dam bearing A two-axial groove bearing whose
unloaded pad is cut by a shallow channel ending in a step (often
abrupt) ahead of the trailing edge of the pad (see Figure 2-4).
Tapered land thrust bearing A thrust bearing whose pads have
fixed tapers in the circumferential direction (simple taper) and often
in the radial direction (compound taper). The trailing end is gener-
ally a flat, or land, portion (see Figure 2-8).
Three-lobed bearing A three-pad bearing with preload (see
Figure 2-5b).
Tilting-pad or pivoted shoe bearing A journal bearing of three
or more pads, with or without preload, which are free to tilt in one
(circumferential) or two directions. The same applies to thrust bear-
ings, which are sometimes called Kingsbury or Michell bearings. A
radial example is shown in Figure 2-7.
Two-axial groove bearing A circular two-pad journal bearing
with two axial grooves located symmetrically at the horizontal
split. This type of bearing is often referred to as an axial groove or
cylindrical bearing (see Figure 2-1).

9
2. TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS
Terms and Definitions

Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2

Cylindrical bore, two-groove bearing. Elliptical bore bearing.

10
Figure 2-3 Figure 2-4
Cylindrical bore with an overshot groove. Cylindrical bore with a pressure dam.

11
2. TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS
Terms and Definitions

Figure 2-5
Bore geometry of (a) a multistep bearing, (b) a three-lobed bearing, and (c) an offset half bearing.

12
Figure 2-6 Figure 2-7
Pocket (partial arc) bearing bore design. Tilting-pad radial bearing (four-pad example).

13
2. TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS
Terms and Definitions

Figure 2-8 Figure 2-9

Compound tapered land thrust bearing for the clockwise Motor bearing with a bumper thrust face with radial
operation of a runner. pockets.

14
Bearing Operation
Boundary lubrication A condition that exists when the minimum
oil film thickness is less than the sum of the surface roughness of the
journal and bearing bore.
Clearance Radial play between journal and bearing pad.
In bearings without preload, this is the same as the difference
between the radii of the journal and the bearing. In preloaded
geometries, clearance is the difference between the assembled
radius of the pad and that of the journal.
Dynamic coefficients The four stiffness and four damping constants
that characterize the operating hydrodynamic film of a journal
bearing. Two of the stiffness and two of the damping constants are
called cross-coupling coefficients, reflecting the fact that a bearing
load or velocity in one direction (x or y) will produce a reaction at
right angles to it (y or x).
Dynamic loading Any bearing load that varies with time in either
magnitude or direction.
2. TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS
Elevation mismatch A condition in which the original axes of
multiple journal bearings on a single or rigidly coupled rotor
become displaced from the normal catenary curve owing to
maintenance, thermal shifts, structural shifts, or other mechanical
causes.
Hydrodynamic instability Instability in the dynamic motion of a
journal caused by the hydrodynamic film of one or more bearings
and characterized by a vibration at a subsynchronous frequency.
When this frequency is slightly below 50% of the rotating speed,
it is referred to as half-frequency whirl; when this frequency
matches the frequency of a rotor bearing system critical speed, or
resonance, it is referred to as oil whip.
Journal misalignment A condition that exists when the
longitudinal axes (z) of journal and bearing are not parallel. It can
be termed tilt or twist, depending on whether the out-of-parallel
condition for a radial bearing is horizontal or vertical.
15
Terms and Definitions
Load angle The direction of the imposed bearing load relative to
a reference, either the vertical line or the horizontal split (see Figure
2-10).
Load capacity The total static and dynamic load for which a
bearing can support and maintain a given value of minimum film
thickness (hmin).
Radial unit loading In journal bearings, the unit, or nominal,
loading is the quotient of the applied load divided by the projected
area. The projected area is given by the product of diameter and
length (D L), independent of the angular extent of the bearing
pads.
P = W/(D L) Eq. 2-1
16
Thrust unit loading In thrust bearings, the unit, or nominal,
loading is the quotient of the applied load divided by the bearing
area.
P = W/A Eq. 2-2
Turbulence A condition in which there is a noticeable alteration
in the nature of the oil flow in the bearing clearance space,
producing a high power loss and high operating temperature
compared with a laminar condition.
Unbalance load A form of dynamic loading arising from
machining or material imperfections of the rotor in which the
variation of bearing force is at a frequency that is synchronous with
journal rotation.
Figure 2-10
Nomenclature for a journal bearing.

17
2. TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS
Terms and Definitions

Materials and Lubricants
Babbitt An alloy metallurgically bonded to the working surface of
journal and thrust bearings. Tin-based babbitt alloys have chemical
compositions of between 65% and 90% tin, with 5%15% each of
copper and antimony. Lead-based babbitt alloys have compositions
of between 65% and 95% lead plus small amounts of tin, copper,
and antimony. Babbitts are sometimes also referred to as white
metals.
Absolute Viscosity Viscosity expressed in units of either cen-
tipoises (cP) or reyns, lb-sec/in.2 (Pascal-seconds [Pa-s]). In this
manual, this absolute viscosity may be referred to as viscosity
without the qualifying adjective. The relation between these two
systems of units is:
Reyns, lb-sec/in.2 = 1.45 10-7 cP Eq. 2-3a
Pa-s = 10-3 cP Eq. 2-3b
Kinematic Viscosity Viscosity expressed in centistokes (cSt) and
related to absolute viscosity by the lubricant density. The ISO clas-
sification of lubricant viscosity, or viscosity grade (VG), is based on
the kinematic viscosity of the lubricant at 40C (104F).
Kinematic viscosity = Absolute viscosity/density Eq. 2-4a
Centistokes = cP/specific gravity Eq. 2-4b
Specific Weight, Density, and Specific Gravity Because of possible
confusion, these three terms are identified here as they are used in
this field guide.
Specific weight = weight/volume = lbs/in.3 Eq. 2-5a
Density = Specific weight/g = lbs-sec /in. (kg/m ) Eq. 2-5b
2 4 3
Specific gravity = Sp. weight/sp. weight of H2O,
(dimensionless) Eq. 2-5c

18
 3. Modes of Bearing Failure

3. MODES OF BEARING 19
FAILURE
Modes of Bearing Failure
Modes of Bearing Failure
In Section 1, babbitted bearing damage was classified into 18
categories, as listed in Table 1-1. This part of the field guide
presents visual and laboratory symptoms that may be considered
representative of each particular mode of damage. The information
for each damage mode is organized into the following subsections:
Definition: One or two sentence definition of damage mode.
Mechanism: Description of physical mechanism(s) leading to the
damage.
Appearance: Symptomatic appearance, illustrated with many
relevant photographs and some low-magnification micrographs.
Causes and Remedies: A table of possible root causes and
corresponding suggestions for remedial actions.
Special Diagnostic Tools: Description of laboratory routines
that may be useful in pinpointing the nature of damage. (This
sections is not applicable to all damage modes.)
20
Familiarity with and recognition of the range of damage features
should be of assistance in associating the damaged bearing with
one or more damage modes. However, note that overlapping and
similarity of symptoms occur among some of the various damage
modes. Furthermore, depending on circumstances, a given mode
may sometimes be followed by another and produce compounded
aftereffects (secondary damage). Therefore, in this section, each
damage mode will have associated with it several possible root
causes. The task of identifying the exact cause may be specific to
each plant and each incident. The search for the exact cause will
involve a scrutiny of additional circumstantial dataa history of
past failures, other equipment problems, and so onpertinent to
each bearing or machine.
To facilitate the navigation of this rather lengthy section, the one-
or two-letter ID assigned to each mode of damage in Table 1-1 is
listed at the bottom of the pages that address that specific mode of
damage.
Abrasion (A)
Definition
Abrasion is a mode of bearing damage arising from the erosive
action of a large number of solid particles that are harder than
the bearing surface. Damage is usually manifested as polishing or
scoring of the babbitt surface, but the shaft also may be damaged
by severe abrasive action.
Mechanism
The process and effects of abrasion depend on particle size and
quantity, as described in Table A-1. The most destructive particle
sizes are those with principal dimensions that are near the dimen-
sions of the film thickness.
Other characteristics that govern abrasion include particle hard-
ness, shape, compressive strength, and crushability. A material
that is hard but brittle may be less harmful than a softer material.
Particles that are nominally softer than, or the same hardness as,
the journal may become work hardened.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (A)
Appearance
Abrasion from operation at speed is manifested as parallel circum-
ferential tracks over most of the loaded part of the bearing. Small
particles may appear to bounce off, leaving intermittent scratches.
With a stable hydrodynamic film, the frequent location of scoring
is near hmin (see Figure 2-10). Examples of abrasion damage are
illustrated in Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4.
At low speeds, the particle damage may be driven by the oil sup-
ply, particularly when hydrostatic lift oil is in use. This is illustrated
in Figure 3-9.
During scoring, the babbitt is plastically deformed, leading to
unevenness of surface that is an order of magnitude higher than the
machined surface roughness as shown in Figure 3-12(a) and Figure
3-12(b). The raised edges are polished by the journal, giving them
a flattened, shiny appearance. This, in combination with the raised
banks of the groove, produces canyons of the form shown in Figure
3-12(c). Frequently, the cross section of the track has a smooth bot-
tom, perhaps with shallow transverse cracking.
21
Modes of Bearing Failure

Table A-1
Mechanisms and Effects of Abrasion.

Few Particles Many Particles

Particles eventually embed themselves harmlessly in the bearing Results in polishing, potentially leading
surface. Particles below 10 m (0.4 mil) in diameter can usually to wear. See the chapter on surface wear
Particle Size < hmin
be considered too small to cause grooving except under startup (SW).
conditions.
Particles of this size lead to scoring. Particles may also Exacerbates effects of scoring.
become partially embedded in the babbitt, protruding into the
Particle of the Size hydrodynamic film and acting as cutting tools. Scoring and
hmin
partially embedded large particles disrupt the hydrodynamic film,
lowering the load capacity margin and creating hot spots.
Particles too large to be drawn into the oil film will be battered Exacerbates effects relative to fewer
Particle Size >> hmin around in the oil groove, generating many smaller pieces, which particles.
will then enter the clearance.

22
Figure 3-3 Figure 3-4
Heavily scored lower tilt pad bearing. Boiler feed pump journal bearing with embedded metal chips
left from a probe drilling operation. (Used with permission from
Ontario Hydro)
23
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (A)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-12
Figure 3-9 Cross section of babbitt score: (a) Original profile, (b) Depth trace of
Low-speed noncircumferential scoring from particulates a scored surface, (c) Section of scratch (horizontal 200X, vertical
from the central oil supply groove [3]. 2000X) showing built-up edges [3]. (Note that the vertical
magnification is ten times that of the horizontal.)
24
Causes and Remedies

Cause Remedies Cause Remedies

Contaminated lubricant:
The oil storage tanks in
electric utilities are large
and located underneath
the turbogenerator deck
in an environment with
the potential to collect
dust and debris, including
chips and weld spatter.
Design approach: Provide adequate
oil bleed chamfers at the end of the
bearing oil grooves.
Design approach: Install larger,
finer-mesh, full-flow filters.
System approach: Install a
larger sump, thereby diluting the
concentration and providing for
more settling time.
Maintenance approach: Change the
oil more frequently.
Maintenance approach: Flush the
entire lubrication system.
Polluted environment: Fly Design approach: Replace or
ash, airborne dust, desert redesign the seals.
conditions, proximity Maintenance approach: Check the
of quarries, and other oil tank hatch for loose gaskets.
industrial pollutants will
provide a steady supply Maintenance approach: Ensure that
of contaminants that can the hatch remains closed during
infiltrate the lubrication operation.
system and be delivered Maintenance approach: Ensure that
into the bearing film. the reservoir breather caps are in
place.

25
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (A)
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
In-machine formation of Same as for polluted environment
contaminants: These may
come from continuous
wear of machine parts,
such as gears, couplings,
or bearings, or they may
be generated from the
coking and chemical
action at the hot parts of
the machine.
26
Remedies Cause
Film thickness too small:
Bearings operating with
a thin hmin will be more
susceptible to damage
from abrasion, noting
that contamination
concentration tends to
increase for smaller
particle sizes. For a given
bearing geometry, small
operating hmin may be
caused by an increase
in load, a decrease
in viscosity, operating
misalignment, a high level
of shaft deflection, and/or
an increase in vibration.
Remedies
Design approach: Redesign
the bearing bore geometry.
Improvement may also be achieved
by rotating the journal bearing
within the housing to obtain an
optimum load angle, or polishing
the journal to a finer finish.
Design approach: Change the
lubricant properties, for example:
Use oil with a higher viscosity.
Lower the inlet temperature,
which increases the operating
viscosity.
Use oils with acceptable
antiwear (AW) or extreme
pressure (EP) additives.
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause Remedies
Film Thickness Too Small Design approach: Eliminate or
(continued) reduce operating misalignment by
one of the following:
Use a spherical (ball) support for
the bearing housing.
Set cold alignment, better
accounting for alignment
changes associated with the
operating conditions.
Use a flared bearing profile.
Reduce the L/D ratio of the
bearing bore.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (A)
Cause Remedies
Inadequate seals: For Design approach: Add more stages
environmental or locally of seals, or replace the seals with a
generated contaminants to new and more effective seal design.
reach the bearings, they
must penetrate some set
of seals on the lubrication
or bearing hardware.
Inadequate sealing of the
bearing drain areas can
be the point of ingress for
external (as opposed to
oil-carried) contaminants.
Rough journal or runner
surface: Another cause of
bearing abrasion is the
installation of a new, or
refurbished, bearing for
operation with a rough
journal or thrust collar.
27
Modes of Bearing Failure
Special Diagnostic Tools
Debris examination: The more common particulates found in lubri-
cation systems and their possible origins can be listed as follows:
Quartz or sand: Sand is a very hard material that will scratch
the hardest steel, as well as chromium. The rounded nature of
common beach sand is typical of eroded granules that have lost
their sharp angles.
Grit blasting substances: Grit is damaging not only when it
enters the clearance space, but also it may lodge between a
thin bearing shell and its housing, causing high spots in the
bearing.
Metal chips: These are residuals from manufacturing or mainte-
nance. Although initially soft, they become a strong abrasive as
a result of work hardening or of humidity leading to the forma-
tion of hematite (Fe2O3). Metal chips are relatively large and
rectangular or curled in shape.
28
Weld spatter: These are residuals from the construction period
or piping maintenance and are usually large, egg-shaped, and
dull in appearance. Damage caused by metal chips and weld
spatter during commissioning is shown in Figure 3-3.
Fly ash: These are combusted and noncombusted coal particles.
They are small and spherical in shape, ranging from 25 m
(1 mil) down to less than 1 m (0.04 mil) in diameter. Their
composition varies with the chemical content of the coal, but
generally consists of oxides of silicon (SiO2), aluminum oxide
(Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3).
Silicon carbide: These are synthetic abrasives close to 25 m
(1mil) in size, with many sharp jagged edges.
Cast iron chips: These may come from the bearing housing
when its material is cast iron.
Special Diagnostic Tools (continued)
Hand probing: By careful probing with a magnet, it is possible
to distinguish between metal particles and nonmetallic minerals.
Ferrous (magnetic) materials generally originate within the machine
or lubrication system. Nonferrous materials, including babbitt,
generally originate within the bearing or the atmosphere.
Iron print: The presence of ferrous particles can be identified by
means of an iron print. The iron print is prepared by soaking a
piece of filter paper in 1% potassium ferrocyanide and sodium
chloride solution and placing the filter paper on the bearing
surface. Within a few minutes, any iron particles that are present
will react to form a characteristic blue stain with good contrast to
the gray babbitt.

29
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (A)
Bond Failure (B)
Definition Appearance
Bond failure is the separation of the bearing alloy from the The main characteristic of a bond failure is clear separation of the
intermetallic layer at the interface between the bearing liner babbitt layer from the supporting bearing shell. Separation may
material (for example, babbitt) and bearing shell material (for manifest itself by a local loosening of a portion of the liner (see
example, a low-carbon steel or copper alloy). Figure 3-20); by pieces breaking away from the bearing shell; or,
in severe cases, by a wholesale dislodgment of the babbitt layer,
Mechanism as shown in Figure 3-21. If the bearing shell has been lathe-
machined, the detached babbitt will expose the machining grooves
Bond failure may be due to poor original adhesion of bearing of the underlying metal, as shown in Figure 3-23.
alloy to the backing metal, buildup of the intermetallic layer from
repairs, or mechanical flexing of the bearing shell. Having released
large sections of babbitt, the unbonding may or may not result in
widespread bearing failure.
Poor bonding of the babbitt can lead to premature fatigue failures.
In such cases, the cracks propagate rapidly along the juncture
between the babbitt and its backing. The result is a loosening
of large pieces of the bearing metal. This is distinct from fatigue
cracking, in which a thin surface layer of bearing material is left
adhering to the shell.
31
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (B)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-20 Figure 3-21

Bond cracked in service. Region of babbitt lost because of an inadequate bond.

32
 Causes and Remedies
Cause
Inadequate casting:
Formation of oxide films
(inadequate cleaning) on the
shell surface before casting.
Presence of contaminants
such as dirt, soot, or grease
on the surface before casting
Failure to remove intermetal-
lic layer during refurbishment
Presence of dross from the
surface of molten alloy
Gas evolution from the metal
Low casting temperatures for
Figure 3-23
the specified babbitt
Shell surface exposed under bond failure, magnified about 20X [3].
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (B)
Remedies
Maintenance approach: The
bonding of babbitt to steel
bearings may be checked by
soaking the bearing in hot
oil at 300F (149C). Any
imperfections in the bond
can be detected as blisters
in the babbitt. Rebabbitting
is usually the only option, as
local repair (puddling) relies
on the integrity of the existing
metallurgical bond.
33
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Inadequate casting: (continued)
Excessive babbitt thickness
adding thermal contraction
stress to the bond line
Casting to cast iron, espe-
cially oil-soaked cast iron,
which is difficult to clean
Casting to stainless steel
34
Remedies Cause Remedies
See above. Rough handling: Ensure that proper handling
techniques are used.
Impact damage to the bear-
ing during handling
Flexure of the bearing shell
during installation
Tin migration: Buildup of See the chapter on tin
theintermetallic layer due to tin migration (TM).
migration
Tin Migration (Unbonding) (TM)
Definition
Under certain conditions, the intermetallic layer between a tin-
based babbitt and a copper-alloy shell is subject to growth, becom-
ing more brittle.

Mechanism
The intermetallic layer between a tin-based babbitt and a copper-
alloy shell is subject to growth and embrittlement under sustained
operating conditions above 200F (93C). Embrittlement is due to
the continuing formation of copper-tin intermetallics as the tin in the
babbitt migrates toward the copper-rich backing.

Appearance Figure 3-25

When subjected to normal maintenance handling, the embrittled Loss of babbitt from
bond can result in a dramatic loss of babbitt, as shown in Figure the copper alloy shell
3-25 and Figure 3-26. in a tilting-pad journal
bearing.

35
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (TM)
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies
Cause
High operating temperature:
Sustained operating conditions
above 200F (93C).
Tin-copper interface: Direct contact
between tin-based babbitt and a
copper-alloy shell.
Figure 3-26
Complete and partial loss of bond from a set of thrust shoes with
copper alloy backing after several years of service.
36
Remedies
System approach: Lower
the operating temperature
of the thrust bearing by
enhanced cooling oil flow.
Design approach: Add a
copper-free barrier layer
on top of the copper alloy
prior to babbitt casting.
Corrosion (C)
Definition
Corrosion is a chemical attack on a metal surface by a reactive
agent. Corrosion may produce either removal of bearing material
or buildup of a deposit on the bearing surface.
Mechanism
The process of corrosion converts metal to metallic compounds. The
products of corrosion may be soluble or porous or may be continu-
ally removed, exposing fresh metal to attack. The onset of corrosion
can be sudden or gradual.
The two main groups of corrosive agents that affect bearings are
electrolytes and organic acids. A special set of conditions in the
bearingperhaps a combination of pressure, temperature, and
shear stressis required to produce corrosion.
Corrosion is often selective in affecting some constituents more than
others, as in the case of the removal of lead from copper-lead bear-
ings. This will generally embrittle the structure of the surface so that
it finally fails by cracking.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (C)
Appearance
Cracking due to selective removal of the microconstituents and
consequent embrittlement. A crack network typical of fatigue is
usually absent and the results of material loss from corrosion are
shallower than those lost from fatigue.
Corrosion of lead and tin babbitts usually proceeds from the
surface inward, eating away the lead components and leaving
a rough and weakened babbitt layer. Even with magnification,
nothing indicates whether the damage was caused by oxidation
or by acidic attack.
Attack by electrolytes on metal surfaces results either in the
pitting of the surface or in the oxidation of the alloy. Shallow
surface pitting on a tin-based babbitt is shown in Figure 3-28.
The babbitt surface of a thrust bearing pad (an ASTM alloy
B23, Grade 2) after attack by environmental sulfur is shown in
Figure 3-29. The dark voids left by the corroded parts can be
seen clearly.
37
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-28 Figure 3-29

Light surface pitting on tin-based babbitt. Tin-based babbitt surface attacked by elemental sulfur [9].

38
Causes and Remedies

Cause Remedies Cause Remedies

Electrolites and sulfur compounds:
Water solutions of salts, acids, or
alkalis. These can originate from
inadvertent contamination or from
some oil additives.
Process approach:
Eliminate sulfur-containing
additives from the oil.
Maintenance approach:
Clean the atmosphere of
any sulfuric contamination,
or use better seals.
Process approach:
Eliminate water and
contaminants from the oil
system.
Presence of organic acids: These are
the results of the oxidation of the
light hydrocarbons in the fuel. They
can also be formed in lubricating oil
under conditions of aeration, high
temperature, prolonged usage, and
catalysis by the metal surfaces. They
usually attack lead-based babbitts.
System approach:
Eliminate water from oil
and bearing surroundings.
Maintenance approach:
Change oil more
frequently to replenish
oxidation-retarding
additives, and use a
larger sump
Process approach: Use rust
and oxidation inhibitors
in oil.

39
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (C)
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Water in the oil: May lead to the
oxidation of the tin in tin-based
babbitts.
Influx of external corrosive
substance.
Operating practices: The following
conditions favor and accelerate
corrosive attack:
High temperatures
High humidity
Foaming and aeration of oil
Prolonged usage of the same oil
40
Special Diagnostic Tools
Remedies
System approach:
Eliminate water and
contaminants from the
oil system and bearing
surrounding.
Prevent the introduction of
such substances.
System approach: Lower
the operating temperature
of the thrust bearing by
enhanced cooling oil flow.
Maintenance approach:
Change oil frequently.
A cross-sectional study of the bearing surface with a microscope
and photomicrographs can yield indications as to the condition
of the bond of the bearing material with its backing, the
structural changes of the surface layer, possible corrosion of
one of the phases away from the surface, and the general grain
size and segregation of materials in the bearing-surface layer.
Magnification can also establish the presence/absence of
fatigue crack networks.
Metallurgical and scanning electron microscopes observing
the babbitt layer and bond line of the lining to the bearing
shell can provide valuable information about the structure and
homogeneity of the bearing layer.
Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) coupled with a scanning
electron microscope (SEM) can identify many compounds
that may have been formed on the surface by the reaction of
the bearing metal with any corrosive material present in the
atmosphere or in the oil. Note that the SEM cannot distinguish
tin from antimony.
Electrical Pitting (EP)
Definition
The electrical pitting process damages the bearing liner, and possi-
bly also the journal or runner, by the intermittent arcing of electrical
current across the oil film. The source of the voltage buildup that
drives this current may be chronic to the generator or incidental,
such as an electrically charged lubricant.
Mechanism
The wear that occurs in electrical pitting is caused by the intermit-
tent passage of current between the bearing and journal or runner.
High voltages are not necessary for arcing, and damage can occur
at potentials well below 1 V. Electric arcing produces four effects.
The most damaging are direct pitting and wear, which disrupt the
hydrodynamic film and increase surface roughness. (Consequent
loss of bearing load capacity can lead to wiping.) Third, a thin
layer of babbitt on the surface becomes overheated. Fourth, metal-
lic particles are set free in the oil, thus commencing abrasive wear.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (EP)
When the film thickness is very small and there is near contact
between the rough areas of the journal or runner and the bear-
ing, and the continuous but relatively mild current flow may not
cause significant damage. With clean, dry lubricant of sufficient
film thickness, the resistance across the film would be too high to
permit discharge, thus also preventing arc damage. Depending on
the imposed voltage, the amount of wear will vary between these
two extremes, as illustrated in Figure 3-32. Also depending on the
buildup of charge, this damage may set in soon after startup, or it
may take months to become apparent.
Appearance
With mild voltages, damage caused by electrical pitting con-
sists of minute, craterlike pits in the area of minimum film thick-
ness that give the bearing a frosted surface. Figure 3-36 shows
frosting damage to a bearing journal and adjoining seal areas.
Electrical arcing that generates pits will release material into the
lubricant. This material, particularly from the journal or runner,
may score the bearing surface, as shown in Figure 3-38.
41
Modes of Bearing Failure

Appearance (continued) Figure 3-32

Effect of film thickness
As the pitting may be the same depth as the thickness of the and voltage on wear
hydrodynamic film, consequent loss of load capacity can lead across a lubricant film
to wiping. [10].
At low levels of arc current (2500 A), the pitting will be finer
and shallower, as seen in Figure 3-42. At a high arc current
(30A), the pits will be individually more severe and more
discrete, as seen in Figure 3-43.
The backs of the bearing shells may also be pitted if currents
have passed through them to the pedestal.
This pitting distinguished from pitting corrosion or cavitation
erosion by the fact that the pits appear shiny when viewed
under a microscope, due to melting of the babbitt.

42
Figure 3-36 Figure 3-38
Frosting from electrical pits on a journal and seal areas. (Used Pitting on a thrust shoe with subsequent scoring.
with permission from Sohre Turbomachinery, Inc.)
43
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (EP)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-42 Figure 3-43

Electrical pitting on a tin babbitt surface at low (2500 A) Electrical pitting damage in tin babbitt at a high (30 A) arc
arc current [12]. current [12].

44
Causes and Remedies
Cause
Electrostatic current: Sources of
voltage include deposition of static
charges by foreign agents such
as steam, water droplets, ionized
components of the lubricant, and
friction by drive belts. This results
in milder damage compared to
electromagnetic current. Pitting
damage progresses slowly and
always occurs at the location of
the lowest resistance to ground,
which can vary with time.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (EP)
Remedies
Process approach: Ground
the shaft with a grounding
brush or grounding shoe.
A relatively simple brush
arrangement may be
adequate to lead off and
prevent the accumulation of
an electrostatic potential.
Design approach: Insulate
the bearing. All connections
to the bearing, such as oil
lines and the like, need to
be insulated so there is no
metallic contact between
the bearing and any
potential conductors.
Cause Remedies
Electromagnetic current: This type Process approach: Ground
of current is more severe than the shaft with a grounding
electrostatic currents, and will brush or grounding shoe.
not always jump the gap with Design approach: Insulate
the lowest electrical resistance. the bearing.
Bearing damage is often
accompanied by journal, collar, Design approach: Shunt at
or runner damage. Sources of least some current around
electromagnetic potential include: the bearing by means of a
brush that rubs on the shaft
Potential applied to the shaft, and is connected to the
such as by a welder
bearing or pedestal.
Dissymmetry in the magnetic
circuits in the generator
Magnetization of rotating
and/or stationary components
caused by machining, weld-
ing, and magnetic particle and
eddy current inspection
45
Modes of Bearing Failure

Causes and Remedies (continued)

Cause Remedies
Electromagnetic current: Process approach: Modify the
(continued) electrical portion of the machine
design. Because large currents
may be involved if a large number
of ampere-turns is present, it may
be possible to reduce the effect
by using a neutralizing coil. If
this method is not practical, the
introduction of nonmagnetic
material in the bearing supports
and frame, which increases the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
may be helpful.

46
Erosion (E)
Definition
Erosion is bearing damage that results from the impact of a high-
velocity fluid carrying suspended foreign particles or from the large
implosive forces associated with the collapse of cavitation bubbles.
Mechanism
Erosion can be produced by sharp changes in the direction of flow
of a high-velocity fluid or by impingement of abrasive debris in the
fluid stream on the bearing material (the latter can be distinguished
from abrasion by the high velocity of the carrier fluid, which local-
izes and aggravates the damage). The most likely sites of erosive
action are grooves, chamfers, steps, and any other discontinuities
in geometry or the fluid flow path. In such places, the high kinetic
energy of the fluid and detritus is converted to a stagnation pres-
sure or heat energy, causing much of the damage.
Erosion can also result from the generation of high-energy hydraulic
impulses within the oil film associated with the collapse of cavita-
tion bubbles. In a steadily loaded bearing, cavitation is restricted
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (E)
to a small region in the diverging section of the bearing, possibly
exacerbated by a misplaced feed groove. In dynamically loaded
bearings, the cavitation damage can extend circumferentially all
around the bearing surface.
Appearance
Erosion damage results in a spotty removal of surface metal,
as on the thrust shoe outer diameter in Figure 3-45, with no
evidence of abrasion or corrosion.
A photograph of a thrust bearing shoe that has experienced
cavitation damage after the babbitt surface was disturbed by a
previous wipe is shown in Figure 3-47. The eroded valleys can
be seen within a pattern of cavitation pitting.
In the photograph in Figure 3-49, the presence of an element
of erosion is attested to primarily by the fact that the damage
occurred near the entrance lip, where the lubricant has under-
gone a sudden change of direction and velocity as the lubricant
transitions from the central oil groove into the hydrodynamic
film.
47
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-45 Figure 3-47

Erosion on the outer diameter of a thrust shoe near the Cavitation erosion observed near the edge of a
trailing edge. previously wiped region.

48
 Causes and Remedies

Cause Remedies
Divergent fluid Design approach: Break the corners on
films: The high flow all axial and circumferential grooves,
velocities under chamfers, and orifices.
steady loading Operations approach: Increase the inlet
are possible only oil pressure if cavitation occurs in the
when there are inlet region of the bearing.
extensive portions
of a diverging fluid Design approach: Reduce the severity of
film. Pocket bearings diverging regions. Bearing geometries
and crowned pads exist that generate no diverging regions
in thrust bearings are in the fluid film. Some of these are the
most prone to this following:
condition. Step bearings (Rayleigh step)
Preloaded tilting-pad journal bearings
Figure 3-49 Offset bearings
Erosion near the lip of a circumferential oil groove [3].
Multilobed bearings
49
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (E)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Causes and Remedies (continued)

Cause Remedies Cause Remedies
Pulsating loads: Operations approach: Use a more Pressure-reducing Design approach: Smooth the
The presence of viscous lubricant, which will increase geometries: Any transitionsexcept at deliberate
variable loads, such damping when oscillations occur. fluid film geometry geometric steps, such as a pressure
as those due to that tends to truncate dam. Break the corners on all axial and
Design approach: Use harder babbitts,
large unbalance or the hydrodynamic circumferential grooves, chamfers, and
as harder materials are more resistant to
centrifugal forces, pressures abruptly, orifices.
damage.
generates diverging such as negative Design approach: Change the bore
regions. More Design approach: Reduce the severity of steps and dams, geometryconsider an alternative
seriously, variable diverging regions. Bearing geometries sharp chamfer and bearing design that does not incorporate
loads drive cyclic exist that generate no diverging regions groove edges, or a sharp geometric step or pressure dam,
generation and in the fluid film. other discontinuities such as an elliptical or multilobed bore.
movement of the oil in bearing surfaces,
film boundary. can give rise to Design approach: Use harder babbitts,
erosion damage. as harder materials are more resistant to
damage.

50
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause Remedies
High gas solubility System approach: Depending on
of oil: Under normal conditions and the kind of oil additives,
conditions, oil with air solubility can be high or low.
a high gas content
releases more air
during cavitation
and aggravates any
potential erosion
hazards.

51
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (E)
Fatigue (F)
Definition
Fatigue failure is the cracking and fracture of metals resulting from
an excessive number of cycling stresses when the stress level is
above a threshold limit that is characteristic for a given material at
a given temperature.
Mechanism
Forces that tend to flex, reverse stress direction, or produce thermal
cycling in a bearing are conducive to fatigue. However, the inten-
sity of these forces must exceed a certain threshold (the endurance
limit) to initiate crack damage. It should also be recognized that
babbitts are relatively low in endurance strength.
In its early stages, fatigue failure manifests itself in isolated cracks.
The cracks eventually reach the vicinity of the bond, travel parallel
to it, and detach pieces of babbitt. Being too large to enter the oil
film, the detached babbitt will usually remain trapped, although
small relative movement of the pieces will generate debris that
enters the oil film.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (F)
All the fatigue fragments, once dislodged, will have significant
depth relative to the thickness of the hydrodynamic film; therefore,
load capacity of the bearing is degraded. Unless the bearing
design has a large load margin for operation, this process will
ultimately cause the bearing to seize or overheat.
The following parameters influence the likelihood of fatigue failure:
Load and speed: The onset of fatigue failure becomes more
likely as the difference between maximum and minimum stresses
on the bearing increases and as the frequency of the stress
cycle rises.
Temperature: The endurance strength of babbitt declines with
temperature. Therefore, fatigue failures increase with increasing
surface temperature.
Hardness and thickness: Fatigue failure susceptibility varies
inversely with hardness and directly with thickness.
Surface finish: The likelihood of crack initiation increases with a
rough surface.
53
Modes of Bearing Failure
Mechanism (continued)
Tensile stresses: The fluctuation of the tensile stresses at the edge
of the pressure region is increased by the amount of dynamic
load and any movement of the static load. Fatigue stresses
are unlikely until the dynamic stresses (principally imbalance)
exceed the static stresses.
Thermal cycling: Repeated heating and cooling, often associ-
ated with startup and shutdown, can lead to thermal fatigue.
This type of cracking depends on relative values of the coef-
ficients of thermal expansion of the bearing alloy and backing
and the operating temperature of the bearing. This factor is
discussed further in the section on overheating.
54
Appearance
Microscopically, fatigue appears on the surface in the form of a
cobbled pattern and the cracks appear to grow, or open up, in
the direction of rotation. The cracks propagate from the babbitt
surface toward the bond, turn, and continue parallel to, but
above, the bond, as shown in the cross section in Figure 3-55.
Continued stress extends the cracks horizontally, undermining
wide areas until large segments of bearing alloy are loosened
and dislodged (Figure 3-53, Figure 3-58, and Figure 3-59). A
thin surface layer of bearing material is left adhering to the shell
(in contrast to bond failure damage, where detachment occurs
at the bond).
Fatigue cracks can be found near oil outlets and dovetails, as in
Figure 3-53 and Figure 3-56.
A detached piece of babbitt can move within its space,
rounding the edges of the cracking. In Figure 3-53, the
rounding of the fractured edges can be seen.
Figure 3-55 Figure 3-53
Photomicrograph showing the propagation of a fatigue crack. Severe loss of material from the fatigue of babbitt on the lower
(Used with permission from ECKA Granules Germany GmbH) half of a turbine bearing.
55
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (F)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-56
Fatigue cracking
developing upstream
of an oil outlet.

Figure 3-58
Fatigue damage limited to one side of the lower half. (The damage
attributed to poor support of the bearing shell under this half.)
56
Figure 3-59 Causes and Remedies
Upper arc of
thrust shoe pads
showing fatigue Cause
damage from Low static stress: Fatigue
misalignment [4]. develops when the cyclic
load exceeds the static load.
Low static stress can arise
because of the following:
Shaft or bearing mis-
alignment
Excessive geometric
preload
Edge loading as a result
of improper geometry or
faulty bearing assembly
Elastic and thermal dis-
tortions of the bearing
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (F)
Remedies
Design approach: Reduce the L/D
ratio.
Design approach: Relocate the
bearings.
Design approach: Correct the shaft
deflection.
Design approach: Use spherical
seating of the bearing to mitigate
misalignment.
Design approach: Install an
intermediate layer of leaded
bronze. Such a combination is less
likely to seize on the shaft if the
babbitt layer is damaged. With a
bronze backing, the possibility of
tin migration should be reviewed.
57
Modes of Bearing Failure

Causes and Remedies (continued)

Cause Remedies Cause Remedies
High cyclic loading: Any of Process approach: Reduce High cyclic loading: Process approach: Reduce
the following conditions can dynamic forces at synchronous (continued) dynamic forces due to support
produce cyclic loading: frequency by balancing the shaft. resonances by installing springs
Shaft unbalance, which Design approach: Reduce dynamic or rubber mounts to reduce the
introduces a synchro- forces owing to subsynchronous transmission of external forces.
nously rotating load oil whirl by replacing the bearings Design approach: Reduce the
with a more stable design, such as thickness of the babbitt.
Instability (oil whip and
pressure, elliptical, three-lobe, or
the like) that introduces Design approach: Install an
tilting pads. If this is impractical,
a subsynchronous rotat- intermediate layer of leaded
reduce the L/D ratio or cut a
ing load bronze. Such a combination is less
circumferential groove (to increase
External high-frequency likely to seize on the shaft if the
the operating eccentricity).
load (from gears and babbitt layer is damaged. With a
Process approach: Reduce bronze backing, the possibility of
the like)
dynamic forces due to tin migration should be reviewed.
Journal noncircularity supersynchronous frequencies by
checking the alignment of gears
and couplings.
58
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause Remedies Cause Remedies
Flexing of bearing shell: A Design approach: Redesign the Spragging of unloaded Design approach: Use preloaded
bearing shell can undergo bearing shell and/or housing. tilting-pad bearings: In pads.
flexing that leads to fatigue tilting-pad bearings without Design approach: Use a larger
Process approach: Correct any preload, the unloaded
if any of the following number of shorter-arc pads.
assembly flaws. shoes are free to translate
occurs:
Design approach: Reduce the radially, and in search for
The shell is too thin. thickness of the babbitt. an equilibrium position,
The seating of the Design approach: Install an
they are prone to slide
bearing in its housing is intermediate layer of leaded
into a vibratory mode that
loose or incomplete. bronze. Such a combination is less
is conducive to fatigue
damage.
Pinching develops at likely to seize on the shaft if the
the joints as a result of babbitt layer is damaged. With a Poor babbitt-shell bonding: Process approach: Rebabbitting
improper clamping of bronze backing, the possibility of A defective bond can is usually the only option, as
the two bearing halves. tin migration should be reviewed. trigger and accelerate local repair (puddling) relies
fatigue cracks and crack on the integrity of the existing
growth. If poor bonding has metallurgical bond.
led to loss of material, the
bare base metal is revealed.

59
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (F)
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Thermal cycling: High
temperatures in the babbitt
that are subject to a cyclic
variation in their maximum
and minimum levels may
lead to fatigue damage of
the bearing surface.
60
Remedies
Design approach: Install a
bronze backing behind the
babbitt. Fatigue resistance can
be improved by using a bronze
backing instead of steel because
of the smaller difference of the
thermal coefficients of expansion.
With a bronze backing, the
possibility of tin migration should
be reviewed.
Cause Remedies
Bearing replacement by Refinish the journal to ensure a
new design: Sometimes the proper fit between the journal and
replacement of a bearing the bearing.
by one of a different
design will cause stress
concentration or other
difficulties when run against
a journal that had worn so
as to accommodate itself to
the previous bearing.
Special Diagnostic Tools
Visual Inspection: Recognition of fatigue depends on detecting
Metallographic Inspection: On etched surfaces the fractures may
the characteristic crack networks and the thin layer of babbitt
be seen to traverse the metal grains in a manner characteristic
left on the backing after spalling. Heating or flexing the bearing
of fatigue fractures. Fractures resulting from static loading
will help reveal fine cracks by driving out the oil trapped in
normally show failures along the grain boundaries only.
them. Genuine fatigue failure can produce a relatively sharp
edge pattern of fractures, giving the surface a tessellated
appearance.
Hand Inspection: It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between
poor bonding and a fatigue failure because the tinning may
have been melted out by the fretting action of the loose particles
before they were dislodged. In such instances, a simple chisel
test on the areas of babbitt that remain intact can serve as a
guide. If the babbitt breaks away along the bond line, this will
expose the machining grooves and attest to a bonding failure;
however, if the break leaves a layer of babbitt attached to the
bearing shell, then fatigue is indicated.

61
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (F)
Fretting (FR)
Definition
Fretting is a form of wear damage occurring between contacting
surfaces that experience small amplitude relative motion. The oxide
scale is continually removed, allowing continual oxidation of the
worn surfaces; thus, fretting is often referred to as fretting corrosion.
Mechanism
Fretting is a result of contact and small movements between
two highly loaded surfaces. The action of these small-amplitude
oscillations continuously removes the existing oxide layer, exposing
fresh steel surface asperities and allowing the steady formation of
iron oxides.
Stationary parts such as mechanical pivots, the outer diameter of a
bearing shell, and incomplete interference fits are the most prone
to this sort of damage. Bearing surfaces may suffer fretting damage
when the shaft is at rest because of vibrations transmitted to the
machine from external sources.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (FR)
Appearance
The surface may appear roughened as a result of adhesion and
micro tearing.
Disrupted oxide scale and corrosion products are usually
present. The presence of oil at the site of fretting forms a
distinctive red mud that consists primarily of an iron oxide
(Fe2O3), a result of oxidation of the worn steel particles.
An inadequately supported thrust collar, or one with axial
runout, may lead to fretting on the back of the collar, as shown
in Figure 3-62.
Fretting damage on both the flat side and the spherical side
of a spherical pivot contact is shown in Figure 3-63 and
Figure 3-64.
63
Modes of Bearing Failure
Figure 3 63
Flat side of a spherical pivot
contact showing a dark red ring
Figure 3-62 of fretting debris around the
Portion of fretting damage on the back surface of a operating contact region of a
large thrust runner. pivot.
64
Figure 3-64
Spherical contact showing dark
red ring of fretting debris
around the operating contact
region of a pivot.
Causes and Remedies

Cause Remedies Cause Remedies

Loose bearing seating: If the
bearing shell does not fit
tightly in its housing, typical
cyclic bearing forces will
impart minute translational
or angular motions to the
bearing, causing fretting of
the contact surface.
Loose interference fits: If a
bearing or runner is mounted shrink fits to ensure proper
with an interference fit, the
fit should be sufficiently tight
to prevent slippage between
the shrunk-on surfaces.
Design approach: Reduce or
eliminate any loose fit between
the bearing shell and housing.
There should be no clearance
anywhere between the OD of the
bearing shell and the housing
seat.
Design approach: Use the correct
interference.
Loose assemblies: Design approach: Turn thrust
collars integrally with the rotor
Loose, oversized keyways
or shrink them onto a shaft in
or improperly torqued
a manner similar to couplings.
split runner bolts may
An assembly using a key with
allow fretting around the
a sliding fit is more likely to
key or along the mating
experience fretting corrosion of
runner faces.
the key, thrust collar, and shaft
Looseness in pivot with the long-term potential of
contacts on tilting pad cracks.
bearings may allow
Design approach: Reduce the
fretting.
looseness of pivot contacts by
using a preloaded tilting pad.

65
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (FR)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Causes and Remedies (continued)

Cause Remedies
Fretting at machine standstill: Design approach: Increase the
When the machine is hardness of mating components
shut down, background to reduce the wear rate.
or auxiliary equipment
vibrations may cause fretting
between the stationary shaft
and its bearings.

66
Moderate Chromium Damage (MC)
Definition
Moderate chromium damage is also known as high-chrome, wire-
wool, or black-scab failure. It is a self-propagating process that
can occur on journals or runners of moderate chromium content
(roughly 3%20%), whereby the shaft is machined away rapidly by
an extremely hard scab of shaft turnings embedded in the babbitt.
Mechanism
Some evidence suggests that a debris particle of at least 0.04 in.
(1 mm) is required to initiate the damage, but industrial experi-
ence indicates that careful assembly and lubricant cleanliness may
not be sufficient. After initiation, damage progresses as material
is subsequently machined from the journal or runner by the debris
particles and accumulates in the bearing. This scab consists primar-
ily of iron carbide, as well as work-hardened iron and chromium
oxide inclusions that are particularly damaging. Once started, this
mechanism is self-propagating and leads to sudden failure.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (MC)
Steel journals and runners that contain chromium (roughly
3%20%) and molybdenum are susceptible due to their tribological
properties as well as their tendency to carburize readily. However,
not all shafts of a particular design with moderate chromium will
experience damage, even over many years of service.
Appearance
Unlike most other failures, the shaft or runner suffers severe
damage. (Figure 3-67)
The damage to the journal consists of severe machining, with
grooves up to 0.1250.25 in. (36 mm) deep. Resulting debris
appears as wirelike strands of metal (Figure 3-69), which then
embed themselves in the babbitt and may collect as wire
wool.
The damage to the bearing consists of deep blackened areas,
or black scab failure. (Figure 3-68)
During failure, the oil leaving the bearing is often blackened
and heavily contaminated.
67
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-67
Shaft damage associated with
the wire-wooling failure of a
tilting-pad bearing.

Figure 3-68
Black scab damage to the loaded pad of a tilting-pad
bearing.
68
 Causes and Remedies
Cause
Susceptible journal/runner
material: Journals and
Runners containing roughly
3%20% chromium have
been found to be most
susceptible.
Presence of initiating debris:
Some evidence suggests that
a particle of at least 0.04 in.
(1 mm) is required to initiate
the damage.
Figure 3-69
Magnified portion of wire-wool cut from a stainless steel
shaft.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (MC)
Remedies
Design approach: Hard chrome
plating of the mating surface has
generally been found effective
in preventing this problem.
Alternatively, a separate sleeve,
collar, or metal-sprayed coating
of low-alloy or carbon steel may
be used.
Maintenance approach: Though
not always successful, pay
particular attention to cleanliness
during assembly and operation
when the bearing is operating
against a moderate chromium
shaft.
69
Hydrogen Blisters (HB)
Definition Appearance
Hydrogen blisters can range from 0.253 in. (6.3576.2 mm) in
Hydrogen blisters are blistering of the babbitt due to migration of
diameter and are commonly seen in thinner sections of the babbitt,
residual hydrogen within the steel shell toward the bond line of the
such as an oil groove, relief, or overshot groove, as in Figure 3-71.
babbitt.
A cross section of a single blister is shown in Figure 3-72.
Mechanism
When steel is manufactured, there will be an initial hydrogen
content. In some processes, such as hydrogen degassing, this
content is deliberately reduced. However exposure to water and
some acids can increase the hydrogren content. After casting,
residual hydrogen within the steel shell will tend to migrate, over
time, toward the bond line of the babbitt. Being unable to penetrate
the bond line, the hydrogen may collect and develop a gas
pressure that is sufficient to break the babbitt bond, at least locally.
The babbitt will be locally stretched away from the shell, producing
a blister on the inner diameter of the bearing.

71
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (HB)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-72
Figure 3-71 Cross section of a
Hydrogen blisters on an overshot groove in the upper hydrogen blister in
half of a generator bearing. Discovered after extended babbitt. [12]
storage.
72
Causes and Remedies
Cause
Residual hydrogen in raw
material: International
Standards Organization (ISO)
Specification 6280 calls
for a maximum hydrogen
content of 1.7 ppm for steel
to be used as a bearing
shell. This measurement is
made to the steel billet. It
should be recognized that
using hydrochloric acid to
remove inorganic surface
contaminants or exposing
a heated shell to water can
increase the hydrogen content
of steel after the original
manufacture.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE
Remedies
Process approach: In manufacturing new
bearings, control the hydrogen content
of the steel. This can be done by working
with low-hydrogen steel or by an
appropriate heat soak of the steel shape
before casting. Avoid heating the steel
shell when it is damp. Immersion of the
steel shell in a hydrochloric acid solution
for cleaning should be minimized.
Process approach: Re-babbitt the
bearing. Once hydrogen blisters have
been identified in a bearing, it is unlikely
that significant hydrogen content remains
in the steel. Hydrogen blistering after
a bearing refurbishment has not been
reported.
73
Electromagnetic Tracking (EM)
Definition
A rotating shaft with residual magnetism can generate a sustained
electrical current. Interacting with conductive particles in the bear-
ing lubricant, this current can produce a track in the surface of a
noninsulated bearing. This damage is distinguished from electri-
cal pitting by the presence of longer scratches, sometimes termed
worm tracks.
Mechanism
The damage to the babbitt surface occurs as a result of a steady
transfer of current from the journal to the bearing during a time
when a conductive particle is present in the lubricant. During this
time, interaction of the particle and current causes the particle to
appear to change the direction of the track in an arbitrary manner.
The particle does not seem to become embedded in the babbitt at
the end of a track; either the particle is too small or the current is
otherwise interrupted.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (EM)
Appearance
These scratches or scores are distinguished from abrasion by
changes in direction of the score that are not consistent with the
flow of the lubricant, as seen in Figure 3-77.
The edges and base of the track appear to be rough, possibly
with ridges perpendicular to the direction of the track (Figure
3-77).
The tracks can be found on both the loaded bearing half, near
the point of hmin, and on the upper half (Figure 3-78), even with
larger film thicknesses.
Similar to electrical pitting, electromagnetic tracking can lead
to subsequent wiping. The lower half of a turbine bearing (see
Figure 3-79) shows widespread tracking damage. This damage
was sufficient to induce at least one wiping event.
75
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-78
Spark tracks on the
Figure 3-77 land region of an upper
Close-up of an electromagnetic track showing the rough edges bearing half near the
and bottom, with the circumferential flow from left to right. split line.

76
 Causes and Remedies
Two critical factors are needed for electromagnetic tracking to
occur: a magnetized portion of shaft and a conductive particle.
Cause
Magnetization: Rotating
and/or stationary
components can be
magnetized by machining,
welding, or magnetic particle
and eddy current inspection.
Conductive particles: Larger
particles will tend to be more
conductive.
Figure 3-79
Significant tracking damage on the lower half of a turbine
bearing after partial wiping.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (EM)
Remedies
Process approach: Measure
the magnetism of the rotor and
degauss as necessary. Limits
between 2 and 6 gauss have
been proposed for acceptable
residual magnetism.
Maintenance approach: Maintain
filtering of the lubricant. This
may not be sufficient, but it could
reduce the severity.
77
Liner Material Nonhomogeneity (N)
Definition
Nonhomogeneity in the bearing refers to gaseous or nongaseous
inclusions in the bearing liner material or to off-specification
composition of the liner material.
Mechanism
Various kinds of inclusions are encountered in bearings, the major
categories of which are the following:
Foreign inclusions: Cavities or nonhomogeneity may arise from
inclusions such as slag or dross from the melting pot. Such
inclusions create a distorted structure, fatigue sensitivity, and
thermal cracking. If it is near the surface of the bearing liner,
hard inclusions, such as iron from the casting pot, could impact
the journal surface.
Absorbed gas: More common cavities arise from the evolution
of gases during the solidification of the cast liner material.
Porosity holes throughout the babbitt material represent a site
for crack initiation.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (N)
Off-specification liner material: Liner material specifications
(ASTM B-23 or ISO 4381) are used to define the material
composition prior to casting.
Appearance
The appearance of nonhomogeneities in the babbitt will vary with
the kind of nonhomogenity:
Solid inclusions may appear near the surface and be detected
more readily. A razor blade, lightly brushed over the babbitt
surface, will tend to catch on changes in the surface hardness
that are associated with such an inclusion.
Porosity holes throughout the babbitt material may be
uncovered during the final machining of the bore (Figure 3-80).
Incorrect material specification is nearly impossible to detect or
identify, since a representative sample from an as-cast babbitt
surface is difficult to obtain.
79
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies
Cause
Presence of foreign
inclusions: Inclusion of slag
or dross from the melting
pot.
Figure 3-80
Porosity hole in a bearing liner, near the axial edge, after service.
80
Remedies
Process approach: Control the
casting process. For critical
bearing applications, a sample
of the babbitt being poured for a
particular bearing can be taken
during casting. This sample should
be representative of the material
used for that particular bearing.
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Presence of absorbed
gas: Evolution of gases
during solidification of the
cast liner material. This is
particularly likely with cast-
iron backing that has not
been adequately cleaned
of residual oil and then
graphitized.
Off-specification liner
material: Composition
differences may arise when
only a portion of the full
order from the material
supplier is used.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (N)
Remedies
Process approach: Use centrifugal
casting to drive these gases toward
the inner diameter of the bore,
where any cavities will be removed
during subsequent machining
of the bore. A dye penetrant
examination can be applied to
detect porosity
Learn to detect or identify incorrect
material specification.
81
Overheating (OH)
Definition
Overheating includes several damage mechanisms related to
operation at elevated temperatures. These include plastic flow of
babbitt, cracking due to thermal gradients, and varnish buildup
from lubricant damage.
Mechanism
As operating temperatures increase, the babbitt is subject to
surface creep with rippling of the surface (see Figure 3-84) and
possible subsequent wiping.
Babbitt has a range of melting temperatures. When the tempera-
tures are sufficiently high, the constituent of babbitt with the lowest
melting temperature melts and oozes out of the structure (sweating).
Anisotropy in the grain structure of some tin-based babbitts can
result in grain distortion when thermal stresses are imposed, owing
to the different coefficients of thermal expansion along each crystal
axis. This initially causes a mottled appearance of the bearing
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (OH)
surface when polished, which is usually not detrimental to bearing
performance. When grain distortion is severe, cracks will occur in
the babbitt surface along the grain boundaries. This form of thermal
cracking is called ratcheting, which is a form of thermal fatigue.
Another mechanism of high-temperature failure appears during the
overload of a thrust bearing. At moderate to high speeds, the heat-
ing of the thrust shoe causes thermal distortion (crowning) of the
thrust shoe, so that any metal-to-metal contact occurs over the pivot.
Wiping may also initiate in this region
An excessive temperature in even a small local area is sufficient
to bring about failure, although the general temperature level, as
measured by the drain temperature, may not be high.
Appearance
A bearing failure resulting from excessive temperatures can be
identified visually by the blackened, varnished, burnished, or
wiped appearance of the damaged surface and its surrounding
areas (Figure 3-83).
83
Modes of Bearing Failure

Appearance (continued)
Babbitt subject to surface creep exhibits rippling of the surface
(Figure 3-84).
Presence of globs of babbitt along the periphery of the low-
pressure areas is evidence of sweating.
The mottled appearance of a polished bearing surface is a
telltale sign of repeated thermal exposure (Figure 3-85).
A photograph of ratcheting caused by overheating is shown in
Figure 3-86.
Figure 3-98 shows polishing that results from the thermal crown-
ing from a moderate-sized thrust bearing.

Figure 3-83
Loaded half of a journal bearing with dark varnishing and
regions of babbitt displacement (circled).

84
Figure 3-84 Figure 3-85
Close-up of surface distortion (rippling) due to a lack of babbitt Mottling of a thrust bearing shoe surface due to thermal
strength. (Used with permission from E. Richard Booser) expansion and polishing.
85
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (OH)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-86 Figure 3-98

Ratcheting of a stationary, babbitted thrust plate due to Polishing of a central region of a thrust shoe due to
overheating [9]. thermal distortion (crowning) of the shoe under high loads.

86
Causes and Remedies
Cause
Insufficient lubricant or
starvation: When the
quantity of lubricant
is insufficient, the hmin
is reduced, and film
temperatures increase.
3. MODES OF BEARING
Remedies
Process approach: Increase the oil
flow to the bearing by raising the
supply pressure or enlarging the
supply orifice.
Design approach: Increase the oil
flow through the bearing bore by
introducing an overshot groove in
the unloaded half or by adding
bleed chamfers to the axial ends
of oil distribution (oil spreader)
grooving.
FAILURE (OH)
Cause
Boundary lubrication:
With sufficient reduction
in hmin, the operation will
be reduced to boundary
lubrication, with a sharp
increase in friction heating
at the surface.
Remedies
Design approach: (To improve
operating film thickness)
Increase the active area.
Increase the lubricant viscosity.
Increase the design oil flow
through a flooded tilting pad
bearing.
Use a cylindrical bearing.
87
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Anisotropy: This can
eventually lead to
ratcheting if the bearing is
thermally stressed.
88
Remedies
Process approach: (To improve
conduction heat removal)
Provide external cooling with a
water jacket.
Use a copper alloy shell.
Use copper alloy pads for a
tilting-pad design.
Cause Remedies
Faulty bearing geometry: Design approach:
This can lead to oil film
Increase the bearing clearance,
heating due to:
or change to an elliptical
A clearance that is too bearing.
tight
Conduct a lubrication analysis
Pads that have to verify the optimum bearing
excessive angular extent length or pad angular extent
Excessive bearing axial
length
Use of an improper
groove pattern for a
hydrodynamic film
Causes and Remedies (continued)

Cause Remedies Cause Remedies

Extreme operating
conditions: Overheating
may arise as a result of
excessive loads or hot
operating conditions that
result in inadequate hmin.
Crowning may also occur.
Flooded lubrication in
vertical thrust bearings:
Tilting-pad thrust bearings
operated by bath
lubrication (as in vertical
rotors) without assurance
of cool oil entering the
individual pads will be
prone to overheating.
System approach: Avoid
overloading the bearing.
Process approach: Improve
conduction heat removal, such as
by use of a water jacket.
Design approach: Ensure adequate
definition of the circulating flow
within the oil bath.
Inadequate lubricant Process approach: Use a different
viscosity: The heat viscosity grade, and control the
generation may be inlet temperature.
excessive if an oil with too
high a viscosity is used
(leading to high rates of
power dissipation) or if
the operating viscosity is
insufficient to maintain a
hydrodynamic film.
External heat sources: Design approach: Provide sufficient
Turbines, fans, pumps, thermal barrier between high-
and other equipment temperature equipment and the
may handle process bearing.
temperatures higher than
the operating temperature
of the bearing.

89
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (OH)
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Misalignment: Misalignment
will add additional load
to at least a portion of the
loaded segment of the
bearing.
90
Remedies
Check for the following possible
causes:
Faulty manufacturing
Faulty assembly
Deflection of the shaft in or
near the journals
Thermal and elastic distortions
of the bearing and surrounding
parts during operation
Seizure (S)
Definition
Seizure in a journal bearing is caused by a loss of clearance
between the shaft and the bearing. It is characterized by severe
wiping over the most of the 360 around the bearing and may lead
to arrest of the rotating shaft.
Mechanism
Circumstances under which the thermal expansion of the journal
exceeds that of the bearing by the amount of the available
clearance trigger a seizure of the shaft.
One such common situation is due to too rapid a startup of the
machine, during which the journal surface is heated more rapidly
by the oil film than the stationary bearing. For tilting-pad bearings,
this situation is more severe, as the heat flow is restricted through
the pivots, further delaying the thermal expansion of the bearing
housing.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (S)
Guide bearings for vertical shafts, whether fixed geometry or tilting
pad, will also be more sensitive to seizure, as they tend to have a
tighter clearance for a given diameter.
Appearance
Seizure in a bearing leads to wiping around a significant arc, up
to 360, around the damaged bearing. Wiping tends to obscure
underlying details. The bearing may also be somewhat welded on
the shaft, leading to some additional damage during disassembly.
A near-catastrophic case in which the pads were welded to the
runner is shown in Figure 3-102 for a tilting-pad thrust bearing.
Figure 3-100 illustrates a wipe of a 6.3-in. (160-mm) bore tilting-
pad journal bearing when it was started from cold conditions under
light load and brought up to 5,000 rpm rapidly. Full speed was
reached within 2 minutes; seizure and wiping occurred 4.5 minutes
later. The shape of the wiped area centered over the pivot is typical
for an overload of each shoe.
91
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-100 Figure 3-102

Damage to a tilting-pad bearing from seizure Seven-inch (180-mm) runner and thrust pads from a vertical
resulting from excessive acceleration [16]. pump after seizure caused by a loss of lubricant [9].

92
Causes and Remedies
Cause
Starting at an excessive
acceleration rate: Upon
rolling, the journal surface
is heated by the oil film
more efficiently than the
stationary surface is, and
its diameter grows more
rapidly, reducing bearing
clearance.
Operating with clearances
that are too small.
Too much thermal mass: A
bearing support with too
much thermal mass for the
required transient thermal
expansion can lead to
seizure.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (S)
Remedies
Operations approach: Accelerate
to full speed at a very slow rate,
allowing the bearing thermal
expansion to eventually catch up to
that of the journal.
Design approach: Increase the
bearing clearance.
Process approach: Improve the
prewarming of the lubricant and
bearings.
Cause Remedies
Insufficient supply of Process approach: Avoid
lubricant. interruptions to the lubricant
supply.
A sudden increase in load: Operations approach: Avoid
This can possibly lead to sudden increases in load
boundary lubrication. (especially dynamic loads).
Overcooling of the bearing Process approach: Avoid
shell. overcooling the bearing shell.
93
Structural Damage (SD)
Definition
Structural damage refers to a wide spectrum of damages caused
by mechanical faults due to improper manufacturing, assembly, or
installation of the bearing parts and supports.
Mechanism
This category covers a range of damage mechanisms. The follow-
ing are a few specific examples of structural and assembly faults:
Improper Seating: Hard foreign particles trapped between a
bearing shell and its housing may prevent proper fit and uni-
form contact. For thin-wall bearings, normal bearing loads may
then be sufficient to deform the steel shell around that particle
and create a high spot on the bearing face. The high spot will
run hot and wear, which may lead to fatigue breakout.
Excessive Interference Fits: Excessive interference fits may cause
distortion and damage. A loose seat, on the other hand, will
lead to fretting corrosion, as discussed in the Fretting section.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (SD)
Dovetails and Mechanical Anchors: Older bearing design did
not anticipate the strong metallurgical bond between the bab-
bitt and the shell, so recesses were cut into the shell in various
shapes, including a dovetail pattern, to hold the babbitt in the
bearing should the bond fail. (An example of dovetails in a
steel shell is shown in Figure 3-103.) Modern practice omits
dovetails and other forms of mechanical anchors because they
tend to create undesirable stresses, acting as either stress con-
centrations or sites of unequal thermal expansion.
Improper Clamping: When the two halves of a bearing are
clamped together, they are often pulled in, as shown in Figure
3-105, causing the bearing to assume a pinched cross section.
This deformation can lead to a loss of load capacity due to
the increase in vertical clearance, hotter operation, increased
horizontal vibrations, and/or higher stresses at the babbitt-shell
interface.
95
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-105
Figure 3-103 Distortion due to improper clamping of halves of a journal bearing.
Circumferential dovetails cut into a steel shell before
babbitting.

96
Appearance
The appearance of structural damage depends on the underlying
mechanism. One particularly obvious structural fault is due to the
use of dovetails. Because of the higher thermal expansion of bab-
bitt compared to that of steel, the region over the dovetails is more
readily polished than the thinner regions between the dovetails.
This allows the location of the dovetails, or anchors, to be seen in
the polishing pattern on the bearing bore, as in Figure 3-104.

Causes and Remedies

This category covers a wide spectrum of underlying damage mech-
anisms, their common characteristic being that the cause of failure
lies not in the bearing per se, but in its construction or assembly.
Figure 3-104
Polishing over dovetails on a turbine
guide bearing.

97
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (SD)
Surface Wear (SW)
Definition
Surface wear damage consists of the gradual removal of the bab-
bitt surface, causing changes over time in the dimensions of the
bearing bore to a point at which, either because of excessive clear-
ance or distortion of film profile, the operating margin or perfor-
mance of the bearing is seriously degraded.
Mechanism
On a theoretical basis, there are several theories for the mechanism
of wear between two or more contacting surfaces. The following is
a simplified list of these mechanisms:
Mechanical interlocking of the asperities between the bearing
and the journal/runner
Localized formation and rupturing of welds between asperities
of the bearing and journal
Corrosive or erosive action of the lubricant or oxide particles
Polishing abrasive wear by extremely fine particles
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (SW)
Although a bearing undergoing wear may function for a prolonged
period, difficulties and failure will eventually set in. The difficulties
can be one of the following:
Excessive journal bearing clearance due to uniform wear will
lead to a corresponding reduction of operating hmin.
Uniform wear on tapered land thrust bearings will slowly
decrease the depth of the tapered portion as the land region
expands. Wear thus leads toward a parallel surface bearing,
with a steady reduction in load capacity, probably insufficient
to avoid severe wiping.
If wear occurs in restricted parts of the bearing, such as around
hmin, or as a result of turning gear operation at the bottom of the
bearing, as shown in Figure 3-108, then the converging wedge
in the bearing may be altered, and the load capacity of the
bearing reduced.
99
Modes of Bearing Failure

Appearance
Figure 3-108
(a) Geometry of wear in the loaded half of a bearing and (b) the
critical level of ditching (variable d).
The wear resulting from repeated starts/stops and operation
on turning gear is characterized by two features: the wear is
restricted to a longitudinal band of finite width, and it occurs in
line with the load at the bottom of a horizontal bearing under
gravity load. A hydrostatic lift system is sometimes used to
reduce wear at low shaft speeds (Figure 3-114).
In a journal bearing, a asymmetrical wear pattern on the bear-
ing surfaces is an indication of misalignment (Figure 3-122).
Polishing abrasive wear by a large quantity of fine particles dif-
fers from outright abrasion in that no distinct gouging or tracks
of embedded particles are to be seen. Rather, the surface has a
polished appearance with more or less uniform wear over large
regions of the bearing surface.
Grooves or other geometrical and structural patterns on either
the shaft or bearing are likely to produce an equivalent pattern
on the opposite member. Polishing patterns due to dovetails are
shown in Figure 3-121, indicating at least superficial wear.

100
Figure 3-114
Effect of a hydrostatic lift pocket on the
turning gear wear of a 24-in. (610-mm)
turbine journal bearing from
Commonwealth Edison Zion Station Unit
#2 (a) with a lift system; (b) without a lift
system, resulting in 0.005 in. (0.13 mm)
wear after five years of service [17].

101
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (SW)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-122
Three diagonal wear patterns
due to misalignment [3].

Figure 3-121
Evidence of dovetails from polishing wear, along
with abrasive damage and a hydrostatic lift pocket.

102
Causes and Remedies
Cause
Abrasive wear: Steady wear
will occur from the presence of
large amounts of very fine foreign
particles, smaller than the value
of the hmin.
Start-stop cycling: There is
inevitably a period of boundary
lubrication during start-stop
cycles.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (SW)
Remedies
System approach: Reduce
abrasives by improving oil
cleanliness or increasing
the size of the lubricant
reservoir.
System approach: Install lift-
off pockets (Figure 3-114).
Design approach: Apply
surface texture or dimples
to the bearing surface to
improve the retention of oil
during shutdown (especially
for thrust pads).
Cause
Turning gear operation: Wear
will become distinct during long
operation under turning gear
conditions, especially at too low
a speed for a hydrodynamic film.
Inadequate oil:
Inadequate oil for a hydrody-
namic film will lead to wear.
Inadequate oil for boundary
lubrication will increase the
wear when the oil has poor
lubricity or when there is a
lack of appropriate additives.
Remedies
System approach: Increase
the turning gear rpm.
System approach: Avoid
prolonged turning gear
operation.
System approach: Install lift-
off pockets (Figure 3-114).
System approach: Use oil of
a higher viscosity.
System approach: Lower the
oil inlet temperature.
103
Modes of Bearing Failure
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Babbitt Too Soft: Babbitt can be
soft because of its composition or
when it is operating at excessively
high pressures (loads) and
temperatures.
104
Remedies Cause
Process approach: Use a Presence of Unknown Forces:
different babbitt alloy. Unanticipated loads may
reduce the operating hmin to
Design Approach: Increase
a point of causing abrasive
the load capacity by a
longer L/D ratio. or even adhesive wear. Static
loads will have wear over a
Design Approach: Remove narrow circumferential extent
grooves from the loaded of the bearing. Dynamic loads
bearing surface. will lead to wear over a wide
circumferential extent, up to 360.
Remedies
Design approach: Increase
the load capacity by a
longer bearing L/D ratio.
Design approach: Remove
grooves from the loaded
bearing surface.
Design approach: Consider
alternative bore geometry.
System approach: Increase
the load capacity by using
oil of a higher viscosity.
System approach: Increase
the load capacity by
lowering the oil inlet
temperature.
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause
Excessively tight fit: Assembly loss
of clearance and dimensional
interference from differential
expansion or edge loading can
result in wear.
Remedies
Process approach: Ensure
proper alignment and avoid
edge loading.
Operations Approach: Ramp
up the shaft speed slowly,
allowing uniform thermal
expansion of the shaft and
housing.

105
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (SW)
Tin Oxide Damage (TO)
Definition
This is alteration of the babbitt surface by the formation of tin
oxide. The damage arises from the presence of the hard tin oxide
on the softer babbitt surface.
Mechanism
When oxidation is induced by exposure to a weak acidic aque-
ous solution that contains chloride ions, a hydrated oxide can be
formed. This is then converted to stannous oxide (SnO) and to
stannic oxide (SnO2). Some water, sufficient to carry on a reaction,
is always present in the oil; small amounts of negative ions such as
chloride (Cl) must be present.
The following are the harmful consequences of tin oxide formation:
It forms hard black layers of tin oxide to a depth of 4 mils
(100m) or more on the tin matrix.
Because the oxide is very hard, it prevents embedment of dirt or
abrasive particles in the tin babbitt itself.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (TO)
The tin oxide layer is brittle and can break off upon reaching
sufficient thickness, particularly on thrust pads that undergo
thermal and mechanical flexing.
Released particles of tin oxide, being harder than the babbitt
and harder than steel, can cause abrasion of journals.
The oxide occupies a larger volume than tin, so it protrudes into
the working clearance for the hydrodynamic film.
The chlorides represent undesirable electrolytes.
Appearance
The appearance of a bearing surface covered by tin oxide,
except for spalled areas, is shown in Figure 3-132.
The oxide coating is recognized as being dark brown to black
(primarily due to the presence of stannous oxide) against the
bright color of the normal babbitt. If iron rust is present and it
catalyzes the tin oxide reactions, the rust itself can be expected
to darken the film.
107
Modes of Bearing Failure

Appearance (continued)
Field experience indicates that when the oxide film exceeds
25mils (0.64 mm) in thickness, it is likely to crack and break
off. Finding particles of SnO2 either on the babbitt surface or in
the oil indicates an advanced stage of SnO2 corrosion.
Figure 3-134 compares the depth of penetration of a diamond
indenter on the dark tin oxide with the indentation on the
surrounding babbitt.

Figure 3-132
Presence of hard tin oxide over the surface of a 19-in. (48-cm)
thrust-bearing shoe run in contaminated oil after spalling [9].

108
 Causes and Remedies

Cause Remedies
Presence of negative ions: Systems approach: Fix
Chloride ions are the most cooler leaks.
common. Systems approach: Avoid
using brackish water for an
oil cooler.

Figure 3-134
Relative depth of a diamond indentation, showing the harder
tin oxide (top) compared with the babbitt (bottom) [3].
109
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (TO)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Special Diagnostic Tools

Hardness Test: On the Brinell scale, the hardness of the tin oxide
is 200 to 600, nearly file hard, compared with 24 Brinell for
the babbitt.
Brittleness: The oxide layer is brittle; because it lies on a soft
babbitt, it tends to crack and break off, leaving bare areas on
the surface. The pieces that break off may then be found in the
oil.
X-Ray Examination: When the tin oxides are examined by X-ray
diffraction techniques, the presence of both the stannous and
stannic oxides can be identified.

110
Wiping (W)
Definition
Wiping is a form of damage that occurs whenever a substantial
(visual) amount of babbitt is displaced or removed, likely by direct
contact with the journal or runner. Often, this material is redepos-
ited at another location on the bearing surface or on an edge.
Mechanism
Three mechanisms can cause wiping:
Sufficient softening of the babbitt can occur as a consequence
of high operating temperatures.
The bearing metal may be plastically deformed by mechanical
cold working by the journal.
Abnormal hydrodynamic pressures developed near hmin may
cause local plastic deformation of the babbitt.
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (W)
Appearance
The general appearance of a wiping is given in Figure 3-135.
There is a broad polished area with a buildup of displaced babbitt
downstream (counterclockwise rotation in Figure 3-135) of the
polishing. In this case, high temperatures were generated during
the wiping, and portions of the wiped area look dark and bur-
nished (this is usually a result of damage to the lubricant). If the
temperatures during the wipe are not high, the damaged area has
a polished appearance.
Some additional photographs of wiping along with the expected
underlying cause are the following:
Figure 3-138 is a typical case of a light to moderate wipe. A
layer of babbitt has been displaced from its original location
to a low-pressure region, where its deposition on the previous
surface can be noticed both by appearance and touch.
In Figure 3-139, the wiping is concentrated on one axial end of
the bearing bore as a result of severe misalignment.
In Figure 3-140, the bearing wiped as a consequence of severe
abrasion damage from contamination by lignite dust.
111
Modes of Bearing Failure

Figure 3-135 Figure 3-138

Wipe of a large turbine bearing with counterclockwise Light wipe on the loaded half of a bearing due to a temporary
rotation [20]. loss of lubricant supply. (Used with permission from
McGraw-Hill)
112
Figure 3-139 Figure 3-140
Wiping of a steam turbine journal bearing due to tilt Wiping of an 8.5-in. (21-cm) journal bearing after abrasion
misalignment. (Used with permission from Ontario Hydro) damage from lignite in the oil. (Used with permission from Turbine
Engine Div., Westinghouse Electric Corp)
113
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (W)
Modes of Bearing Failure

Causes and Remedies

Cause Remedies Cause Remedies

Primary causes for wiping: Design approach: To mitigate
Misalignment misalignment, reduce the
length of the journal bearing
Tight clearances
or the OD of the thrust
Startup conditions related to bearing.
lubricant supply Design approach: To
Differences between cold and allow for better alignment
hot alignment during assembly, introduce
spherically mounted
Elastic and thermal distortions
bearings.
Overload Design approach: To mitigate
Rotordynamic instability overload, increase the L/D
ratio of the bearing bore.
Shocks
Primary causes for wiping: System approach: To
(continued) mitigate overload, use
higher-viscosity oil or lower
Improper assembly
oil inlet temperature.
Unexpected load angle
Design approach: Rotate the
Oil starvation bearing in the seat to obtain
Boundary lubrication the optimum load capacity.
Design approach: If overload
is an issue, reduce the
preload in a preloaded
bearing.

114
Causes and Remedies (continued)
Cause Remedies
Secondary wiping: Wiping as a See the remedies for
consequence of other damage the specific damage
mechanisms that lead to bearing- mechanisms that lead to
to-journal/runner contact: the initiation of secondary
wiping.
Fatigue wiping
Hydrogen blisters
Tin oxide
Corrosion
Electromagnetic spark tracks

115
3. MODES OF BEARING
FAILURE (W)
4. Diagnostic and Remedial Procedure

4. DIAGNOSTIC AND 117

REMEDIAL PROCEDURE
Diagnostic and Remedial Procedure

Diagnostic-Remedial Procedure
Following a correct identification of the mode of failure, the next
logical steps are to determine the root cause of failure, choose an
appropriate remedial action, and execute the repairs necessary
for operation to resume. A typical diagnostic-remedial process is
illustrated for a specific case of abrasion in the flow chart in Figure
5-2. Note that this example is illustrative in nature because root
causes of a failure are specific to the particular plant or event and
must consider operations and maintenance data as well as the
condition of the bearing surface.

118
 Incident Lab Results Plant Operation Data Seal Improvement
Rise in Tmax Particles Semi-desert environ-
identified as ment Bearing Repair
sand
New filters recently Re-babbitt bearing
Bearing Symptoms No sand in installed Rebore to elliptical
Tracks in loaded half lube system
Shaft score marks design
Scored journal Some sand adjacent to seals Cut overshot groove
in bearing
Embedded particles No wear in other on upper half
housing
parts

Mode of Failure Root Cause of Abrasion Remedial Action Resume Operation

Abrasion by large Abrasion by atmospheric Convert bearing to
hard particles sand due to faulty seals overshot design
Improve method of
sealing

Figure 5-2
Illustrative diagnostic-remedial procedure for a particular case of bearing abrasion.

119
4. DIAGNOSTIC AND
REMEDIAL PROCEDURE
Diagnostic and Remedial Procedure
Advanced Diagnostic Tools
Section 3 of this field guide includes numerous figures showing
visual symptoms for identifying particular modes of bearing failure.
Among these were a number of low-magnification photographs
that supplied additional details. The following is a list of additional
diagnostic tools available for identifying the nature of bearing dam-
age to help diagnose the root cause.
Simple Bench Methods:
Rough analysis of the foreign particles embedded in a bearing.
Iron components can be identified by their magnetism. Copper,
brass, and aluminum can be identified by color.
Baths can be used to determine whether poor bonding contrib-
uted to fatigue failure.
Spot tests can provide a record of both the composition and
distribution of the elements on a bearing surface.
120
Replica Method for Surface Examination: Besides replicating the
topography of the bearing surface for convenient microscopic
examination, replicas can embed and detach contaminant particles
or reaction products from surfaces.
Used Oil Debris Analysis:
Filtering: Establish the dirt content of used turbine oils.
Particle Counting: Report contaminant particles greater than
4m (0.16 mils) in size.
Spectroscopic analyzer: Identify the type and quantity of metal
present.
Ferrography: A technique for analyzing particles present in
fluids that have been magnetically separated onto a microscope
slide for viewing can be used.
Lubricant Analysis: Commonly available standard tests of used Table 4-2
lubricating oil are listed in Table 4-2. Additional information on the Laboratory methods for used oil evaluation [21].
testing and required standards of oil and associated lubrication sys-
tems in electric utilities is documented in some detail in EPRI report Type of Test ASTM/ISO Factors Indicated by Results
CS-4555, Guidelines for Maintaining Steam Turbine Lubrication Designation
Systems [25]. Viscosity D445 Type of lubricant
Microscopic Examination: Microscopic examination can be per- Viscosity-temperature
formed on the surface of babbitt using a handheld microscope. properties
Dilution by fuels
Extent of oxidation
Contamination
Neutralization D974-53T Extent of oxidation
number D664-52 Corrosiveness
Remaining D7590- Fraction of key antioxidants
antioxidants 09e1 remaining
Rotating Pressure D2272 Remaining oil life
Vessel Oxidation
Test (RPVOT)
121
4. DIAGNOSTIC AND
REMEDIAL PROCEDURE
Diagnostic and Remedial Procedure

Table 4-2 (continued)

Laboratory methods for used oil evaluation [21].

Type of Test ASTM/ISO Factors Indicated by Results Type of Test ASTM/ISO Factors Indicated by Results
Designation Designation
Wear metal D6595- Determination of wear and Flash point D92-52 Dilution by fuel
analysis 00(2011) contaminants
Pour point D97-47 Low-temperature utility
Particle counts ISO 11171 Reporting of contaminant
particles greater than 4 m Foam D892-46T Resistance to oil foaming
(0.16 mils) in size Contamination
Color D155-45T Extent of oxidation Insolubles D893-52T Dirt, wear products, and
Contamination contamination
Cleanliness of system Rusting D665-53T Antirust qualities
Density D287-53T Dilution by fuel Remaining rust inhibitor
Contamination Varnish condition N/A Qualitative spectrographic
analysis (QSA)

122
Bearing Refurbishment and Repair
The final step after bearing damage or failure is the replacement
of the failed bearing with a new or, more likely, by a refurbished
bearing. This field guide is obviously not the source for detailed
understanding of the refurbishment process or associated manu-
facturing practices. However, some focus is placed on aspects of
bearing repair and refurbishment that can be performed on site.
Minor Repairs
Babbitt surfaces can be damaged by abrasion, embedded debris,
corrosion, wiping, electrical pitting, erosion, wear, thermal ratchet-
ing, and rough handling. To restore the bearing, the damaged
babbitt can be removed. The remaining thickness should be at least
50% of the original thickness, but not less than 0.02 in. (0.5 mm).
The removal should be sufficient to expose undamaged material,
noting that some repair processes may obscure subsurface dam-
age. The following are some practical approaches to removing and
refinishing damaged babbitt.
4. DIAGNOSTIC AND
REMEDIAL PROCEDURE
Minor Repair of Thrust Bearing Pads
In the case of minor damage to flat thrust surfaces, these can be
refinished using the following procedure: (1) Place a sheet of
0.0012-in. (30-m) Mylar1 micro finishing film on a flat, smooth
surface. (2) Coat the film liberally with kerosene or mineral
spirits. (3) Rotate the shoe on the film using a circular motion.
In the case of embedded debris, use a scribe, pick, or other
sharp instrument to remove the contaminants prior to refinishing
the babbitt.
Where minor corrosion (for example, tin oxide) is present,
scrubbing the babbitt face with Bear-Tex2 or Scotch-Brite3 will
normally remove the coating. Then refinish as stated previously.
Nonequalizing thrust shoes may be repaired in the same man-
ner as above. However, care must be taken to ensure that the
resulting variation in thickness between shoes in a set does not
exceed 0.0005 in. (13 m).
1
Mylar is a registered trademark of DuPont Teijin Films.
2
Bear-Tex is a registered trademark of Saint Gobain Abrasives.
3
Scotch-Brite is a registered trademark of 3M.
123
Diagnostic and Remedial Procedure
Journal Bearings
Full circular journal bearings can be repaired in the field using
a 0.0012-in. (30-m) Mylar film and Bear-Tex or Scotch-Brite.
Use care not to remove too much material, which would change
the dynamics of the bearing. Obtain the contact pattern of
the bearing to the shaft by applying Prussian blue to the shaft,
resting the bearing on the shaft, and visually inspecting contact
areas.
Elliptical, three-lobe, or lemon bore journal bearings are more
difficult to refinish using this procedure. Extreme care must be
taken not to change the special configurations of the bearing
bore. These repairs are best done by the original manufacturer.
Pivoted-shoe journal bearings are the most difficult to repair in
the field. Normally, the radial thickness of the shoe is held to a
0.0005-in. (13-m) tolerance. For this reason, only a minimal
amount of material can be removed. Minor scratches should be
treated with nothing more abrasive than Bear-Tex or Scotch-
Brite.
124
Supporting Pivot Contacts
Supporting contact surfaces can be damaged as a result of
overload, fretting corrosion, electrical pitting, or handling. If
damage to these surfaces causes the component to be out of
tolerance, it should be considered a major repair. The main
consideration is to verify that no burrs or bruises that would affect
the tilting operation of the bearing are present on the surfaces.
Light filing or sanding should be used to remove damage. Do not
remove excess material from these areas because this may cause
the supported component to become out of tolerance.
Thrust Collars and Runners
Correct minor abrasive scratches using a fine oilstone (600
grit). Always use liberal quantities of kerosene and/or mineral
spirits when using the stone, and work in a circular pattern to
avoid creating low areas.
Repair minor corrosion (rust) in the same manner. Any deep
corrosion of 0.001 in. (25 m) or greater requires major
refinishing.
 Repair fretting corrosion using the same technique as long as
the corrosion is not too deep and the size of the part would
not require excessive time to refinish by hand. If the rotat ing
thrust component is fretted, more than likely the supporting
componentfor example, the thrust block, shaft locating
diameter, or flangewill also be fretted. Inspect both surfaces
to ensure that they are not more severely damaged than the
thrust component.
Inspect thrust collars and runners for parallelism and for any
handling damage. If damage is detected, do not remove the
raised area with a file, particularly if the damaged area is on
a running surface. Using extreme care, peen the metal, and
burnish it back to the spot from which it was displaced without
removing or polishing operating surfaces. After the burnishing
is completed, refinish the surface using the procedures
described previously for repairing minor abrasions or corrosion.
4. DIAGNOSTIC AND
REMEDIAL PROCEDURE
Major Repairs
Major repair is understood to be repair of a form of damage that
is too extensive to be performed by hand and can be completed
more expeditiously and accurately using tools available in a
suitable machine shop or specialized bearing repair facility. In
general, repairs of thrust and journal bearings may consist of
puddling (for the repair of local damage) or complete re-babbitting.
The intent is to restore the surface of the babbitt to an as-new
condition. The refinishing of tilting-pad journal bearing shoes and
preloaded fixed-geometry bearings requires design knowledge that
may be available only to the original manufacturer.
Be aware that the original bearing manufacturer may have used
standard parts in a particular bearing. Many manufacturers
stock various sizes and styles of thrust components. It may be less
expensive and more expeditious to contact the manufacturer before
becoming involved in extensive repairs.
125
Contact Information Other EPRI Visual Field Guides
G. Lanthorn Turbine Steam Path Damage, E235332
Project Manager, Steam Turbines and Generators HRSG Tube Failure, 1021121
1300 West W.T. Harris Blvd. Boiler Tube Failures Field Guide, 1017471
Charlotte, NC 28262 Corona Rings for Polymer Insulators, 1008741
Daytime Discharge Inspection of Transmission and Distribution
Tel: 704.595.2623 Overhead Lines and Substations, 1020294
E-mail: glanthorn@epri.com Did That Transformer Really Fail?, 1018098
Inspection of Transmission Line Grounding Systems, 1020290
Infrared (IR) Thermagraphy for Substations, 1016825
NOTE: If you experience conditions not identified in this guide or Live Working Rope, 1018666
if you have photos to submit for inclusion in future iterations of this Lubrication of High-Voltage Circuit Breakers (HVCBs), 1017764
guide, contact EPRI at the address above. Visual Inspection of Polymer Insulators, 1020289
Visual Inspection of Porcelain and Glass Disc Insulators, 1020288
Visual Inspection of Steel Structures, 1018971
Visual Inspection of Steel Structure Foundations, 1020291
Visual Inspection of Wood Structures, 1020293

127
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