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Steel structures

Professor Josef Machacek

1. Lateral-torsional instability of beams.


2. Buckling of plates.
3. Thin-walled steel members.
4. Torsion of members.
5. Fatigue of steel structures.
6. Composite steel and concrete structures.
7. Tall buildings.
8. Industrial halls.
9. Large-span structures.
10. Masts, towers, chimneys.
11. Silos and tanks.
12. Technological structures.
13. Reserve.

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


1. Lateral-torsional buckling
Introduction (stability and strength), critical moment, strength, interaction,
method of Eurocode.

Stability of ideal (straight) beam under bending


impulse


L
Mcr
segment laterally supported
in bending and torsion

Strength of real beam (with imperfections 0, 0)


M
bifurcation under bending
fy
Mcr,1 Mb,Rd = LTW y
LTW yfy M1
reduction factor LT
strength depends on:
W y fy
0,0 , LT =
M cr
initial
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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Stability of ideal beam under bending (determination of Mcr)
Fz
zz "Basic beam"
(with y-y axis of symmetry, simply supported in bending
and torsion, loaded only by M)
y y S Two equations of equilibrium (for lateral and torsional buckling)
hf

S=G may be unified into one equation:

d 4 d2 M 2
EI w GI t + =0
dx 4 dx 2 EI z
z

The first non-trivial solution gives M = Mcr:

EI zGIt 2EI w EI zGIt


M cr = 1+ = cr
L L2GIt L

2EI w EI w
where cr = 1 + = 1 + wt
2
wt =
L2GIt L GI t

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Generally for beams with cross-sections according to picture (EN 1993-1-1):

cr =
C1
k z
1 + wt
2
(
+ C2 g C3 j ) (C
2
2 g C3 j )

EIw zg EIz zj EIz
w t = g = j =
k w LLT GI t k z LLT GI t k z LLT GI t

zaz zzg FFz z


Fz Fz Fz Fz
a g
Fz
zz (C)
z z z z
z
S
zs
S
G
hf = hs

zs yy S G S G S S G y S G y
G y y y
G

(T)
symmetry about z-z symmetry about k y-y, loading through shear centre

C1 represents mainly shape of bending moment,


C2 comes in useful only if loading is not applied in shear centre,
C3 comes in useful only for cross-sections non-symmetrical about y-y.

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Procedure to determine Mcr:
1. Divide the beam into segments of lengths LLT according to lateral support:
segment 3
segment 2
segment 1 e.g. segment 1: (LLT,1)

lateral support (bracing) both in bending and torsion


(lateral support only "near" compression flange is sufficient)
2. Define shape of moment in the segment: from table factor C1 1:

1 2 3 ~2,56
1 ~1,77

e.g. segment 2: a) usually linear distribution

b) almost never
~1,13 ~1, 35
(because loading creates here a continuous support)

3. Determine support of segment ends: kz = 1 (pins for lateral bending)


(actually ratio of "effective length") kw = 1 (free warping of cross-section)
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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Other cases of k :
warping warping (non-planar cross-section)

kz = 1 angle of torsion kz = 1
kw = 1 is zero kw = 0,5

stiffener non-rigid stiffener rigid


in torsion in torsion ( tube)
possible lateral buckling possible lateral buckling

kz = 0,7 conservatively kz = 1
konzervativn
(theor. kz hodnoty
= kw = 0,5)
kw = 1 kw = 0,7 (conservatively 1)

structure torsionally
rigid torsionally torsionally rigid
non-rigid
possible lateral buckling

Cantilever: - only if free end is not laterally and torsionally supported (otherwise, concerning
Mcr, this case is not a cantilever but normal beam segment),
- for cantilever with free end: kz = kw = 2 (usually with lateral loading, see next).
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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


4. Formula for Mcr depends also on position of loading with respect to shear
centre (zg):
Come in useful for lateral loading (loading by end moments
is considered in shear centre).
F
- lateral loading acting to shear centre S (zg > 0)
S is destabilizing: it increases the torsional moment

- lateral loading acting from shear centre S (zg < 0)


S is stabilizing: it decreases the torsional moment

Factor C2 for moment shape M:


(valid for I cross-section) Mel 0,46 0,55 1,56 1,63 0,88 1,15
Mpl (plast. hinges) 0,98 1,63 0,70 1,08

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


5. Cross-sections non-symmetrical about y-y

zaz zzg F
a g
Fz z For I cross section with unequal flanges:
zz
I w = ( 1 f2 )I z ( hs / 2 ) 2
(C)
warping constant
S
zs
S
I fc I ft
hf = hs
zs G
G
yy hf parameter of asymmetry f =
I fc + I ft

(T) second mom. of area of compress. and tens. flange about z-z
0,5
( y + z ) z dA 0,45 f hf
2 2
z j = zs
Iy A
Factor C3 greatly depends on f and moment shape (below for kz = kw = 1):
Mcr =+1
Mcr =0 Mcr = -1

f = -1 1,00 1,47 2,00 0,93

f = 0 1,00 1,00 0,00 0,53

f = 1 1,00 1,00 -2,00 0,38


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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Cross sections with imposed axis of rotation
suck
Mcr is affected by position
of imposed axis of rotation
S often
V (imposed axis) (Mcr is always greater, holding
is favourable)

For a simple beam with doubly symmetric cross section and general imposed axis:
2

zg
z [ ]
E I w + E I z z v2
k L
+ G I t
zv = w LT
GS osa y
Mcr
(
1z v + 2 zg z v )
coefficients
For suck loading applied at tension flange:
for shape of M: 1 2
2
2
h 2,00 0,00
E I w + E I z + G I t
2 k L
w LT 0,93 0,81
Mcr =
h 0,60 0,81
1
2
OK3 9

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Approximate approach for lateral-torsional buckling

In buildings, the reduction factor for lateral


buckling corresponding to "equivalent
impulse roughly compression flange" (defined as flange with
1/3 of compression web) may be taken instead:
hw/6
LLT
f =
i f,z 1
E
1 = = 93 ,9
fy

Note: According to Eurocode the reduction factor is taken from curve c, but
for cross sections with web slenderness h/tw 44 from curve d.
The factor due to conservatism may be increased by 10%.

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Practical case of a continuous beam (or a rafter of a frame)
One of the beam flanges is usually laterally supported by cladding or decking
(cross section with imposed shear centre) and bending moment is variable,
changing sign. Eurocode general case (general distribution of moments,
general boundary conditions) does not cover.

General and easily accessible solution of Mcr (for an arbitrary distribution of M


and N and lateral support) is solved by free software LTBeamN available on
internet:
https://www.cticm.com/content/ltbeamn-version-102
(in English and French).

It is desirable to secure laterally the dangerous zones of bottom


free compression flanges against instability:
by bracing in the level of bottom flanges,
or by diagonals (sufficiently strong) between bottom
flange and crossing beams (e.g. purlins).
(length LLT then corresponds to the distance of lateral supports).

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Beams that do not lose lateral stability:

1. Hollow cross sections


Reason: high It high Mcr

2. Girders bent about their minor axis


Reason: high It high Mcr

3. Short segment between lateral restraints ( LT 0,4 )


Reason: LT 1 - all cross sections, e.g.:

4. Full lateral restraint "near" to the compression flange is sufficient:


(for I profile approx. within h/4 )
compression flange loaded tension flange loaded
zv 0,47 zg zv 0,47 zg

zg or higher
zv
zv zg or anywhere higher

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Resistance of the actual beam (determination of Mb,Rd)

Similarly as for compression struts: actual strength Mb,Rd < Mcr


(due to imperfections)

e.g. DIN:

( )
Mb,Rd = Mpl,Rd 1 + LT
2n 1/n


n = 2,0 (rolled)
= 2,5 (welded)

Eurocode EN 1993:
The procedure is the same as for columns: acc. to LT is determined LT
with respect to shape of the cross section (see next - depends on imperfections).
Note: For a direct 2. order analysis the imperfections e0d are available.
fy
Mb,Rd = LTW y ... Wy is section modulus acc. to cross section class
M1
LT 1,0
1
LT =
LT + LT
2

2
LT
but 1
LT LT 2
( )
LT = 0,5 1 + LT LT LT,0 + LT
2

For common rolled and welded cross sections: LT ,0 = 0,4 = 0,75


For non-constant M the factor may be reduced to LT,mod (see formula in Eurocode).
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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Choice of buckling curve:
rigid cross section

rolled I sections shallow h/b 2 (up to IPE300, HE600B) b


high h/b > 2 c
welded I sections h/b 2 c
h/b > 2 d
greater residual stresses
due to welding

In plastic analysis (considering redistribution of moments and "rotated" plastic


hinges) lateral torsional buckling in hinges must be prevented and designed for
2,5 % Nf,Ed:

strut providing
support force in compression flange

girder in location of Mpl 0,025 Nf,Ed

Lh
Complicated structures (e.g. haunched girders) hs
may be verified using "stable length" Lm
hh
(in which LT = 1) - formulas see Eurocode. L
L ym

OK3 14

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Interaction M + N ("beam columns")
Always must be verified simple compression and bending in the most stressed
cross section see common non-linear relations.
In stability interaction two simultaneous formulas should be considered:
for class 4 only
N
NEd M y ,Ed + M y ,Ed M + M z,Ed
+ kyy + k y z z,Ed 1
y NRk LT M y ,Rk M z,Rk
M1 M1 M1
NEd M y ,Ed + M y ,Ed M + M z,Ed
+ k zy + k zz z,Ed 1
z NRk LT M y ,Rk M z,Rk
My
M1 M1 M1 Mz

Usual case M + Ny:


NEd M y ,Ed Factors kyy 1,8; kzy 1,4
+ kyy 1
y NRd LT M y ,Rd
Formulas EN 1993-1-1 Annex B distinguish:
NEd M y ,Ed
+ k zy 1 members not susceptible to torsional deformations
z NRd LT M y ,Rd (rigid for torsion, closed sections) LT = 1 ;
members susceptible to torsional deformations (all
others).

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1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.


Complementary note:

Generally FEM may be used (complicated structures, non-uniform members etc.) to


analyse lateral and lateral torsional buckling.
First analyse the structure linearly, second critical loading. Then determine:

ult,k - minimum load amplifier of design loading to reach characteristic


resistance (without lateral and lateral-torsional buckling);

cr,op - minimum load amplifier of design loading to reach elastic critical loading
(for lateral or lateral torsional buckling).

ult,k op = min(, LT)


op =
cr,op

Resulting relationship:

NEd M y ,Ed
+ op
NRk M1 M y ,Rk M1

OK3 16

1 Prof. Ing. Josef Machek, DrSc.

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