Journal of South American Earth Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 239-260, 1991 0895-9811/91 $3.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain 1991 Pergamon Press plc
& Earth Sciences & Resources Institute

Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage

evolution of a shallow submarine volcaniclastic
fan-shelf depositional system (Upper Cretaceous,
James Ross Island, Antarctica)
R. A. SCASSO1, E. B. OLIVERO 1, a n d L. A. BUATOIS2
1Centro de Investigaciones en Recursos Geol6gicos;R. de Velasco 847, (1414) Buenos Aires, Argentina;
2CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacional de Tucum~n,
C.C. 1 (4000), San Miguel de Tucuman, Argentina
(Received December 1990; Accepted May 1991)
Abstract--The Upper Cretaceous (Santenian-Campaniarglower Maastrichtian) Santa Marta Formation on
James Ross Island, Antarctica, represents voicaniclastie shallow marine fan and shelf sedimentation
adjacent to an active volcanic arc. A combined analysis of sedimentologic, paleoecologic, and ichnologic
data allows for the recognition in this unit of six lithofacies associations, eight hiofacies, and five trace
fossils assemblages. Lithofacies are dominated by fine, massive, tuffaceous rocks; graded, turbidite-like
tuffaceous sandstones; carbonaceous mudstones; resedimented conglomerates; coquinas; sandstones; silty
sandstones; and minor stromatelite beds. Biofaeies are defined by different composition and relative
abundance of elements of the benthic fauna, mainly bivalves, gastropods, and serpulids, with minor
elements represented by scaphopods, corals, brachiopods, and echinoids. Trace fossil assemblages include
the most common elements of the Skolithos and Cruz/ann ichnofacies.
A striking result of the analysis is that lithofacies, biofacies, and trace fossil assemblages form distinct,
non-repetitive, vertically successive horizons, with their distribution boundaries roughly coincident. On
this basis, seven major facies groups, showing a distinct combination of lithofacies, biofacies, and trace
fossils, are distinguished in the Santa Marta Formation. These non-repetitive, vertically stacked facies
groups reveal a one-way evolution of the depositional system during a transgressive-regressive cycle, with a
new transgression atthe top of the unit. The lower facies groups represent shallow marine settings with a
very high rate of volcaniclastie sedimentation within subsiding basin. Shallow, volcanielastic fan systems
were probably formed at the base of delta slope and grew rapidly as a consequence of high sedimentary
supply in equilibrium with basin subsidence. The upper facies groups probably represent sedimentation
within the marine part of the envisaged deltaic system on a more stable shelf with diminished voleaniclastic
sedimentary input.
R e s u m e n - - s e e p. 257.

INTRODUCTION M a r a m b i o Group, on S e y m o u r Island, consists of s h e l f

MARINE CRETACEOUS d e p o s i t s on n o r t h w e s t e r n
J a m e s Ross I s l a n d f o r m a thick, continuous sequence
divided into two m a j o r s t r a t i g r a p h i c units. T h e oldest
d e p o s i t s c o m p r i s e the G u s t a v G r o u p of B a r r e m i a n -
S a n t o n i a n a g e ( I n e s o n et aI., 1986; M e d i n a et al.,
1982; O l i v e r o a n d P a l a m a r c z u c k , 1987). The
y o u n g e s t C r e t a c e o u s deposits, m a i n l y of S a n t o n i a n -
C a m p a n i a n age, a r e i n c l u d e d in t h e S a n t a M a r t a
F o r m a t i o n (Olivero et aI., 1986; Olivero, 1984; 1988)
which f o r m s the b a s a l u n i t of the M a r a m b i o G r o u p
(Rinaldi, 1982). T h e s e two g r o u p s a r e t h o u g h t to
r e p r e s e n t the filling of a b a c k - a r c b a s i n t h a t d e v e -
loped to the e a s t of a volcanic arc active d u r i n g L a t e
J u r a s s i c - T e r t i a r y t i m e s a n d located a l o n g the A n t -
a r c t i c P e n i n s u l a (MacDonald et al., 1988; Medina et
al., 1990). T h e G u s t a v G r o u p is considered to repre-
s e n t d e e p - s e a e n v i r o n m e n t s - - e.g., slope a p r o n and
s u b m a r i n e fans, followed by shelfal s e d i m e n t s within
a f a n - d e l t a s e t t i n g (Ineson, 1989), w h e r e a s the u p p e r
Address all correspondence and reprint requests to:
Dr. R. A. Scasso (telephone: 1541( l ) 772-9729; telefax: [54] (1)
812-2039)
239
s e d i m e n t s (Macellari, 1988).
The S a n t a M a r t a F o r m a t i o n , t h e focus o f o u r
study, consists of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1200 m e t e r s of m a r -
ine volcaniclastic and epiclastic s h e l f s e d i m e n t s . It is
divided into t h r e e m e m b e r s : A l p h a , B e t a a n d G a m -
m a (Olivero et al., 1986; Fig. 1). T h e r e c o r d e d a m -
m o n i t e f a u n a indicate a S a n t o n i a n - e a r l y C a m p a n i a n
age for the A l p h a M e m b e r , a n e a r l y C a m p a n i a n to
e a r l i e s t late C a m p a n i a n age for the B e t a M e m b e r ,
and a late C a m p a n i a n - e a r l y M a a s t r i c h t i a n a g e for
the G a m m a M e m b e r (Olivero, 1984, 1988, in prep.).
Despite the fact t h a t p a r t of the lower two m e m b e r s ,
A l p h a a n d Beta, c o m p r i s e t u r b i d i t e - l i k e g r a d e d beds
a n d coarse r e s e d i m e n t e d d e b r i s flow deposits, a v a i l -
able evidence points to shallow m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s .
D o m i n a n t t r a c e fossils belong to the S k o l i t h o s a n d
C r u z i a n a ichnofacies, i n d i c a t i v e of c o a s t a l to s u b -
littoral settings, r e s p e c t i v e l y ( S c a s s o a n d B u a t o i s ,
1987). C o m m o n p r e s e r v a t i o n of v e r t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d
a m m o n i t e s , with the p l a n e of s y m m e t r y in a n u p r i g h t
position, in s e v e r a l horizons of the A l p h a a n d B e t a
m e m b e r s also s u g g e s t s shallow w a t e r s e t t i n g s (Oli-
vero and Scasso, 1988; Olivero et al., 1989). C o a s t a l
and shallow shelf environments for part of the
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 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, J a m e s Ross Island, Antarctica
G a m m a Member are also supported by the record of a
terrestrial dinosaur (Gasparini et al., 1987; Olivero et
al., 1991). Recent work by Pirrie (1989) also supports
shallow marine settings for the deposition of the
Santa Marta Formation. According to Pirrie, this
shallow marine sequence was deposited within an
active margin, and sedimentation was affected by
background shelf processes and arc-related volcani-
clastic processes. Pirrie's conclusions are broadly co-
incident with the results of our study, but we found a
more complex pattern of facies association.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
facies evolution of the depositional system repre-
sented by the Santa Marta Formation. Through a
combined analysis of sedimentologic, paleoecologic,
and ichnologic data, we found that the sequence is
characterized by seven successive vertical stacked
facies groups. Every facies group has a distinct com-
bination of lithofacies, biofacies, and trace fossil
associations which reflects the evolution of the depo-
sitional s y s t e m during a transgressive-regressive
cycle, with a new transgression at the top of the unit.
For the purpose of this study, we present first a
separate description of the main lithofacies, biofacies,
and ichnofacies, together with a short account of their
paleoenvironmental and paleobathymetric implica-
tions. Finally, we present a synthesis of the general
evolution of the paleoenvironmental settings of the
Santa Marta Formation.
LITHOFACIES ANALYSIS
Subdivision of the Santa Marta Formation into
the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Members (Olivero et al.,
1986) reflects the general lithologic composition of
the formation. A more detailed study has shown that
several lithofacies can be recognized in these three
members. However, most of the lithofacies are not
r e c u r r e n t l y distributed t h r o u g h o u t the unit b u t
instead are stratigraphically restricted to particular
horizons. Two main lithofacies associations are re-
cognized for each member; thus, six vertically suc-
cessive lithofacies associations are defined. These
are, from bottom to top, lithofacies associations A to F
(Fig. 2). A general lithologic description is presented
for every lithofacies association, with emphasis on
the more representative and meaningful individual
lithofacies. Associations A through D are broadly co-
incident with Pirrie's (1989) Association 1, and the
rest with his Association 2.
A l p h a Member
Lithofacies Association A. This association is pre-
sent in the lowest 213 meters of the unit. It grades
downward to the sandstones of the Hidden Lake For-
mation and, upward, passes transitionally to Litho-
facies B. This lithofacies comprises fine-grained,
friable tuffaceous rocks. Recks coarser than medium
sand and carbonaceous mudstones, as well as hard,
carbonatic cemented beds and intraformational con-
241
glomerates, are very scarce. Tabular, m a s s i v e or
parallel laminated strata with sharp base and top are
common. Some of these show a fining-upward trend,
and only a few show ripple crossbedding, climbing
ripples, and hummocky stratification (Fig. 3A). Sedi-
mentites are predominantly fine tufts and tuffites
cemented with carbonate and chlorite. Ttiffs are
vitric, lithic, or crystalline (feldspar). The lithic pyro-
clasts are of mesosilicic and basic volcanic rocks
(andesites and basalts). Marine microfossils are rare.
This lithofacies association is composed of several
facies (Escolar, 1990; Scasso and Olivero, unpub-
lished data; see also Pirrie, 1989) but the more abun-
dant and representative, from a paleoenvironmental
point of view, are:
Facies 1: Ungraded tuffaceous silty sandstones, com-
monly 33-74 cm thick; generally massive
or showing weak parallel lamination.
Facies 2: Ungraded tuffaceous s i l t y - c l a y e y sand-
stones; average thickness 85-90 cm.
Facies 3: Graded or graded-stratified tuffaceous peb-
bly sandstones; average thickness about 60
cm, generally showing normal gradation.
Facies 4: Tuffaceous mudstones; commonly 5-20 cm
thick, massive or parallel laminated.
Facies 5: Fine graded s a n d s t o n e s s h o w i n g hum-
mocky cross stratification at the base, pas-
sing upward to parallel lamination and
ripple bedding, and capped by thin, bio-
turbated mudstones; average thickness 10
cm.
Facies 1 and 2 are the most abundant. These, to-
gether with Facies 4, are interpreted as suspension
deposits of direct or reworked pyroclastic ash falls.
Alternatively, Facies 1 and 2 could be flow deposits
transitional between liquefied flows and t u r b i d i t y
currents (Lowe 1976, 1982). Facies 3 is interpreted as
deposited by sandy high density turbidity c u r r e n t s
(S1-$2-$3 from Lowe, 1982). Facies 5 shows the char-
acteristic features of tempestites (Dott and Bourgeois,
1982).
Lithofacies A probably represents a marine, low
energy, partially restricted environment. The bottom
was generally not affected by waves, but some tem-
pestites were produced by sporadic storm events. The
sedimentation rate was high and sediments were de-
posited as ash fall or as fresh reworked pyroclastic
materials (cf. Sigurdsson et al., 1980). Detailed en-
vironmental interpretation of this fine-grained litho-
facies association is problematic. Stratigraphic rela-
tionships with the H i d d e n Lake F o r m a t i o n and
Lithofacies B and C suggest deposition on the distal
part of, or between, adjacent shallow submarine fans.
Lithofacies Association B. This lithofacies is re-
corded in the uppermost 179 m e t e r s of the Alpha
Member. Upward it is replaced by coarser lithofacies
of Association C. Lithofacies B mostly consists of
Facies 1 in association with a characteristic rhythmic
242 R.A. SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS

d} e)
4,~.~,~'~ SANTA MARTA
CUMULATIVE GENERIC DIVERSITY
FORMATION ,,,~
REFERENCES

,. ~/m F ~ Silty sandstone

~ Stromatolite
o "" " ~ %""
E -:'.':.:::v.- E
~ Sandstone

I000
Conqlomerate coquina
~DDgU I |
;. ;.-;.; %],
~ Fine sandstone
~ Graded tuffaceous
sandstones
D ~ Matrix supported
i - conglomerates

/
L.
~ Graded tuff ~
tuffites
o
I I
Bioturboted tuff
(D
co ~]
~ Fine tuffites
oil

In Inoceromus Biofocies
,v.'r.'v:
500 - ooooo
r, ~., t, ~.] Ce-Ro Cerithium- Rotuloria B.
io*ooo.J

Er-Ap Eriphyla-Aporrhois B
'~' B
".'.'.'.'.'Z
1,2 ........... J
Tr. Triooniids B.
:~ .~:2.?ic:!
:.:'~t" .~,'. ~:.i
Pt- Ap Pterotriqonio-Aporrhais B
imnndlnil
: :'J: :'i" '.'
-~ ~ 1":.1".'~ '. Ta Toioma B
-- :~...'J,'/l:
<~ .... ; .....
:,'i:'x'.':2 A Cu-Ne Cuculloeo- Neilo B.
Z .:.L :'J." ""
: :L.: J..: '/.

I
L'.J. :1 : Ro Rotulorio B
:.L: .L'::.L
::i::'.4.:
"~:'~.:.~ o ,Gen'' OG.n.;o
Sample locality
Fig. 2. Compositestratigraphic sectionshowingdistributionof lithofacies(a), ichnofacies(b), biofacies(c), and diversity curves in
number of genera for the benthicfauna (d) and ammonites(e). Elementsofthe allochthonousTrigoniid Biofaciesare not included
in the diversity curve.

sequence of normally graded tufts and tuffites. Each
cycle begins with a sharp-based, massive, fine to
coarse tuffaceous sandstone or fine pebbly sandstone,
sometimes with mud clasts at its base, and grades
upward into medium-fine massive sandstone or silty
sandstone. Sometimes l a m i n a t e d muds with thin
coal or carbonaceous lenses cap the cycle (Figs. 3B
and 4B). The average thickness of each graded bed is
about 70 cm. Convolute bedding and slump struc-
tures are common. The coarser cycles (beginning
with pebbly sandstones) belong to Facies 3. The finer
cycles (beginning with sandstones) are assigned to a
new facies (Facies 6: normally graded tuffaceous
silty-sandstones). Yellow mottles related to bioturba-
tion or weathering of carbonaceous fragments are
common toward the top of each cycle. A marine
megafauna is rare or absent. Parallel bedding, cross-
bedding, or ripple bedding are rarely recorded. Facies
6 is interpreted as low to high concentration turbidity
current deposits (C2.1, C2.2, C2.3 of Pickering et al.,
1986). The thin carbonaceous mudstones are inter-
preted as suspension deposits sedimented after turbi-
dity events or, alternatively, as normal suspension
sedimentation.
Sequences several meters thick of these graded
beds are interrupted by hard, marked tufts (Facies 7),
strongly bioturbated, with a b u n d a n t and well pre-
served fossils. These tufts beds are tabular, laterally
extended, and up to 0.3 meters thick; they sometimes
have several cycles less t h a n 10 cm in thickness
showing normal grading (Fig. 3B). These n o r m a l
graded cycles are considered to be the r e s u l t of
successive air-borne ash falls. Two beds composed of
vertically stacked thin l a m i n a e showing composi-
tional gradation (base with crystals and shards and
top with pumiceous fragments) are i n t e r p r e t e d as
stratified pyroclastic flows (Fiske a n d M a t s u d a ,
1964). Overall, Lithofacies B presents a coarsening-
upward trend, finally passing to the conglomeratic
Lithofacies C.
The r h y t h m i c i t y of the sequence points to an
alternation of periods with a very low rate of sedi-
mentation (thin, hard, bioturbated ash fall tufts) and
periods with a very high rate of sedimentation (mas-
 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, James Ross Island, Antarctica 243

sive and normal graded tuffitic cycles). These sedi-

LITHOFACIES ASSOCIATIONS
D E
~S
G of fan progradation (see discussion below).
ments were deposited in volcaniclastic submarine
fans that developed not far from the coast (abundant
F vegetal remains), forming at the base of over-
steepened delta fringes. Turbidites were probably
related to volcanic eruptions and subsequent re-
working or slumping of unconsolidated, pyroclastic
material. In this environment, the sequence was
probably built by the overlapping of several fan lobes
and the coarsening-upward trend could be the result

Beta Member

Lithofacies Association C. This association, recor-

ded in the lower 194 meters of the Beta Member, is
characterized by a coarser lithology with transitional
lower and upper boundaries. It consists of coarse to
l
C SScG
I I I
C SSc G C SSc
i
medium-grained, gray to rusty brown conglomerates
interbedded with normally graded tuffaceous sand-
stones, tuffaceous pebbly sandstones, mudstones, and
tufts.
B C The conglomerates (Facies 8) normally occur as
A isolated lens-shaped beds 0.2 to 4 meters in thickness;
in two horizons, however, several conglomerate beds
are piled up in paleochannels. The best exposed
' paleochannel is about 30 meters deep and 150-200
,'-A_. . .
meters wide (Fig. 4A). The conglomerates are poorly
,' sorted, chaotic or inverse graded to chaotic, some-
times with poor defined parallel bedding, and matrix
to clast supported (sandy or muddy matrix varies
from 20% to 60%). The base is sharp, irregular, and
often erosive. Load structures in the underlying beds
are common. Intraformational cobble to boulder

"-i clasts of angular to well rounded sandstones, concre-
tions, and mudstones are very common, forming
almost exclusively the coarser fraction of the rock
(Fig. 4C). The medium to fine gravel fraction consists
C SScG C SScG CSScG B of well rounded volcanic and metamorphic rocks.
Broken or single valves of abraded shells, trunks, and
concretioned burrows are found in varying propor-
~ Motrlx supported
conglomerate ~ Porollel lamination tion. The channelized sandy-matrix conglomerates
are similar to those described by Surlyk (1978) as
~ Coquina conglomerate ~ Hummocky c r o s s
stratification
"non graded, matrix supported, disorganizated con-
Ripple ~ cross glomerates" and "non graded, clast supported dis-
~ Stromototite oeaoing organizated conglomerates" deposited by sandy
" ~ Massive F~ Flaser bedding debris flows and density modified debris flows. Iso-
lated conglomerate beds with muddy matrix (Fig. 4D)
are interpreted as cohesive debris flows (see also
5S5 Bioturbation c : Clay
Pirrie, 1989).
A Intraclosts s : Silt- fine sand Massive, normally graded, tuffaceous sandstones
G Glouconite sc: Coarse sand and pebbly sandstones (Facies 1, 3, and 6), inter-
I G : Gravel bedded with thin beds of black, carbonaceous mud-
0,50 m
B: Boulder stones are frequent, forming the "background sedi-
(~ Facies mentation" for the conglomerates. They occasionally
have poorly defined parallel bedding and, rarely,
crossbedding, ripple bedding, or hummocky cross
stratification. Slump structures are common in
Lithofacies C (Fig. 4E). The tuffaceous sandstones
Fig. 3. Idealized sections showing the most typical features of the have a high proportion of basandesitic lithic clasts.
six major lithofacies associations recognized in the Santa Marta Basandesitic tufts, commonly with abundant pala-
Formation.
244 R . A . SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS

Fig. 4. A)Panoramic view of the lower Beta Member (Facies Group lid showing cross-section of a large paleochannel (arrows);
width of paleochannel is about 200 meters. B) Graded tuffaceous sandstones and pebbly sandstones (Facies 3 and 6) and mudstones
with coal lenses (Alpha Member, Facies Group If): 1, two thin graded cycles; 2, lower and middle part of a thicker graded bed;
3, mudstones and coal lenses, usually capping the cycle. C) Inverse graded to chaotic sandy matrix debris flow filling the paleo-
channel (see A); large blocks are resedimented sandstones and mudstones concretions. D) Isolated, lens-shaped, muddy matrix
debris flow showing inverse grading and large blocks projected toward the top {Beta Member, Facies Group Ill). E) Erosive-based
channel fill sequence (Beta Member, Facies Group II1)showing stratified mudstones and graded pebbly sandstones of the side wall
(1), locally derived (slumped) chaotic coarse conglomerates (2), and composite channel fill of pebbly sandstones, conglomerates, and
mudstones; height of cliff ca. 7 meters. F and G) Conglomerates and coquinas of upper Beta Member (Facies Group IV): F, lens-
shaped, multicyclic coquina; G, fossiliferous conglomerates capped by parallel laminated sandstones including a vertical preserved
ammonite.

gonitized vitric clasts, and pumiceous tufts were also
recorded (Fig. 3C).
This lithofacies p r e s e n t s typical features of sub-
m a r i n e fan deposits, but a distinctive i m p r i n t is given
by its p r e d o m i n a n t volcaniclastic composition. It re-
p r e s e n t s the end of the p r o g r a d i n g cycle t h a t starts
with Lithofacies Association B. The c o n g l o m e r a t e s
show m a r i n e reworked c o m p o n e n t s a n d were depo-
sited in s u b m a r i n e c h a n n e l s in the u p p e r p a r t o f a
shallow s u b m a r i n e fan, probably r e l a t e d to a d e l t a
front.
Lithofacies Association D. This lithofacies is re-
corded in the upper 235 m e t e r s of the Beta M e m b e r
 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, J a m e s Ross Island, Antarctica 245

and grades upward to Lithofacies E. It consists of to represent syndepositional deformational struc-

lens-shaped, medium-grained, clast-supported con- tures (Olivero et a/.,1986). The middle part of the
glomerates, often with abundant mollusk shells and section is characterized by a well marked and areally
coquinas. The conglomerates are intercalated with extended, clast supported, f o s s i l - b e a r i n g conglo-
well sorted, medium and fine micaceous sandstones, merate. The conglomerate has a maximum thickness
sandy mudstones, and occasionally with thin car- of about 0.6 meters and a sharp, erosive base; inter-
bonaceous lenses, tuffites, and tufts. Stromatolites nally, it shows parallel or, rarely, crossbedding. It is
and cryptalgal laminated mats are also present in composed mainly of reworked concretional sandstone,
Lithofacies D (Fig. 3D). mudstone intraclasts, and mollusk shells (see Fig.
Individual conglomerate and coquina beds are 0.2 3E). The well sorted, glauconitic sandstones charac-
to 0.7 meters thick. They show sharp irregular or teristic of this lithofacies show provenance from vol-
erosive base and lenticular geometry. The under- canic and metamorphic rocks. Although these sand-
lying beds often have load structures. The top grades stones contain abundant metastable mafic minerals
to low-angle crossbedded or parallel bedded sand- (up to 10%), they are both m i n e r a l o g i c a l l y a n d
stones (Fig. 4F and G). Conglomerates and coquinas texturally more mature than rocks of the remaining
are multicyclic. Trunks with Teredolites borings are lithofacies.
frequent. Clasts are of well rounded quartz, meta- Lithofacies E was deposited in shallow m a r i n e
morphic and volcanic rocks, and intraformational environments, probably varying from restricted estu-
sandstone concretions, tufts, and mudstones. Clasts arine or lagoonal to shoreface-transitional environ-
of plutonic rocks are scarce. The matrix is sand. ments (Gasparini el al. 1987; Olivero et al., 1991).
Shells are broken and disarticulated, with single The conglomerate of the middle part is a submarine
valves often preserved. Parallel orientation due to reworked horizon (cf. Einsele, 1985) composed of
current is well marked in scaphopods and belemnites, amalgamated beds. Up-section, the lithofacies pro-
and in conical elongate gastropod shells. These beds bably reflects more open marine conditions.
were deposited by multiple event waning flows of a
very high to h i g h - e n e r g y regime, and they are Lithofacies Association F. These strata are tenta-
tively referred to the Santa Marta Formation. The
i n t e r p r e t e d as proximal t e m p e s t i t e s (cf. Aigner,
1982). association is found in several isolated outcrops,
The rocks interbedded with the conglomerates consisting in part of slumped blocks capped by Ceno-
and coquinas generally are fine-grained micaceous zoic volcanics, located mainly around the w e s t e r n
sandstones and silty sandstones, occasionally with margin of Croft Bay. Even though correlation of out-
glauconite. They are texturally and mineralogically crops among different areas is difficult, biostratigra-
more mature than the sandstones recorded in the phic data based on a m m o n i t e s and m i c r o f o s s i l s
underlying lithofacies. Sandy mudstones, with abun- clearly indicate that this sequence is younger than
dant carbonaceous material and large fossil logs (3 to the rest of the Gamma Member. The minimum mea-
4 m in length), and minor thin beds of stromatolites sured thickness in a composite stratigraphic section
are interbedded with the sandstones. is about 75 meters.
This lithofacies is interpreted as shallow water, This lithofacies association is dominated by fine-
inner shelf sediments, mostly deposited between the grained sedimentites. The dominant lithofacies con-
shoreface and the transition zone. The main conglo- sists of massive or faintly laminated, tabular, car-
meratic beds probably represent proximal, chan- bonaceous mudstones and very fine silty sandstones,
nelized tempestites originated by storm rip currents. often with small, thin lenses of laminated mud and
coal. Sequences of these fine sediments, 10-15 meters
G a m m a Member in thickness, are covered by medium to coarse sand-
Lithofacies Association E. This lithofacies is pre- stones, defining an overall coarsening-upward trend.
sent in the lower 170 meters of the Gamma Member Sandstones beds are 1-5 meters thick and parallel
and consists mostly of fine-grained, well sorted sand- laminated or crossbedded; they p r e s e n t thin, fine
stones interbedded with thin black carbonaceous sandstone and silt intercalations s h o w i n g ripple
mudstones, scarce conglomerates, and pebbly sand- marks and wavy and flaser bedding. In part, the
stones. Thin stromatolitic beds are relatively fre- coarser sandstones include lenticular beds of pebbly
quent in the lower part of the sequence. In addition, sandstones, fine conglomerates, and coquinas. Con-
this lithofacies is characterized by the presence of volute bedding is relatively common in the fine-
land vertebrate fossils (dinosaurs) and a distinctive grained facies (see Fig. 3F).
trace fossil assemblage. A lithofacies association differing from the F
Sandstone beds range between 0.3 and 1 meter in association described above was detected at one loca-
thickness. They are massive or faintly p a r a l l e l lity. It consists of a sequence, about 30 meters thick,
bedded. Hummocky cross stratification, ripples or of which the lowermost 5-6 meters are massive black
medium-scale crossbodding, and parting lineation are mudstones i n t e r l a y e r e d with s t r o m a t o l i t e s ; bed
rare, and they were noted mainly in the lower part of thickness is about 30 cm. The rest of the sequence is
the sequence. Convolute bedding is common in the made of a cyclic alternation of graded beds. Each
muddy carbonaceous beds. At one locality, deformed cycle begins with s h a r p - b a s e d m a s s i v e , c o a r s e
strata with relatively large tight folds are interpreted sandstones grading upward to medium-fine sand-
SAMES 4 / ~
246 R.A. SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS
stones with cross lamination, to fine, silty sandstones
or silts with faint parallel lamination, and finally to
massive muds with megafossils. The thickness of
each graded bed ranges from 1 to 2 meters. Carbona-
ceous debris or plant fragments, so abundant in the
rest of Lithofacies F, are generally lacking in these
graded beds (see Fig. 3F).
Lithofacies F represents shelf deposits that, in
part, probably originated in relatively deeper or more
open marine conditions than the previous lithofacies.
The graded beds probably represent sedimentation
below the shoreface by low density turbidity currents,
as interpreted by Olivero et al. (1986; cf. Walker,
1984), or by graded tempestitos (Pirrie, 1990).
BIOFACIES ANALYSIS
The Santa Marta Formation preserves an abun-
dant and relatively diverse benthic fauna dominated
by bivalves and gastropods. Serpulids are also abun-
dant locally. The stratigraphic distribution of all the
benthic taxa, provisionally identified at the generic
level, together with an indication of their abundance
(in number of individuals), is shown in Fig. 5. The
broad emerging pattern is one of eight major, ver-
tically successive, benthic assemblages whose limits
are roughly coincident with the boundaries between
lithofacies and ichnofossil associations. These as-
semblages distinguish the following biofacies: Ino-
ceramus; ~Cerithium"-Rotularia; Eriphyla-~Aporr.
hais " ; trigoniids; Pterotrigonia-~Aporrhais " ; Taioma;
CucuUaea- ~Neilo'; and Rotularia.
See Appendix A (p. 258) for the relative abun-
dance and presence of the elements for each biofacies.
Figure 2 shows a composite stratigraphic section in-
cluding the distribution of lithofacies, biofacies, and
trace fossil assemblages, as well as the diversity
curves (in number of genera for each sample locality)
for the benthic fauna and the ammonites. Tapho-
nomic observations indicate that the Inoceramus,
~Cerithium'-Rotularia, and Rotularia biofacies are
primarily autochthonous assemblages, whereas the
trigoniid biofacies is a totally allochthonous assem-
blage; thus, the diversity data for this biofacies are
not included in Fig. 2d. The rest of the biofacies are
autochthonous-parautochthonous or parautochthon-
ous-allochthonous assemblages (see Kidwell, 1986).
Diagenetic overprinting seems to have played
only a minor role in the composition of the biofacies,
for both aragonitic and calcitic shells occur together
in most of the sampled localities. Thus, interpreta-
tion of the faunal assemblages and the changing
pattern of temporal distribution of taxa seems to be
reduced to analysis of paleoecologic and sedimentoo
logic processes.
The database for the analysis consists of more
than 5000 individuals of the benthic fauna recorded
in 48 localities of the Santa Marta Formation during
three field seasons in the austral summers of 1986,
1988, and 1989. Straight calcareous tubes of ser-
pulids are especially a b u n d a n t in the R o t u l a r i a
biofacies, but they are not included in the calcula-
tions of the relative abundance of benthic fauna of
this biofacies (See Appendix A). Reference to life
habit and trophic group for the f a u n a a r e m a d e
following the works of Stanley (1970, 1972), Popenoe
(1983), McKerrow (1981), Macellari (1984, 1988), and
Abdel-Gawad (1986).
Inoceramus Biofacies
This biofacies is restricted to Lithofacies A. It is
dominated by several species of the epifaunal sus-
pension-feeder bivalve Inoceramus. Minor compon-
ents are the infaunal s u s p e n s i o n f e e d e r b i v a l v e
Panopea, the infaunal deposit feeder ~Neilo," the
carnivorous gastropod Natica, and a grazer patellid
gastropod. Fossiliferous horizons consist of massive,
tuffaceous, calcareous mudstones to fine, silty sand-
stones with abundant carbonaceous debris and no
appreciable trace fossils. Fossils are dispersed within
the sediments and are preserved with both valves
articulated and often in life position, indicating an
autochthonous assemblage. Between these fossilifer-
ous horizons are similar tuffaceous, fine sediments,
but they lack fossils.
The diversity of the benthic fauna is very low.
Ammonites are scarce or absent in the l o w e r m o s t
stratigraphic horizons of this biofacies (see Fig. 2).
Ammonite diversity is low in the uppermost horizons,
with abundant individuals of a single species of a
small baculitid.
The pattern of low diversity fossiliferous horizons
in which normal marine fauna (e.g., ammonites) is
absent or rare, alternating with unfossiliferous b u t
lithologically similar sediments, suggests an un-
stable environment, probably periodically isolated
from open marine conditions and/or with periodic
fluctuations in salinity, trophic resources, or oxygen.
Low diversity, Inoceramus-dominated biofacies in
fine carbonaceous muds are generally considered as
reflecting oxygen-deficient environments (Sageman,
1989). However, their paleobathymetric implications
are not clear and similar biofacies are considered to
characterize either deep marine environments (Ma-
cellari, written communication) or relatively shallow
restricted marine e n v i r o n m e n t s (Sundberg, 1980).
Apparently, examples of both of these c o n t r a s t i n g
Inocerarnus biofacies are found in the Cretaceous of
Antarctica. Inoceramus-dominated horizons are pre-
sent in deep marine sediments in the Cenomanian-
Turonian deposits of the Gustav Group (Ineson, 1989;
Ineson et al., 1986). In the rest of the Upper Creta-
ceous, all known Inoceramus biofacies are only pre-
sent in shallow proximal marine settings m e.g., in
the Hidden Lake Formation, regarded as deposited in
tidal shelf/fan delta environment (Macdonald et al.,
1988; Buatois and Olivero, unpublished data), or in
the Rabot Formation (Lirio et al., 1989). In the Rabot
Formation, Inoceramus biofacies are very common in
mudstones and very fine, massive sandstones inter-
bedded with relatively thick, graded tempestite beds
with hummocky cross-stratification (Olivero, unpub-
 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, James Ross Island, Antarctica 247

SANTA MARTA Fm. BENTHIC FAUNA

Graphic abundance by lowest oppeoronce (not to stole)
Key to simbols:
= I- 2 individuals
#
= 3-9
= I0- 24
Somple Locality II
= _> 25

I" Jnoceramus
,EZ3 Potetlidoe
I:I:P-
"Austrosphoero"
3:Z:IE mm
"Cerithium"
. . . . . . (:OC m. .---z ~ . m Notico
mmm-- .iml--mm , E -E~E3 Nucuto
! -1:::1:3 Limotulo
. r-r-mm= m . ~ .m .=o Nei Io
--r BB,--,IB ~ --- Ponopeo
::Z:P-- .r-r-rr~r-~ -rq - I : ~ : l
Eriphylo
Scophopod 1
.mmmmm . . . . . . . : = ' i " .,-n. . = oN m Rotulorio
=-=__411 := . . . . mz~= - m Solitary Coral
. c=~.IBm Brochiopod
tI:Z~--- Crinoid
.rt~ .r-n .rr
Irregular Echinoid
=o-- II:~--- Im:x~x:II, Pterot rioonio
Lima

Nuculonid
Pholodomyo
,I::Z3 , .E:I - _,,+, Scophonder
"Limotulo"
"Terebro"
-~ , ~ m .r-~ Pinna
.r-r
"Triton"
Decopodo ,,
Aporrhois
"Nerineo"
: , ~ m , I , ~ -i-ll I I I _ _ " l Cuculloeo
. . .r-,r-~. ~ .c:z~ Oistotr igonio
:=:'-m . ~ m . - - ~.m Scophopod 2
Serpulid 2
= - ~ I.Im Turritello
Throcio
Eseloevitrigonio
Pleurotomorio
Venerid
.=-i Trigoniid
Hermotypic coral
Mytilus
r-~
Eunoticino
r D ,r-~
Big Inoceromid
"Lucino"
,,~ . _ _ . m . . Lohillio
Modiolus
Nipponitrigonio
Ostreidoe
Pocitrigonio
c3~1, . m m , I- .I.ml .i Serpulid 1
"Aust rostomo"
"Corbulo"
Austrottigonio
Goniomyo
c:~ ml "Amberleyo"
ell I I I , ,
Toiomo
Entolium
t:Z3 '~o.m oN Cyclorismo
Gervillello
"Cinulio"
l l .rod Trochidoe
"Bullo"
- - Lithofocies A Lit. B Lit C I Lit. D Lithofocies E Lit. F Lith~
Alfa Mbr. Beta Mbr. Gamma Mbr.
SANTA MARTA FM Benthicfauna
Fig. 5, Composition, a b u n d a n c e in n u m b e r of recorded individuals for each taxon, and s t r a t i g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e b e n t h i c
f a u n a of the S a n t a M a r t a Formation
248 R.A. SCASSO,E. B. OLIVERO,and L. A. BUATOIS
lished data). These interbedded and a m a l g a m a t e d
storm-generated facies are generally interpreted as
deposited in the lower and mid-upper shoreface, re-
spectively (see Swift et al., 1987).
The Inoceramus biofacies from the Santa Marta
Formation probably reflects proximal, somewhat re-
stricted marine environments. This is in agreement
with limited data on the relative abundance of contin-
ental and marine palynomorphs, which indicates a
low frequency for paleomicroplankton (less than 20%)
in relation to pollen and spores for the upper Hidden
Lake Formation and lower Santa Marta Formation
(Lithofacies A; Baldoni and Medina, 1989; S. Pala-
marczuck, oral communication). In the ammonite-
bearing horizons, baculitid shells are commonly ver-
tically oriented, which also suggests a shallow-water
environment with a high rate of sedimentation (Oli-
vero and Scasso, 1988; Olivero et al., 1989; see
discussion below).
"Cerithium "-Rotutaria Biofacies
This biofacies is restricted to Lithofacies B and is
dominated by the epifaunal herbivorous gastropod
"Cerithium" and by the serpulid Rotularia. Minor
elements are solitary corals, infaunal deposit-feeders
such as nuculanids, irregular echinoids, and siphono-
dentaliid scaphopods, and epifaunal suspension feed-
ers such as brachiopods, crinoids, and bivalves. The
diversity of the benthic fauna is relatively low (see
Fig. 2), but it is higher than in the Inoceramus bio-
facies. In contrast, the diversity of the accompanying
ammonite fauna is high; the fauna occurs at several
fossiliferous horizons scattered throughout highly
bioturbated, hard, tuffaceous silty sandstones and
tuff with abundant carbonaceous debris. ~Cerithium"
commonly occurs in clumps of 10-15 individuals.
Solitary corals are frequently found around the shells
of large pachydiscid ammonites, suggesting that they
lived as epizoans on dead shells at the bottom. Small
nuculanids and terebratulid brachiopods are preser-
ved with both valves articulated. Interlayered with
these fossiliferous horizons are unfossiliferous graded
beds of sandstones to carbonaceous muds.
The a b u n d a n t presence of Rotularia (see Ma-
cellari, 1984, 1988) and of burrows of deposit feeder
organisms indicates a soft, muddy substrate. The
common occurrence of herbivorous cerithiid gastro-
pods points to the presence of algae and]or sea grasses
on the bottom. Recent cerithiid gastropods are
common in shallow water environments with abun-
dant sea grasses (Morris, 1969; Sundberg, 1980}. The
presence of a stenohaline fauna (ammonites, corals,
crinoids) indicates fully marine conditions. Probably
this biofacies represents an inner shelf environment,
within the photic zone, with a relatively low rate of
sedimentation between each of the successive thin,
tuffaceous horizons, interpreted as ash fall layers
that form the fossiliferous beds (see Lithofacies B).
The b a t h y m e t r i c interpretation of this biofacies
seems to be in agreement with the presence of ver-
tically oriented ammonites recorded by Olivero and
Scasso (1988) and Olivero et al. (1989). H o w e v e r ,
caution must be used when considering the absolute
depth deduced from vertically oriented a m m o n i t e s
(for details see Chamberlain and Weaver, 1978, and
bibliography therein). Factors other than those deri-
ved from simple considerations of water pressure and
geometry of shells can influence the absolute depth at
which a vertical ammonite shell can rest in equili-
brium at the sea bottom. In part of the Santa Marta
Formation, the preservation of vertically oriented
ammonites shells likely was influenced by a rapid
burial by pyroclastic deposits and also by the plug-
ging effect of turbid water entering the phragmocone
through the siphuncular tube, avoiding or consider-
ably delaying the filling of the phragmocone with sea
water (Olivero, unpublished data).
Lack of marine megafauna and trace fossils in the
intercalated graded sequence suggests a very high
rate of sedimentation and/or relatively less open
marine conditions. A high level of turbidity in the
water associated with changes in salinity or other
resources would prevent the development of benthic
life as well as the development of stenohaline ele-
ments in the water column (e.g., ammonites).
Eriphyla-"Aporrhais" Biofacies
This biofacies is represented only at one locality
on the top of the Alpha Member. Infaunal suspen-
sion-feeder bivalves are the most common elements.
Eriphyla dominates the assemblage; Panopea, Cu-
cullaea, and Oistotrigonia are less abundant. Gas-
tropods are also well represented by the deposit-
feeder ~Aporrhais" and herbivorous cerithiids and
grazer nerineids. Complete or broken specimens of
heteromorph a m m o n i t e s are also associated; t h e
fauna occurs in thin shell lenses. Shells are matrix
supported, concordant, mostly unbroken, and disarti-
culated; preferred orientation due to current is very
common. Fossil concentration has probably resulted
either by hydraulic sorting or by removal of fine
sediments, and the assemblage can be classified as
parautochthonous. Bed geometry probably reflects
small channels. Normal marine conditions are indi-
cated by the presence of ammonites.
Trigoniid Biofacies
This biofacies consists of an allochthonous assem-
blage represented in the matrix supported conglo-
merates of Lithofacies C. Most of the species of Cu-
cullaea, trigoniids, and Eriphyla are represented by
single unbroken valves isolated within the m a t r i x
and showing no preferred orientation. Fragments of
Decapoda are common in rounded concretions. Ser-
pulids are found cemented together or as incrusters
on reworked concretions. Fragments of hermatypic
corals are very rare and also occur within the matrix.
Sandy to silty graded beds that contain no fossils or
burrows are intercalated between the conglomerates.
Because this is strictly a sedimentologic concen-
tration, paleoecologic interpretation is difficult. Most
 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, J a m e s Ross Island, Antarctica
probably, this biofacies r e p r e s e n t s a mixing of
different nearshore communities, as indicated by the
dominance of infaunal suspension-feeders, resedi-
mented further offshore by mass gravity transport.
This is consistent with the fabric of the enclosing
sediments, interpreted in part as debris flows (see
lithofacies analysis section), and with biostratonomic
observations. The lack of shell b r e a k a g e can be
explained by the mechanism of transport, w h e r e
shells originally deposited or living in an inner shelf
environment were resedimented offshore by passively
traveling within the suspended matrix in the mass of
gravity induced flows.
Pterotrigonia-~Aporrhais" Biofacies
This biofacies is associated with Lithofacies D; it
is probably too ample and it could be divided into
several discrete assemblages. The relative abun-
dance and the frequent presence of Pterotrigonia and
"Aporrhais ~ (see Fig. 5) permitted recognition of this
biofacies in a preliminary study. Fossils occur in
lenses of conglomerates and coquinas or dispersed in
fine silt or silty sandy sediments.
The infaunal suspension feeders Pterotrigonia,
Eselaevitrigonia, CuculIaea, and Eriphyla, and the in-
faunal deposit feeders ~Aporrhais" and dentaliid
scaphopods commonly occur in coquinas. The shells
of bivalves are frequently fragmented and disarti-
culated, with both concave-up and convex-up orien-
tation. Most of the aporrhaid and scaphopod shells
are complete and concordant, and show preferred
orientation.
A dispersed autochthonous fauna dominated by
deposit-feeders (nuculanids and dentaliid scapho-
pods) and Rotularia is preserved in the fine sedi-
ments. Relatively sandier horizons preserve abun-
dant, complete, and articulated individuals of the
infaunal suspension feeders Pterotrigonia, Oistotri-
gonia, Cucullaea, and Thracia. At two localities,
complete specimens of a large Inoceramus were also
recorded in silty, very fine sandstones. Plant debris,
leaves, and large logs are a b u n d a n t in these fine
sediments.
The diversity of benthic fauna, dominated by
bivalves, is relatively high (see Fig. 2d). Non-hetero-
morphic ammonites reach maximum diversity (see
Fig. 2e). Commonly, ammonites are concentrated in
pods, are associated with plant debris, and are in
vertical position (Olivero and Scasso, 1988; Olivero et
al., 1989). Belemnite rostra are relatively common,
either in fine sediments or in the coquina beds.
The broad pattern emerging from the biofacies
analysis is that of a recurrent stratigraphic stacking
of an autochthonous assemblage in fine sediments
and a parautochthonous or parautochthonous-alloch-
thonous assemblage in the coquinas. The recurrence
of these faunal associations most probably mirrors an
alternation of energy levels in an inner shelf, normal
m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t p e r i o d i c a l l y influenced by
storms. An inner shelf environment is suggested not
only by the common occurrence of coquinas, but also
249
because of the widespread presence of plant debris,
leaves and logs, stromatolites, and ammonite shells
preserved in vertical position.
Taioma Biofacies
This biofacies is restricted to Lithofacies E in the
lowermost part of the Gamma Member. The carni-
vorous gastropod Taioma is the d o m i n a n t taxon.
Infaunal suspension-feeder bivalves (Cucullaea, Cy-
clorisma) and gastropods (TurriteUa) are well repre-
sented at only one locality (see Fig. 5).
Most of the fauna occurs in calcareous-ferru-
ginous concretions in medium sandstones showing
small-scale current structures. Calcareous shells are
mostly dissolved and fossils are preserved as casts.
B i v a l v e s are c o m m o n l y found w i t h a r t i c u l a t e d
valves, and individuals of Taioma have the large
siphonal channel preserved, suggesting a parautoch-
thonous accumulation formed by small-scale trans-
port and reworking by currents. The diversity of the
benthic fauna is very low (see Fig. 2d). No ammonites
occur in this biofacies, but nautilids are r e l a t i v e l y
abundant. Fish and shark remains, and a partial ske-
leton of a herbivorous armored dinosaur (Ankylo-
sauridae), were also recorded in this biofacies (Gas-
parini et al., 1987; Olivero et al., 1991).
It seems that diagenesis was in part responsible
for the final composition of the assemblage. However,
primary control was ecologic and related to the sub-
strafe characteristics. The low diversity of the assem-
blage, if not an artifact of preservation, suggests a
nearshore stressed environment. Dominance of in-
faunal suspension feeders, type of trace fossils, and
presence of terrestrial dinosaurs also point to a near-
shore environment. The common presence of nauti-
lids with simplified sutures and fairly strong radial
ribbing ("Cyrnatoceras') in this supposed nearshore
environment seems to support Tintant and Kabam-
ba's (1985) point r e g a r d i n g the p a l e o e c o l o g y of
Cyrnatoceras-like nautilids.
Cucullaea-"Neilo " B iofacies
This biofacies occurs in the middle p a r t of the
Gamma Member in Lithofacies E. The assemblage is
dominated by infaunal suspension feeder b i v a l v e s
(Cucullaea, Panopea, Eriphyla, Oistotrigonia), in-
faunal deposit feeders ('Neilo," dentaliid seaphopods),
and carnivorous gastropods (Taioma, Natica). The
diversity is relatively high (see Fig. 2d); nautilids are
relatively abundant in some horizons, and ammonites
are very rare (see Fig. 2e).
This is mainly a parautochthonous assemblage,
with most fossils restricted to channels cut in fine
sandstones or silts. Channels vary in size from tens of
meters in width and one meter in thickness, down to
centimeters thick with only a p a v e m e n t of shells.
The larger c h a n n e l s include p a r a u t o c h t h o n o u s -
allochthonous components in part, but no appreciable
compositional differences could be detected by com-
parison with the smaller channels. Shells are corn-
250 R.A. SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS

monly disarticulated and show preferred current TRACE FOSSIL ANALYSIS

orientation. A common feature is that infaunal
suspension feeders and infaunal deposit feeders tend The systematic study of the varied and rich iehno-
to be segregated in different horizons within the same fauna of the Santa Marta Formation, together with
shell bed, or in different small shell lenses. analysis of its stratigraphic distribution, has resulted
The dominance of infaunal suspension-feeder in the recognition of five trace fossil assemblages
bivalves and a predominantly sandy substrate sug- (Fig. 2b and Fig. 6). These assemblages present a
gest an inner shelf environment. The preferred con- distinctive distribution in the Santa Marta Forma-
centration of deposit-feeder nuculanids in discrete tion and are commonly related to particular lithe-
horizons probably reflects reworking of previously facies, thus providing useful information for paleo-
deposited fine sediments, but the lack of extensive environmental analysis.
shell fragmentation indicates only a short transport. Scasso and Buatois (1987), Gasparini et al. (1987),
and Olivero et al. (1991) have all made g e n e r a l
Rotularia B iofacies reference to the trace fossils of the Santa Marta For-
mation, but detailed systematic studies of this ichno-
This biofacies is restricted to Lithofacies F. Ser- fauna are lacking. All the Santa Marta Formation
pulids are by far the most common elements, inclu- ichnofauna are listed in Appendix B, together with
ding straight, thin calcareous tubes represented by brief descriptions of rare or unfamiliar taxa. The
thousands of individuals (not included in calculations paleoenvironmental and paleoecologic implications of
of the relative abundance, see Appendix A), and the trace fossil assemblages are discussed here.
several species of the spirally coiled genus Rotularia. Groupings of the trace fossils were made following
Gastropods are represented by carnivorous (Natica, the ethologic or behavioral categories recognized by
Eunaticina, Arnberleya), infaunal suspension feeders Frey and Seilacher (1980) and by Ekdale (1985).
(Turritella), and herbivorous (Trochidae) elements. Lithofacies F, in the uppermost part of the se-
Common bivalves are the deposit feeders Nucula and quence, has several intensively bioturbated horizons.
~Neilo," and the i n f a u n a l suspension feeders These beds are unconsolidated silts or fine, silty
Cucullaea, Oistotrigonia, and Cyclorisrna. The semi- sands and, except for mottling, definite trace fossils
infaunal suspension feeder Pinna is common only at are difficult to identify. For this reason, these hori-
one locality. Solitary corals are relatively abundant. zons are not included in the present analysis.
The diversity of the benthic fauna is high, especially
the gastropods (see Fig. 2d). Ammonite diversity, on Trace Fossil Assemblages
the other hand, is relatively low (see Fig. 2e).
Serpulids dominate in carbonaceous muddy Trace fossils present a distinctive distribution in
facies. Rotularia is found in clumps of tens to hun- the Santa Marta Formation. Five ichnofossil assem-
dreds of individuals, or in supposed life position with blages have been distinguished by grouping the most
its distal straight end pointing upward as predicted commonly associated ichnospecies (Fig. 6).
by Macellari (1984). Most of the molluscan fauna is
dominantly present in coquinas and fine conglo- Assemblages I and H. Both of these assemblages
merate lenses, or it is dispersed in fine to medium contain the same main ichnofossils - - i.e., Chondrites,
sandstones. In the coquinas, fossils consist mostly of Thalassinoides suevicus, and vertical spreiten struc-
single, unbroken valves, whereas in the sandstones tures, thus suggesting similar paleoecologic condi-
most of the shells, especially those of Cucullaea and tions. However, Assemblage II presents higher bio-
LahiIlia, are complete and articulated, sometimes turbation density, more varied ichnogenera, and
showing no matrix infill. The top of the graded beds more complex vertical spreiten structures.
(described in the lithofacies analysis section) nor- Chondrites, Thalassinoides suevicus, and vertical
mally contains abundant Pinna and Rotularia, both spreiten structures dominate these two assemblages,
with the shell in original life position. The serpulid but rayhole-like structures are also important. Less
and molluscan assemblages and their accompanying frequent are Skolithos, Planolites, Palaeophycus, Cy-
lithofacies are recurrently presented throughout this lindrichnus, Zoophycos, and Taenidiurn. These
section, suggesting an episodic change of environ- assemblages are found within the Alpha Member,
mental parameters. Like the Rotularia-dominated concentrated in several horizons separated by thick
biofacies of Seymour Island (Macellari, 1984), the sequences showing no trace fossils. Assemblage I
fine-grained sediments with Rotularia of the Gamma characterizes mainly Lithofacies A. Assemblage II is
Member probably represent shallow, low energy envi- present mainly in the hard, tuffaceous beds of
ronments. The molluscan assemblage probably re- Lithofacies B (Fig. 6).
presents an inner shore, high energy environment Clearly, Fodinichnia dominates both assem-
dominated by the infaunal suspension feeders Cu- blages and Domichnia/Fodinichnia is less important.
cuUaea and Oistotrigonia. The relative abundance of Deposit feeders like Chondrites or the vertical sprei-
solitary corals and ammonites in coquinas and con- ten structures are the main trophic type. The pre-
glomerate lenses suggests normal marine conditions sence of complex feeding structures, the high rate of
during deposition of these facies. bioturbation, the predominantly horizontal systems
 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, James Ross Island, Antarctica 251

of T. suevicus, and the importance of infaunal deposit
feeders indicate low sedimentation rates, scarce phy-
sical reworking by wave or currents, and a low energy
environment for the trace fossil-bearing horizons.
Assemblage III. This low diversity assemblage is
recorded in Lithofacies C, in the lower part of the
Beta Member. The striking feature of this sequence
is the paucity of trace fossils, represented only by
scarce Skolithos and Thalassinoides. Reworked con-
cretions with Cylindrichnus and pine cone-like struc-
tures were recorded in some conglomerates. Comple-
mentary information is needed to consider the envi-
ronmental significance of this assemblage.
Assemblage IV. Vertical spreiten structures,
Taenidium, and pine cone-like structures dominate
this association, and Palaeophycus and Ophiomorpha
are important components of the group. Planolites,
ThaIassinoides, Skolithos, Chondrites, Rhizocoral.
lium, and rayhole-like structures are also present in
some horizons. This assemblage is recorded in the
upper part of the unit, both below and above Assem-
blage V (see Fig. 2b and Fig. 5). No single ethologic
category or trophic type is dominant, a l t h o u g h the
most important trace is the vertical spreiten struc-
ture (Fodinichnia). Taenidium is Fodinichnia/Pas-
cichnia, and Ophiomorpha and Palaeophycus a r e
Domichnia. The pine cone-like structure is Domich-
nia/Fodinichnia. Suspension and deposit feeders are
both important. As in Assemblages I and II, the
energy level seems to be low, but the presence of
dwelling structures of suspension feeders suggests
currents or waves that kept organic particles in sus-
pension.
Assemblage V. Ophiomorpha nodosa is by far the
most important component of this group, followed by
the pine cone-like structures Thalassinoides suevicus
and Skolithos linearis, respectively. Minor constitu-
ents are Gyrolithes, Cylindrichnus concentricus, Tae-
nidium, and Planolites montanus. Domichnia of sus-
pension feeders are clearly dominant. Vertical traces
are equally important as horizontal ones. Neverthe-
less there is an absence of densely populated vertical
tubes ("pipe rocks"). Dominant ethologic and trophic

Sonto Morto Formotion ==-_~

o
~r
o
-

0 0 ---

B
-g.

"oce F o s s i l
3SEMBLAGES

11ossinoides
pndrites
olithos
yho/e-like str.
verticol
spreiten str.
i
Foeophycus
~nolites
~nidium J
lindrichnus
ne Cone" str.
~iomorpho
izocorollium
~olithes
;soo

nple
=ality
torboti0n
lsity

Fig. 6. Compositionand stratigraphic distributionof the trace fossilassemblages. Abundant or scarce presence for each trace is
indicated by a complete or broken cross, respectively. Bioturbationdensity for each stratigraphic horizon represents maximum
recorded values for each horizonexpressed as a percent of bioturbated area relative to total exposed bed area for a given locality:
open rectangle,less than 20% bioturbated;half filledrectangle,between20% and 70% bioturbated;filledrectangle, more than 70%
bioturbated.
252 R.A. SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS
types suggest the existence of important organic
particles in suspension and a relatively high energy
environment. However, the absence of extremely
vertical bioturbated horizons, the predominately
horizontal burrows of Ophiomorpha nodosa and Tha-
lassinoides suevicus, and the presence of subordinate
deposit feeders (Planolites, Taenidium) could indicate
the presence of areas protected from waves and
currents.
DISCUSSION
The remarkable coincidence in stratigraphic
distribution of lithofacies, trace fossil assemblages,
and biofacies (see Fig. 2) permits us to arrange them
into seven major "facies groups." Three different ap-
proaches were used for environmental reconstruction,
which has allowed independent testing of the results.
The distinctive features of these facies groups are pre-
sented here. Because they are arranged in ascending
stratigraphic order, the recorded major changes
among them also indicate the evolution of facies
trends with sedimentary filling of the basin.
Facies Group I
Group I consists of Lithofacies A, Inoceramus
Biofacies, Trace Fossil Assemblage I, and Trace Fos-
sil Assemblage II. A volcaniclastic sedimentation
took place in a shallow marine restricted environ-
ment with little evidence of wave action. Sedimenta-
t i o n r a t e was high, w i t h m a r k e d , p e r i o d i c
interruptions. During these interruptions an infaun-
al deposit feeders ichnocenosis and a low diversity
fauna of epifaunal suspension feeders were deve-
loped, pointing out to a soft, muddy bottom and
relatively clear and nutrient-rich waters. Conditions
changed drastically and spasmodically due to rapid
volcanic-induced sedimentation, as suggested by
horizons of lnoceramus buried in life position by ash-
fall tufts and the overlying thick unfossiliferous beds.
The paleoenvironment was unstable and probably
restricted. The environmental interpretation of Fa-
cies Group I is based mainly on stratigraphic rela-
tionships with the overlying facies groups. Accord-
ingly, it is tentatively interpreted as representing
deposition adjacent to shallow marine fan-lobes.
Following the d e p o s i t i o n of the Hidden Lake
Formation, rapid subsidence predominated over a
high volume of volcaniclastic sedimentary input,
resulting in a transgressive tendency. Afterward, a
high sedimentation rate in equilibrium with rapid
subsidence provided a more or less constant sedimen-
tary environment for this thick, monotonous part of
the sequence.
Facies Group H
Group II consists of Lithofacies B, "Cerithium'-
Rotularia Biofacies, Eriphyla-'Aporrhais" Biofacies,
and Trace Fossil Assemblage II. The facies associa-
tion of this group, in conjunction with that of the
overlying Facies Group III, indicates that the sedi-
mentary environment was a volcaniclastic submarine
fan with some direct pyroclastic input. Both facies
groups present extensive evidence of sedimentation
by gravity flow processes. The relatively fine-grained
turbidites of Facies Group II and the coarser debris
flows and turbidites of Facies Group III represent,
respectively, the distal and proximal parts of a sub-
marine fan.
Sedimentation in Facies Group II was rhythmic,
with thick barren and non-bioturbated intervals and
thin, fossiliferous and highly bioturbated horizons.
Alternating periods of relatively low sedimentation
rates are indicated by thin ash-fall tuff showing
evidence of high biologic activity. Ichnofacies and
biofacies indicate a soft substrate and normal marine
conditions, probably in the photic zone. This rhyth-
mic pattern might have been produced by rapid
growth and abandonment of fan lobes. The Eriphyla-
~Aporrhais" Biofacies, a parautochthonous associa-
tion, represents reworking of sediments in submarine
channels in transition to conditions of the overlying
facies group.
The association of lithofacies considered typical
for deep waters with shallow water biofacies and
trace fossils is a striking feature of Facies Group II.
Some examples (e.g., Nemec et al., 1980; Stow, 1985;
McLean and Howell, 1985) suggest that basins with
submarine fans attached to tectonically controlled
margins and with narrow shells could be more com-
mon than is currently believed. In our case, the
shallower settlement of submarine fans, developed on
the shelf, could be related to the presence of a delta
front or fan-delta slope (cf. Walker, 1966). Rapid
growth of deltas or fan-delta related systems owing to
increased volcaniclastic supply, coupled with a
relative rise of sea level, could generate an over-
steepened delta-front slope which can account for the
development of a submarine fan at the base of the
slope (Fig. 7).
Facies Group III
Group III consists of Lithofacies C, Trigoniid Bio-
facies and part of Pterotrigonia-~Aporrhais ~ Bio-
facies, and Trace Fossil Assemblage III. Sedimenta-
tion took place in a proximal volcaniclastic sub-
marine fan with well developed channels. The coarse
intraformational deposits filling the erosive-based
channels point to an intrabasinal source. The main
biofacies (Trigoniid Biofacies) is allochthonous, and
faunal elements are derived from sandy inner shelf
environments. They were trapped at the head of the
channels and transported by gravity flows. The pau-
city of trace fossils, mainly represented by dwelling
structures, is consistent with a high energy environ-
ment. The a p p e a r a n c e of the P t e r o t r i g o n i a -
~Aporrhais" Biofacies in the upper part of this group
reflects the transitional character of its upper boun-
dary and a decreasing water depth toward the top of
this facies group. The fact that the more distal facies
 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, James Ross Island, Antarctica 253

3:

NO SE
SL 2
SL 3

+ + HLF ~-

5 Km
ti:
O
Fig. 7. A) Idealized paleogeographicsketch depicting depositional settings for each facies group. High sedimentary input during
the initial transgression produced rapid aggradation of deltaic systems with overst~eponed delta front inducing gravity flow
processes and development of submarine fans at its base: I, basin floor or inter-fan areas; H, distal fan lobes; 1T[, proximal fan-
channel complex; IV, delta slope; V, distal subaqueous delta plain-proximal delta slope. B)Generalized cross-section showing
idealized pattern of basin fill as a result of progradation of the deltaic-submarine fan complex: GG, Gtmt~v Group; HI~', Hidden
Lake Formation; I to VII, facies groups of the Santa Marta Formation. Length of bars represents true thickness, and position of
bars represents present-day location of the top of each facies group. The environmental interpretation of Facies Groups I-lII is well
constrained by sedimentologic and paleoecologic data, but the interpretation of Facies Group IV-VII is more speculative. The
relative position of sea level is indicated at the top of the Hidden Lake Formation (SL 1), at the top of Facies Groups I and I l l and
Facies Group VI and VII (SL 2), and at the top of Facies Group V (SL 3).

of the submarine fan (Facies Group II) are overlain by
the proximal facies of Group III is interpreted to be
the result of fan progradation. Thus, Facies Group III
points to the beginning of a regressive tendency with
diminished subsidence and high sedimentary input,
in part, of reworked marine shelfal sediments. The
regressive tendency continues and is still more evi-
dent in the overlying Facies Groups IV and V.
Facies Group I V
Multiple evidence supports a shallow water,
inner shelf marine environment, with alternating
high and low energy conditions for Facies Group IV,
which consists of Lithofacies D, Pterotrigonia-~Apor -
rhais" Biofacies, and Trace Fossil Assemblage IV.
These changing conditions favored the admixture of
254 R.A. SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS
autochthonous and parautochthonous-allochthonous
components of the biofacies and originated the some-
what undefined pattern of the trace fossil assem-
blages, dominated by both Fodinichnia and Domich-
nia. High and low energy environments reflect storm
events and fair weather conditions, respectively.
This facies group represents more stable shelfal
environments in which relative oscillations of sea
level seem to be minor. Following the regressive
tendency related to the progradation of deltaic
systems discussed above, the sedimentary environ-
ment of Facies Group IV is tentatively regarded as
representing deposition on upper delta front-distal
subaqueous delta plain influenced by wave action.
Facies Group V
This facies group, which consists of part of Litho-
facies E, Taioma Biofacies, and Trace Fossil Assem-
blage V, represents nearshore marine sedimentation
with evidence of wave action. The dominance of
infaunal suspension feeding bivalves, as well as
Domichnia trace fossils, indicates a relatively high
energy and well oxygenated environment. However,
the common presence of carbonaceous shales and the
alternation of high and low energy ichnocenosis also
suggest protected environments like lagoons or small
bays. A very shallow water, marginal marine envi-
ronment is indicated, this being the most "regressive"
facies group in the whole sequence.
Facies Group VI
This group (part of Lithofacies E, CucuUaea-
"Neilo" Biofacies, and Trace Fossil Assemblage IV)
represents a marine shelf environment. The conglo-
merates and coquinas at the base of the group are
interpreted as a reworked horizon, pointing to the end
of the regressive tendency. They probably originated
in the inner shelf during a low stand of sea level. Up-
ward in the sequence, more open marine conditions
characterize this facies group.
Facies Group VII
A normal shelfal, shallow marine environment is
represented in this group, which comprises Litho-
facies F and Rotularia Biofacies. Stratigraphic cor-
relation of several isolated outcrops is problematic,
but the relatively more proximal muddy, car-
bonaceous sequence is probably followed upward by
more open and distal shelf turbidites or graded tem-
pestites. This is consistent with the new trans-
gressive tendency detected in the underlying Facies
Group VI and with the increasing faunal diversity.
CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusion resulting from our study is
that the depositional system underwent a "one way"
evolution, passing through several stages that are
represented by distinctive and non-repetitive litho-
facies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblages groups. A
whole transgressive-regressive cycle, with a new
transgression at the top of the unit, is recorded.
Sedimentation took place, at a relatively high rate,
from Santonian through latest Campanian to early
Maastrichtian time. Preservation of a thick sequence
of proximal shelf sediments was probably influenced
by a relatively high subsidence rate and by the fault-
controlled nature of the basin margin (Medina et al.,
1990).
On James Ross Island, the basin fill started with
Lower and mid-Cretaceous s t r a t a of the Gustav
Group (Lagrelius Point, Kotick Point, and Whisky
Bay Formations) deposited flanking the faulted
western basin margin in slope apron and submarine
fan environments (Ineson, 1989). Narrow shelf and
large fan-delta systems are envisaged as feeding the
submarine fans. For the Coniacian-?Santonian Hid-
den Lake Formation (uppermost Gustav Group),
depositional settings evolved to fan delta and tidal
shelf environments, recording a major shallowing
event involving uplift and partial basin inversion
(McDonald et al., 1988).
By the time of deposition of Facies Groups I, II,
and III (Santa Marta Formation), the continental
landscape is envisaged as a chain of active volcanoes
roughly parallel to the coast and located several
kilometers inland (Fig. 7). This is supported by the
fine granulometry of the direct pyroclastic deposits
(mainly ash falls without coarse volcanic facies), the
paucity of pyroclastic flows, and the abundance of
fresh reworked pyroclastic material in the marine
deposits. Coarser products of andesitic to basaltic
eruptions were first deposited close to the volcanoes.
Subsequent high-rate erosion and r e w o r k i n g by
rivers provided abundant volcaniclastic sediments to
fluvial-dominated deltas or delta-related systems (cf.
Kuenzi et al., 1979). The profusion of vegetal remains
(large tree trunks, leaves, and coal lenses) in the
marine deposits suggest well vegetated areas close to
or within the fluvio-deltaic systems (delta plain,
coastal plains and lowlands; Fig. 7).
A very high rate of volcaniclastic sedimentation
in the context of a subsiding basin produced rapidly
aggrading deltaic systems with oversteepened delta
slopes. Consequently, gravity flow processes were
favored and resulted in the development of sub-
marine fans at the base of the slopes (Fig. 7). Progra-
dation of the delta-submarine fan system, probably
related to gradually diminishing subsidence or in-
creasing sedimentary supply, resulted in the strati-
graphic superposition of the proximal channel com-
plex (Facies Group IID on the more distal Facies
Groups I and II. During this time, the "normal"
eustatic sea level changes m corresponding, for ex-
ample, to a third-order cycle (cf. Vail et al., 1977;
Einsele, 1985) - - would have been of minor impor-
tance in comparison with subsidence (see also Pirrie,
1989).
Facies Groups IV and V record a marked change
in the sedimentary regime. Limited expositions pre-
 Lithofacies,biofacies,and ichnoassemblage evolution,James Ross Island,Antarctica
clude a detailed environmental interpretation, but
the observed transition with the underlying facies
groups suggest environments within the envisaged
deltaic system. In this context, the regressive de-
posits of Facies Groups IV and V could be the result of
progradation of the delta system or could reflect a fall
in sea level. These facies groups could represent sedi-
mentation on the upper delta slope and distal sub-
aqueous delta plain. Evidence of wave and storm
processes could reflect a change to a more wave-
dominated deltaic system. The regressive tendency of
Facies Groups IV and V is associated with a gradual
decrease in volcaniclastic input. Following the most
"regressive" facies (Group V), more open marine con-
ditions prevailed in the basin, representing a new
transgressive cycle (Facies Groups VI and VII).
Acknowledgements--We wish to thank the Institute Ant~rtico
Argentino and Fuerza Adrea Argentina for logistical support
during the 1986, 1988, 1989, and 1990 Antarctic field seasons, and
the Centro de Investigaciones en Recursos Geol6gicos for all the
facilitiesprovided for this study. W e are also indebted to A. L6pez
Angriman, R. Roura, F. Mussel, D. Martinioni, A. Monti, G.
Escolar, and people from the Comando Antartico del Ej~rcito
Argentino for their assistance in the field work. Comments by Dr.
L. A. Spalletti and Dr. C. E. Macellari are grateful acknowledged.
Financial aid for this research was provided by CONICET, PID No
3-148100/88.
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 Lithofacies, biofacies, and ichnoassemblage evolution, James Ross Island, Antarctica 257

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(1),90-114.

R e s u m e n - - L a Formaci6n Santa Marta, CretAcico superior ( S a n t o n i a n o - C a m p a n i a n o / M a a s t r i c h t i a n o

inferior) de la isla J a m e s Ross, Ant~rtida, comprende sedimentos con gran aporte volcanicl~stico depo-
sitados en una plataforma marina somera adyacente a un arco volcanico activo. Un an#ilisis combinado de
los rasgos sedimentologicos, de la paleoecologia de la fauna bentbnica y de las trazas f6siles ha permitido
reconocer en esta unidad seis asociaciones de litofacies, ocho biofacies y cinco asociaciones de trazas f6siles.
Las litofacies comprenden principalmente sedimentos tob~ceos finos y masivos; areniscas tob~ceas gra-
dadas, a n t i , g a s a turbiditas; fangolitas carbonosas; conglomerados resedimentados; coquinas; areniscas;
areniscas limosas; y escasos estromatolitos. Las biofacies, definidas pot la composici6n y abundancia rela-
tiva de la fauna benthnica, est~n dominadas pot bivalvos, gastr6podos y serpdlidos, con menor participaci6n
de escaf6podos, corales, braqui6podos y equinoideos. Las asociaciones de t r a z a s f6siles incluyen los
elementos m~s comtmes de las icnofacies de Skolithos y Cruziana.
Un llamativo resultado del an~lisis es que determinadas litofacies, biofacies y asociaciones de trazas se
asocian en varios horizontes distintivos, que no se repiten verticalmente en la secuencia. Sobre esta base se
reconocen siete grupos principales de facies en la Formaci6n Santa Marta, cada tma de las cuales presenta
una combinaci6n caracteristica de litofacies, biofacies y de trazas f6siles. Estos siete grupos de facies, no
repetitivos y sucedidos verticalmente en la seeuencia, evidencian una evoluci6n continua del sistema depo-
sicional durante tm ciclo transgresivo-regresivo completo con tma nueva transgresi6n hacia el teeho de la
unidad. Los gupos de facies estratigr#ificamente inferiores representan ambientes marinos de plataforma,
con una alta t a s a de sedimentaci6n y gran aporte voicanicl~stico. Estas facies caracterizan un sistema de
abanicos submarinos poco profundos probablemente desarrollados en la base de tm frente deltaieo que crecia
rapidamente como consecuencia de una alta tasa de sedimentaci6n en equilibrio con la subsidencia. Los
grupos de facies superiores probablemente representan sedimentaciSn en la parte m a r i n a del mencionado
sistema deltaico en una plataforma m~s estable y con menor aporte vulcanbgeno.
258 R.A. SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS

APPENDIX A
Relative A b u n d a n c e (% A) and Presence (% P) for Each Biofacies
(total localities (L), 48; total individuals (I), 5,515)

TAXA %A %P TAXA %A %P
INOCERAMUS BIO,VACIES (L = 11, I = 143) ERIPHYLA-A PORRHA~SB IOFACIES ( L = 1, I = 134 )
Bivalvia: Bivalvia:
Inoceramus 74.1 72.7 Eriphyla 41 100
Panopea 4.9 27.3 Panopea 6.7 100
~Neilo" 3.5 36.4 Cucullaea 5.2 1 O0
Limatula 1.4 9.1 Oistotrigonia 3 100
Nucula .7 9.1 Gastropoda:
Eriphyla .7 9.1 ~Aporrhais" 26.9 100
Gastropoda: ~Cerithium" 7.5 1 O0
Natica 6.3 27.3 ~Nerinea" 3 1 O0
Limpet 4.2 36.4 Natica 1.5 100
~A ustrosphaera" 2.1 27.3 Turritella 1.5 1 O0
"Cerithium" 1.4 9.1 ~Terebra " .7 100
Other: Other:
Scaphopoda 1 .7 9.1 Serpulid 2 1.5 100
Scaphopoda 2 1.5 100
TRIGONIID BIOFACIES (L=4, ! =45}
Bivalvia: PTEROTRIGONIA-APORRHAIS BIOFACIES (L = 9, I = 926)
CueuUaea 11.1 50 Bivalvia:
Pterotrigonia 11.1 50 Pterotrigonia 15 77.8
Eselaevitrigonia 8.9 75 Cucullaea 8 77.8
Nucula 6.7 50 Nucula 6.4 66.7
Oistotrigonia 4.4 50 Eriphyla 5 89
Trigoniid 2.2 25 0 istotrigo n/a 4.1 55.6
Veneriid 2.2 25 ~Nedo" 3.1 44.4
Eriphyla 2.2 25 Thracm 2.4 55.6
Thraeia 2.2 25 Eselaevitrigonia 2.2 66.7
Lima 2.2 25 Lahillia 1 33.3
Gastropoda: Large lnoceramus .8 22.2
~Aporrhais" 13.3 50 Mytilus .6 44.4
Pleurotomaria 4.4 25 Pinna .5 33.3
Other: Gonwmya .4 22.2
Serpulid 2 11.1 25 Panopea .3 22.2
Rotularia 6.7 50 Trigoniid .3 22.2
Decapoda 4.4 50 Ostreidae .2 11.1
Echinoid 2.2 25 A ustrotrigonia .1 11.1
Brachiopoda 2.2 25 Pacitrigonia .1 11.1
Hermatypic Coral 2.2 25 ~Corbula" .1 11.1
Ntpponitrigonia .1 11.1
~CERITHIUM"-ROTULARIABIOFACIES (L = 7, I = 100)
Modiolus .1 11.1
Bivalvia: ~Lucina" .1 11.1
Nuculanid 1.3 42.9 Gastropoda:
Nucula .8 42.9 ~Aporrhais" 22.2 66.7
Lima .4 42.9 Eunaticina .5 11.1
Pholadomya .2 28.6 Pleurotomaria .4 33.3
Limatula .1 14.3 A mberleya .4 11.1
Pinna .1 14.3 Natica .3 11.1
Pterotrigonia .1 14.3
Taioma .1 11.1
Gastropoda: "Austrostoma" .1 11.1
"Cerithium" 21.3 85.7 Other:
Natica .9 42.9 Scaphopoda 2 12.6 66.7
Scaphander .9 28.6 Rotularia 6.8 44.4
"A ustrosphaera" .5 28.6 Serpulid I 2.5 22.2
~Triton" .3 14.3 Decapoda 1.3 66.7
~Terebra" .1 14.3 Solitary Coral 1.2 33.3
Other: Echinoid .4 22.2
Rotularia 63 71.4 Crinoidea .1 11.1
Solitary Coral 5.2 85.7
Echinoid 1.6 42.9
Scaphopoda l 1.4 57.1
Brachiopoda 1.2 42.9
Crinoidea .5 28.6
Decapoda .1 14.3
 L i t h o f a c i e s , biofacies, a n d i c h n o a s s e m b l a g e e v o l u t i o n , J a m e s Ross I s l a n d , A n t a r c t i c a 259

APPENDIX A (continued)
TAXA %A %P TAXA %A %P
TACOMABIO~ACIES (L =6, I =71 ) ROTULARIABIOFACIE$ (L = 5, I = 2,506)
Bivalvia: Bivalvia:
Cucullaea 31 33.3 Cucullaea 2.8 80
Cyclorisma 4.2 16.7 Oistotrigonia 2.2 80
Panopea 1.4 16.7 ~Neilo" 2.1 60
Pacitrigonia 1.4 16.7 Cyclorisma 2.1 60
E selaevitrigonia 1.4 16.7 Nucula 1.4 80
Eriphyla 1.4 16.7 Pinna 1.2 40
Entolium 1.4 16.7 Entolium .7 40
Ostreidae 1.4 16.7 LahiUia .7 40
Gastropoda: Limatula .4 60
Taioma 43.7 66.7 Eriphyla .4 60
Turritella 7 16.7 Panopea .4 60
'~Aporrhais" 1.4 16.7 Eselaevitrigonia .2 1O0
Other: ~Corbula" .0 20
Decapoda 2.8 33.3 ~Lucina" .0 20
Solitary Coral 1.4 16.7 Modiolus .0 20
Thracia .0 20
CUCULLAEA-n'NEILO'BIOFACIES (L=6, I =689)
Gastropoda:
Bivalvia: Turritella 5.5 60
Cucullaea 27.1 100 Natica 3.6 60
"Neilo" 26.6 83.3 Trochidae 2.6 60
Panopea 5.2 66.7 Arnberleya 1.2 60
Oistotrigonia 4.2 50 Taioma 1.2 100
Eriphyla 3.2 83.3 Cinulia 1.2 60
Pinna 1.9 83.3 Eunaticina .8 80
Eselaeoitrigonia 1.3 66.7 PateUidae .2 20
Pacitrigonia 1 66.7 ~Bulla" .2 20
Thracia .4 33.3 Pleurotomaria .0 20
Entolium .3 33.3 Other:
Lima .3 16.7 Rotularia 56 100
GerviUella .3 16.7 Solitary Coral 8.8 80
Limatula .1 16.7 Brachiopoda 2.1 80
Trigoniid .1 16.7 Scaphopoda 2 1.4 60
Gastropoda:
Taioma 13.4 100 Straight serpulid tubes not included above: I = > i0,000,
Natica 4.2 50 P=60%.
Turritella 2.6 83.3
Scaphander 1.5 33.3
Pleurotomaria .3 33.3
~Triton" .3 16.7
~Aporrhais" .1 16.7
Other:
Scaphopoda 2 2.9 66.7
Rotularia 1.6 16.7
Solitary Coral .6 33.3
Decapoda .3 16.7
Echinoid .1 16.7

APPENDIX B Do m i c h n i a / F o d i n i c h n i a
T h a l a s s i n o i d e s s u e v i c u s : L i t h o f a c i e s A, B, D, a n d
Ichnofauna from the Santa Marta Formation E; A l p h a , u p p e r B e t a , a n d l o w e r G a m m a M e m -
bers.
Domichnia C y I i n d r i c h n u s c o n c e n t r i c u s : L i t h o f a c i e s B a n d E;
O p h i o r n o r p h a nodosa: lower p a r t of t h e G a m m a upper Alpha and lower G a m m a Members.
Member. I n d e t e r m i n a t e " p i n e cone" b u r r o w : L i t h o f a c i e s D
P a l a e o p h y c u s aft. P. striatus: L i t h o f a c i e s A, B, D, a n d E; u p p e r B e t a a n d l o w e r G a m m a M e m b e r s .
a n d E; A l p h a , u p p e r B e t a , a n d lower G a m m a V e r t i c a l b u r r o w w i t h t h e s h a p e of p i n e cone.
Members. M a x i m u m l e n g t h 20 cm b u t g e n e r a l l y a b o u t 3 cm.
S k o l i t h o s linearis: L i t h o f a c i e s A, B, C, D, a n d E; T h e s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s of a l t e r n a t i n g s a n d y a n d
Alpha, Beta, and lower Gamma Members. c a l c a r e o u s or s i l t y - c l a y c o n v e x - d o w n w a r d l a y e r s
T i s s o a ichnosp: L i t h o f a c i e s E; l o w e r G a m m a with a central, axial calcareous tube s u r r o u n d e d
Member. by a c o n c e n t r i c s a n d - f i l l e d tube. T h e c a l c a r e o u s
G y r o l i t h e s s a x o n i c u s : L i t h o f a c i e s E; lower G a m - a n d s i l t y l a y e r s show r a d i a l , p e t a l - l i k e e l e m e n t s .
ma Member. I c h n o t a x o n o m i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h i s b u r r o w is in
260 R.A. SCASSO, E. B. OLIVERO, and L. A. BUATOIS
progress. Similar forms have been interpreted as
dwelling structures of anemone-like animals, but
the possibility of a combined dwelling-feeding
structure cannot be ruled out. Preserved as en-
dichnia.
Fodinichnia
C h o n d r i t e s ichnosp: Lithofacies A, B, and D;
Alpha and upper Beta Members.
P I a n o l i t e s m o n t a n u s : Lithofacies A, B, D, and E;
Alpha, upper Beta and lower Gamma Members.
R h i z o c o r a U i u m irregulare: Lithofacies E; lower
Gamma Member.
Z o o p h y c o s ichnosp: Lithofacies A and B; Alpha
Member.
Rayhole-like traces (including passive filled bur-
rows of possible different origins): Lithofacies A,
B, and D; Alpha and upper Beta Members.
Dish, scoop, or funnel-shaped depressions,
interrupt the surrounding physical sedimentary
structures (Howard et al., 1977). Structure is
passively filled by sand, shells, and small vegetal
remains. Size is variable, averaging 10 cm in
depth and 5 cm in diameter, but up to 35 cm and
25 cm, respectively. Interpreted as a feeding
trace of rays, but other, different, organisms could
produce similar structures. Preserved as epich-
nia. Similar structures were described by Kamo-
la (1984} for Cretaceous marine marginal sedi-
ments.
Undetermined vertical spreiten structures:
simple form - - Lithofacies A, B, and D; Alpha and
upper Beta Members; complex form - - Lithofacies
B and D; upper Alpha and upper Beta Members.
Complex spreiten s t r u c t u r e s consist of a
series of vertical, folded laminae that converge to
a central point at the base. Internally each lam-
inae shows spreiten structures. The spreiten
shows a "back and forth" development suggesting
a "zig-zag" movement of a vertical or inclined J-
shaped tube. A subdivision between "simple" and
"complex" forms is presented on the basis of the
number and distance between each "zig-zag" lobe.
The simple type has less (two or three) and more
separate lobes, whereas the complex type has
more than three lobes which are closer than in
the simple type. Preservation of the structure in
calcareous concretions provides excellent details
of the structure. Ichnotaxonomic identification of
this form is in progress. Interpreted as feeding
structures. Preserved as endichnia.
Fodinichnia-Pascichinia
T a e n i d i u m ichnosp: LithofaciesB, Alpha Mem-
ber; LithofaciesD, Beta Member; LithofaciesE,
G a m m a Member.