METALLURGY

MINERAL PROCESSING

Mineral Processing/ Ore Dressing/ Mineral Dressing/ Milling usually follows mining and
prepares the ore for extraction of valuable metal or commercial end product of a non-
metallic minerals
Mill plant where mineral processing is usually carried out
As-mined / Run-of-mine consists of valuable metallic minerals and gangue
Concentrate enriched portion; contains most of the valuable minerals
Tailings contains predominantly the gangue minerals
Middlings locked mineral and gangue

2 Fundamental Operations in Mineral Processing:

1. Liberation release of valuable minerals from their waste/gangue
- accomplished by Comminution
2. Concentration separation of these values from the gangue

Comminution process of progressively reducing the particle size until the clean particles of
mineral can be separated by available methods
- includes crushing and grinding
Comminution Theory concerned with the relationship between energy input and the
particle size made from a given feed size
1. Rittingers Law - states that the energy consumed in the size reduction is proportional
to the area of the new surfac produced.
2. Kicks Law - the work required is proportional to the reduction in volume of the
particles concerned
3. Bonds Law work input is proportional to the new crack tip length produced in
particle breakage, and equals the work represented by the product minus that
represented by the feed.
Degree of Liberation refers to the percentage of the mineral occurring as free particles in
the ore in relation to the total content
Optimum Mesh of Grind determined in the laboratory and/or pilot scale testwork to
produce the economic degree of liberation
Ore Grindability refers to the ease with which materials can be comminuted
- commonly measured by Bonds Work Index
Sieve Analysis accomplished by passing a known weight of sample material successively
through finer sieves and weighing the amount collected on each sieve to determine the
percentage weight in each fraction

Crushing the first mechanical stage in the process of comminution in which the main
objective is the liberation of the valuable minerals from the gangue
a.) Primary Crushing first crushing process done to primarily reduce the size of the
run-of-mine
- Jaw Crushers, Gyratory Crushers

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 b.) Secondary Crushing includes all operation for reclining the primary crusher product
from ore storage to the disposal of the final crusher product, which is usually between
0.5 cm to 2 cm diameter.
- Cone Crushers, Impact Crushers

Open-Circuit Crushing Closed-Circuit Crushing

Grinding last stage in the process of comminution

- in this stage, the particles are reduced in size by a combination of impact
and abrasion, either dry or in suspension in water.
- Most energy intensive operation in mineral processing
- Rod Mills, Ball Mills, Tube Mills, Autogenous Mills, SAG Mills
- Open/closed-circuit grinding
Circulating Load material returned to the mill by the classifier

Screening
Main purpose of Screening:
1. to prevent entry of undersize materials into crushing machines, so increasing their
efficiency and capacity
2. to prevent oversize material from passing to the next stage in closed-circuit fine
crushing and grinding operations
3. to prepare a closely-sized end product
Stationary Screens Grizzly, Sieve Bend
Moving Screens Revolving Screens, Shaking Screens, Reciprocating Screens, Gyratory
Screens, Vibrating Screens

Classification method of separating mixtures of minerals into 2 or more products on the

basis of the velocity with which the grains fall through a fluid medium
Classifiers:
1. Hydraulic classifiers vertical current
- hindered settling types
2. Mechanical Classifiers horizontal current
- free settling type
- spiral classifier, rake classifier
hydrocyclone continuously operating classifying device that utilizes centrifugal force to
accelerate the settling rate of particles

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Concentration
Physical Methods used to concentrate ores:
1. separation dependent on optical and radioactive properties
eg.) hand sorting, photometric sorting
2. separation dependent on specific gravity differences
eg.) jigs, pinched sluices, spirals, shaking tables, pneumatic tables, centrifugal
concentrators
3. separation utilizing the surface properties of the minerals
Froth flotation utilizes the differences in physico-chemical surface properties
of particles
Direct flotation valuable mineral is floated
Reverse Flotation gangue is floated
Bulk Flotation recovers as many of the economic minerals as possible in one
flotation
Flotation Reagents:
i. collector makes the mineral surface hydrophobic
ii. frother stabilizes bubble attachment
iii. regulators modifies the action of the collector either by intensifying
or reducing its water-repellent effect on mineral surface
1. activators alters the chemical nature of mineral surface so that
they become hydrophobic due to the action of collectors
2. depressants used to increase the selectivity of flotation by
rendering certain minerals hydrophilic, preventing their flotation
Classification of Flotation Machines:
a. Pneumatic Air
b. Mechanical impeller
4. separation dependent on magnetic properties
diamagnetics not reactive with magnet
paramagnetics weak magnetic properties
ferromagnetics high magnetic properties
Equipment: Drum Separators, Induced Roll separators, Jones Separator
5. separation dependent on electrical conductivity properties (ex. High Tension
Separation)

Dewatering solid-liquid separation

Classifications:
1. Sedimentation most efficient when there is large density difference between solid
and liquid
eg.) thickeners
2. Filtration separation of solid from liquid by means of porous medium which
retains the solid but allows the liquid to pass
eg.) vacuum filter, pressure filter
3. thermal drying

Tailings Dam where treated wastes are disposed

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Recovery percentage of the total metal contained in the ore that is recovered in the
concentrate
Grade approximately inversely related with recovery
Ratio of Concentration weight of the feeds: weight of the concentrate
Enrichment Ratio grade of the concentrate: grade of the feed

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HYDROMETALLURGY

Hydrometallurgy is concerned with the production of metals or metallic compounds from

primary and secondary metallurgical raw materials wherein some of the reactions are
carried out in aqueous solutions at ambient temperature and pressure.

General Process Flow

Leaching / Dissolution dissolution of the ore or some minerals in the ore using an
aqueous solvent
eg. ) dump leaching, in situ leaching, heap leaching, pressure leaching, agitation leaching
Concentration Leaching desired metal is brought into solution
Separation Leaching removes undesirable constituent in the ore, rendering the solid more
marketable
Lixiviant Leaching Reagent
Refactory ores: (hard to leach) malachite
Common Leaching Reagents:
1. water
2. aqueous salt solution (eg. NaCl, Cyanide, Sodium Sulfide)
3. Acids (eg. Aqua regia)
4. Bases (eg. NaOH)

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Pregnant Solution - solution that contains the valuable metal
Concentration / Purification removal of undesirable constituents in the pregnant solution
Purification techniques:
a. Ion Exchange uses natural synthetic absorbents which exchange specific ions for
metal ions in solution
b. Solvent extraction partitioning/ separation wherein the desired metal in the
pregnant solution is extracted with an organic liquid which is immiscible
Extractant active constituent of the organic phase
- types: ethers, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, amines, organic acids
Stripping small volume of aqueous solution is made to contact the loaded organic
phase the desired end-state being the transfer of the metal species back to the
aqueous phase
Carriers- organic solvents in which the extractant is soluble but is immiscible in water

Metal Winning final recovery of metal/ metallic product

Techniques:
a. Crystallization - based on supersaturation of metal complexes in solution
-eg. Copper Sulfate
b. Carbon Adsorption
Carbon in Pulp (CIP) leaching then adsorption
Carbon in Leach (CIL) leaching and adsorption at the same time
c. Precipitation uses solid or gaseous precipitants
d. Electrolytic deposition uses electricity to recover high purity metal
Electrolysis involves metal recovery by passing electrochemical current through the
pregnant solution

Typical Leaching Reagents:

1. Water used in leaching of calcines from sulfating or chloridizing roast
2. Aqueous salt solution
a. NaCl
b. Sodium Carbonate
c. Ferric Sulfate
d. Cyanide
e. Sodium Sulfide
3. Acids used for oxide ores
a. H2SO4 -cheap and has minimum corrosion effects
b. HCl/HNO3 - used on a very limited extent
c. Aqua Regia - used for leaching native Pt
4. Bases
a. NaOH- bauxite dissolution
b. NH3 metals whch forms ammines

Practical Leaching Systems:

1. Dump Leaching involves leaching of low-grade sulfide; oxide ores coming from
ining operations
- No ground preparation; no ore preparation

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2. In Situ Leaching Leaching in Place
- Used to recover residual values in underground mining operations as well as for
deep seated sulfur deposits
- Procedure involves flooding the underground system wth lixiviant and
occasional recovery of pregnant solution
3. Heap Leaching involves recovery of copper from oxides; Au/Ag from low grade
deposit
- Ground preparation in required (impervious surface)
e.g. Tamped clay surface, water proof asphalt, water proof concrete
- Ore preparation- Crushed to
- Cycle time: weeks - months
4. Vat Leaching walls are constructed to secure ore material
- Ore preparation same as heap leaching
- Cycle time is weeks

5. Agitation leaching pulp/ore + lixiviant (40-60% solids) is agitated to suspend the

solids in the leaching reagent
- Grinding of ore is required
- CIP( leach before adsorption) / CIL (low grade carbon and cyanide together)
- Stripping solution -2%HCL and caustic soda
6. Pressure Leaching uses an autoclave to achieve high temperature and pressure
- Used for refractory ores

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Gold

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PYROMETALLURGY

Pyrometallurgy branch of extractive metallurgy which deals with the recovery and
purification of metals using heat and dry reagents

Metallurgical Fuels
Type Natural/Primary Manufactured/Secondary
Solid coal, lignite, peat, wood coke, charcoal
Liquid petroleum petrol distillates, alcohols,
tar, colloidal fuel
Gaseous natural gas coal gas, city gas

Coal largest single source of energy for metallurgical industry

- non-crystalline high carbon rock formed by prolonged action of geologic forces on
vegetal matter
Coke coherent cellular residue from bituminous coal produced by the destructive distillation
in the absence of air
Autogenous Process process that does not require fuel or electrical heat

Common Pyrometallurgical Processes

Drying thermal removal of liquid moisture from a material, and is usually
accomplished by contacting the moist solids with hot combustion gases
- rotary dryers, fluidized bed dryers, flash dryers
Calcining thermal decomposition of a material such as hydrates, calcium carbonate
and iron carbonate
- shafte furnace, rotary kilns, fluidized bed reactors
Roasting - a metallurgical process involving gas-solids reactions at elevated
temperatures
Smelting reduction that makes use of a reducing agent, commonly a fuel that is a
source of carbon to change the oxidation state of the metal
- blast furnace
Refining final procedure for removing the last small amounts of impurities

Phases in Metallurgical Systems

Dross solid impurities found floating on top of low melting temperature metals/alloys
of Sn, Pb, Zn and Al.
Slag molten solution of sulfides found on top of molten metal or matte
Matte molten solution of sulfides formed during the smelting of Cu, Ni and Pb.
Speiss unwanted molten solution of arsenides of Fe, Co, Ni and Cu.

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Copper

Iron

Lead

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Zinc

Tin

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PHYSICAL/ADAPTIVE METALLURGY

Physical Metallurgy deals with the structure and properties of metals

Two structures studied in Physical metallurgy:

1. Crystal structure arrangement of atoms in the metal
2. Microstructure microscopic arrangement of the components or phases within a
metal

Property measurable or observable attribute of a material

Three types of properties of a metal:

1. Physical properties characteristic responses of materials to forms of energy such as
heat, light, electricity, magnetism
a. Density mass per unit volume of a material
b. Specific gravity - ratio of the density of a material to the density of water
c. Melting Point temperature at which a material passes from a solid to liquid
state
d. Thermal Heat Capacity amount of thermal energy required to raise a unit
mass by one degree
e. Specific heat ratio of the heat capacity of a material to the heat capacity of
water
f. Thermal Conductivity rate at which thermal energy flows through a material
g. Coefficient of thermal expansion increase in a dimension of a metal per
unit dimension per unit degree rise in temperature
h. Coefficient of Linear Expansion increase in length per unit length per
degree temperature rise
i. Electrical Conductivity rate at which electrons move through atoms causing
current to flow
j. Electrical Resistivity electrical resistance of a unit volume of a material
k. Superconductivity complete reduction of electrical resistance in a material at
temperatures near absolute zero
l. Magnetic Susceptibility Intensity of Magnetism produced in a material when
it is placed in a magnetic field
m. Magnetic Permeability measurement of the ease with which a ferromagnetic
metal can be magnetized and demagnetized

2. Mechanical properties characteristic dimensional changes in response to applied

external or internal mechanical forces
Mechanical Forces:
a. Tension force that occurs when the load is applied axially
b. Compression a force that occurs when the load is applied axially
c. Shear a stress caused by two equal and parallel forces acting upon an object
from opposite directions
d. Torsion internal resisting force in which shear stresses occur by twisting of
the test specimen
e. Flexure force that causes the bending of the test specimen

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 Stress internal resistance of a material to an externally
Strain accompanying change in dimensions when a load induces stress in a
material
Damping Capacity rate at which a material dissipates energy of vibration
Fatigue failure of a material or component under alternating cyclic stress
Fatigue Strength stress at which a material fails by fatigue after a specific number
of cycles
Static Tensile Strength tensile strength of a material before it is subjected to
alternating stresses
Toughness ability of a metal absorb energy and deform plastically before fracturing
Fracture Toughness resistance of metals to brittle fracture propagation in the
presence of stress raisers
Hardness resistance to deformation

3. Chemical properties characteristic responses of materials in low and high

temperature chemical environments
- Chemical reactivity, corrosion resistance, electrochemical potential,
irradiation resistance, resistance to acids, resistance to alkalies, solubility

Process Condition used to describe the condition the metals are supplied in, such as
annealed, tempered or cold worked
a. Cast produced from molten metal solidifying in a mold cavity
b. Wrought worked into finish forms (drawing, extruding, rolling, pressing)
c. Powders used when stringent composition controls are required

Alloys materials that have metallic properties and are composed of two or more chemical
elements; at least one element in an alloy is a metal
Eg. Carbon Steels Iron plus 1.2% Carbon
Stainless Steels with Chromium, Nickel or Molybdenum
Alloy Types:
1. Ferrous major alloying element is iron
- Carbon steels, low-alloy steels, tool steels, cast irons, stainless steels
2. Non-ferrous all other pure metals and alloy systems

Superalloys various high-stength, often complex alloys having resistance to elevated

temperatures

Methods of Investigating the Structure of Metals:

1. Metallography viewing the structure of an etched metal under a metallurgical
microscope to reveal grain boundaries, second phase or inclusions.
2. X-ray Diffraction
3. Electron Microscope
4. Neutron Bombardment

Equilibrium Diagrams a diagram that deals with the structure of two-metal and three-
metal alloy in relation to temperature

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Metal Forming Methods:
1. Casting pouring of molten metal into a mold where solidification occurs
2. Working / wrought
a. Forging heated then deformed by beating
b. Rolling forming steel into long lengths
c. Extruding forcing the heated material through a die
d. Tube Drawing
e. Stamping widely used process for making large quantities of relatively small
parts
f. Spinning making small quantities of articles having rotational symmetry
g. Coining impressing of a design into a metal surface
h. Embossing raising of a design in a relief above a metal surface
3. Powder Metallurgy pressing finely powdered metal in a die to form the desired
shape and then heating (sintering) the resulting compact to cause the individual
particles to weld together
4. Electroforming involves forming a heavy electroplated layer on a mold, and then
removing the mold, leaving the plated shell as the final product

Iron

Cementation Process addition of carbon to the iron to increase the hardness of iron
Wrought Iron iron with slag
- could not be cast; needs to b forged to the desired shape
Pig iron / Cast iron slag-free molten iron
- Brittle due to high amount of carbon

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Blister Steel hardenable cemented wrought iron
Crucible Process melting blister steel or wrought iron together with charcoal and fluxes in
a heated crucible
Blast Furnace utilizes carbon monoxide and carbon (coke) as reducing agents for iron
oxide
Open-Hearth Furnace crude pig iron produced by blast furnace is converted into steel
- Reverbatory type, in which a long flame originating at a burner at one end of the
furnace plays over the surface of the metal bath
Bessemer Process a stream of air is forced through about fifteen tons of molten pig iron to
convert it to steel
- No external source of heat is needed, since the oxidation of the silicon,
manganese, and carbon of th cast iron liberates enough heat to more than
compensate for the cooling effects
Bessemer Steel not the highest quality because of high sulphur and phosphorus content,
high nitrogen and oxygen content large numbers of non metallic inclusions such as
slag particles
Elecltric Arc Furnace same with Open0hearth but the use of electrical heating permits
better control of te composition and temperature of the metal bath than in the open
hearth furnace
Oxygen Steelmaking Furnace crap steel, molten pig iron, and slag forming materials are
charges into the furnace and a stream of oxygen is played on the surface of the bath

Copper

Ores of copper average less than 1/10 as rich must be treated by ore dressing methods in
order to yield product that can be smelted profitably.

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Aluminum

Bauxite a hydrated aluminium oxide

- Principal compound used in aluminium manufacture
Bayer Process refining step that produced a very pure aluminium oxide
- The crushed ore is treated with a hot sodium hydroxide solution, which dissolves
the aluminium oxide and leaves the impurities as a residue. When the solution
cools, aluminium hydroxide is precipitated and is converted to aluminium oxide by
heating
Hall principle metallic aluminium is produced when aluminium oxide is electrolyzed in a
bath of molten cryolite

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FIRE ASSAYING

Fire assaying - the quantitative determination in which a metal or metals are separated from
impurities by fusion processes and weighed in order to determine the amount
present in the original sample

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