Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Chapter 1 Compressible flow

1.1 Reviews of incompressible flow

Types of fluid

Two different ways in terms of behaviour (1) of a shear

stress or (2) under the action of external applied
pressure.

(1) Newtonian fluid

Non-Newtonian fluid
Bingham-plastic
Power law
Newtonian
Shear-thickening
Shear-thinning
Shear stress

Bingham-plastic

0 Shear rate

(2) Incompressible fluid liquid, gas under lower

pressure or much higher pressure (p/p < 10%)
Compressible fluid gas at moderate pressure,
density and velocity changes along the pipe.
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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Definition of compressibility factor for gas

From ideal gas law PV= nRT

We define PV = ZnRT where Z is a

compressibility factor.

PV = Z W
M
RT PM = Z WV RT ( = W
V
)

= PM
ZRT

Incompressible flow in a pipe

For a Newtonian fluid, the pressure drop due to the wall

friction can be evaluated from Darcy equation

v 2 X
-P = f 2 D
f: friction factor
: fluid density (kg/m3)
v: superficial velocity (m/s) = Q/A Q: volumetric
flowrate; A cross-sectional area
X: pipe length (m)
D: pipe diameter (m)

Note: this equation is applied to laminar and turbulent

flow
64 vD
For laminar flow, f = Re
Re: Reynolds number =

2
Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

fv 2 X 64 v 2 X 32vX
P = = =
2D Re 2 D D2

For turbulent flow, f depends on Re and relative

roughness ( D ) and can be obtained from Moody charts.

Typical roughness of some commercial products

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

An alternative to the friction factor charts, a number of

correlations can be applied to make evaluation of
friction factor in computer codes. For example,

1 2.510
= -2log +
3.7 D Re f
f

For smooth pipes, = 0

For fully turbulent flow, 1/Re = 0

1.2 Revision of equations

Mass flux (G) is the mass flow per unit cross sectional
area.

m Q
G = A = A = v
where m: mass flow rate, Q: volumetric flow rate
Using mass flux, the incompressible flow equation and
Reynolds number can be rewritten as

v 2 X G2 X
P = f 2 D = f 2 D

vD GD
Re = =

For incompressible flow in pipes of constant cross-

sectional area, both velocity and mass flux remain
constant. In addition, it should be noted that Re will be

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

relatively constant since G is also unchanging. The only

variable that can affect Re is viscosity, which will
change with temperature. Constant velocity or mass
flux leads to constant Re and friction factor.

Example 1.1

Water is flowing in a 50 mm pipe at a velocity of 6 m/s.

The conditions at the entrance to the pipe are 1.0 MPa
and 100 C. What is the pressure at a point 50 m
downstream? ( = 0.8 x 10-3 Pa s)
Solution
The Reynolds number
vD 1000 6 0.05
Re = = = 3.75 10 5 (Turbulent)
0.8 10 3

Relative roughness (Assuming a commercial steel pipe)

0.046
= = 0.0009
D 50

From Moody chart f = 0.0195

v 2 X 1000 6 2 50
Then P = f 2 D
= 0.0195
2 0.050
= 351kPa

P2 = P1 - P = 1000 351 = 649 kPa

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Example 1.2
Air is flowing in 50 mm pipe at a velocity of 60 m/s. The
conditions at the entrance to the pipe is 1.0 MPa and
100 C. The pressure at points 40, 80, and 120 m
downstream is required. ( = 22.8 x 10-6 Pa s, M = 29
g/mol)
Solution

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Table

Downstream P v Re f Pressure
Point (m) kPa (kg/m3) (m/s) drop(kPa)
0 1000 9.35 60 1.23x106 0.0195 263
40 737 6.89 81.4 1.23x106 0.0195 356
80 386 3.56 157 1.23x106 0.0195 684
120 -298 ?

The results above demonstrate a number of features of

all compressible flow situations:

Density falls and velocity increase along pipes;

Pressure gradient increases (gets steeper) along
pipes;
If the pipe is long enough, the pressure gradient will
become so large that there will not be enough
pressure driving force.

In this case, what we should do is to use trial and

error to estimate the average gas properties in the line
and so determine the average pressure gradient.

Example 1.3
Air is flowing in 50 mm pipe at a velocity of 60 m/s. The
conditions at the entrance to the pipe is 1.0 MPa and
100 C. The pressure at a point 50 m downstream is
required. ( = 22.8 x 10-6 Pa s, M = 29 g/mol)

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Solution

For gas, the upstream density:

MP 29 10 3 1.0 10 6
= = = 9.35kg / m 3
RT 8.314 373

Reynolds number and friction factor:

vD 9.35 60 0.05
Re = = = 1 . 23 10 6

22.8 10 6

From Moody chart, f = 0.0195

v 2 X
0.0195 9.35 60 2 50
Then P = f = = 328kPa
2 D 2 0.05

And P50m = 1000 328 = 672 kPa

The average pressure along the pipe

Pa = (1000+672)/2 = 836 kPa

a = 7.82 kg/m3 va = v00/a = 71.7 m/s

v 2 X
0.0195 7.82 71.7 2 50
P = f = = 392kPa
2 D 2 0.05

P50m = 1000 392 = 608 kPa

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Take the new exit pressure and estimate the average

pressure again

Pa = (1000+608)/2 = 804 kPa

a = 7.52 kg/m3 va = v00/a = 74.6 m/s
P = 408 kPa P50m = 592 kPa

by iteration the correct value will approach 586 kPa.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

1.3 Compressible flow

1.3.1 General equation

The general form of the energy statement in differential

form is
dp
vdv + gdZ + + dW + dF = 0

For gases, the gravity term, gdZ, is insignificant due to
the low gas density and can be neglected. Assuming no
work, and substituting for the friction loss gives
dp fv 2
vdv + + dx = 0
2D
fv 2
=> vdv + dp + dx = 0 (1)
2D
fG 2 dx
Gdv + dp + =0
(1) Using G= v 2D
now G is constant along the pipe, so integrating between
point 1 and 2 along the pipe gives (for constant friction
factor f):
fG 2 2 dx
G (v2 v1 ) + p +
2D 1
=0

To get value of P, it is required to know how density

dx
changes with distance along the pipe
and this
relation is difficult to obtain.

G
(2) From G= v v = G/ then dv =
2
d

Substituting into Eq(1)

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

d
fG 2
G + dp +
2
dx = 0
2D
This can be integrated to give:
1 fG 2 X
2
G ln + dp + =0
2 2 D (2)
To solve the above equation, a relationship between
pressure and density is required. While for gas systems,
we can get it from gas equation.

1.3.2 Flow under different conditions

(I) Isothermal flow

Isothermal flow applies when there are no temperature

changes along the pipe. It can also apply when the
temperature changes have less impact on the energy
statement than changes in pressure and friction. Such a
case is long distance pipelines.

For the ideal compressible gas, we have equation

pM
=
ZRT
The compressibility factor (Z) is assumed constant over
the range of pressure of interest. From the ideal gas law,
we recognise that the density at any point along the pipe
may be related to the inlet conditions by

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

M
= = 1= 2=
p ZRT p1 p2 p
Therefore
M ( p2 p1 ) 1 ( p2 p1 )
2 2 2 2
M
dp = ZRT pdp =
ZRT 2
=
p1 2
1 ( p1 + p2 )
= ( p2 p1 ) = ( p2 p1 )
p1 2

Substituting into Eq(2)

fG 2
X
G 2 ln 1 + ( p2 p1 ) + =0
2 2 D

If the kinetic energy effects are small, the first term may
be omitted, and rearranging gives
2 X p1
( p1 p2 ) = fG
2 2

D 1

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Example 1.4

Air is flowing in 50 mm pipe at a velocity of 60 m/s. The

conditions at the entrance to the pipe is 1.0 MPa and
100 C. The pressure at points 50 m downstream is
required. ( = 22.8 x 10-6 Pa s, M = 29 g/mol)

Solution

Follow the same steps as before to calculate upstream

density, Reynolds number and friction factor. When the
kinetic energy term is small, we can apply the
isothermal equation:

X p1 Xp
( p1 p2 ) = fG 2 = f1v 2 1
2 2

D 1 D
0.0195 9.35 602 50 1 10 6
= = 6.56 1011
0.05

p2 = p1 6.56 1011 = (1 106 ) 2 6.56 1011 = 3.44 1011

2 2

p 2 = 586kPa This is the same as that of Example 1.3.

Question? Is it right?

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

(II) Adiabatic Flow

The adiabatic flow is applied when there is either no

heat transfer or the pipe is well insulated and heat
transfer effects are small. In addition, short pipes
experiencing high speed flow may exhibit near adiabatic
conditions due to the limited heat transfer that occurs.
First, it is necessary to derive a relationship between
and p.
Assuming ideal gas behaviour, from energy statement

vdv + gdZ + dH + dW dQ = 0

under adiabatic conditions dQ=0, with no work and for

gases (small ), the above equation is reduced to

vdv + dH = 0
G2
From G = v
G
d vdv = d
v = G/ and dv = 2
3

From thermodynamics
H= U + pV dH = dU + d(pV)

dH = Cp dT dU = Cv dT

Cp dT - Cv dT = d(pV) dT = d(pV) /(Cp- Cv)

Substituting into dH = dU + d(pV)

= Cv dT + d(pV)
Cp
= ( )d ( pV )
C p Cv

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

C p / Cv
= ( )d ( pV )
C p / Cv 1

Cp 1
= (specific heat ratio) and V= V is the volume of
Cv
unit mass
p
Then dH = d ( )
1

The energy statement

G2 p
3 d + d( ) = 0
1

Since each term can be integrated separately,

integrating and rearranging gives the relationship of p
and
p1 1 G 2 1 1
p = ( ) 2 2
1 2 1

This relationship applies for every point along the pipe.

Substituting downstream density, 2, for enable us to
calculate the downstream pressure, p2.

Now the term of dp

p1 1 G 2 2
dp = ( )1 + 2 d
1 2 1
and its integral

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

p1 1 G 2 1 1 2 2
dp = 2 1 ( 1 2 ) ( 2 )ln 2 + 2 1 12
2 2

Substituting this into the Eq(2)

1 fG 2 X
2
G ln + dp + =0
2 2 D (2)
we get

+ 1 2 1 p1 1 2 2 fX
ln + 2 1 2 + =0
1 2 G 1 D
Arrangement of the above equation makes the iterative
procedure easier. A common modification is

fX + 1 2
2 ln
2 D 1
= 1
1 1 p1 1
+ 2
2 G

A typical procedure for the determination of pressure

drop is to obtain the density ratio by iteratively solving
the energy statement. The downstream density can then
be calculated and substituted into the pressure
relationship to get the downstream pressure.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Example 1.5

Solve example 1.3 assuming adiabatic condition (=1.4).

Solution

We will use the following equation to get 2

fX + 1 2
2 ln
2 D 1
= 1
1 1 p1 1
+ 2
2 G
From previous calculation, we get 1 =9.35 kg/m3;
Re = 1.23x106 ; f = 0.0195 ; G = 561 kg/m2 s.

= 19.5 ; + 1 = 1.7143 ; 1 + p1 2 1 = 29.852

fX
D 2 G

2 19.5 1.7143 ln 2
2 1
= 1 = 0.34677 + 0.0573 ln 2
1 29.852 1

by iteration, 2/1 = 0.6; 0.5634; 0.5602; 0.5599; 0.55988;

0.55987 2 = 5.235 kg/m3

p1 1 G 2 1 1
p = ( ) 2 2

Then from 1 2 1

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

p1 1 G 2 1 1

p2 = 2 1 ( 2 ) 2 2
2 1

1.0 10 6 0.4 5612 1 1

= 5.235 2
= 554.0kPa

2
9 . 35 1.4 2 5 .235 9. 35

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

(III) Polytropic flow

Polytropic flow uses an empirical form of relationship

between pressure and fluid density. It is used for
systems which do not follow the standard
thermodynamic situations such as isothermal or
adiabatic. The form of the polytropic equation of state is
p
= cons tan t
k

If this is substituted into the pressure integral, we get

k p ( k +1) / k
dp = k + 1 1 p1 p1 1
2

So the energy statement is

( k +1) / k
fG 2 X
2 1 p2 k p2
G ln + 1 p1 1 =0
k p1 k + 1 p1 2 D

Note that the isothermal case is obtained when k=1.

Solution of the energy statement usually requires

iteration. The most practical way is to rewrite the form
as
k /( k +1)
2 fX 1 p2
G ln
p2 2 D k p1
= 1
p1 k
1 p1
k +1

Normally, it converges well, unless k is negative.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Example 1.6

If the system in example 1.3 operates under the

polytropic law with k = , what is the expected exit
pressure?
Solution

Using equation
k /( k +1)
2 fX 1 p2
G ln
p2 2 D k p1
= 1
p1 k
1 p1
k +1

for iteration to solve the pressure ratio p2/p1.
From previous calculation, we get 1 =9.35 kg/m3;
Re = 1.23x106 ; f =0.0195 ; G = 561 kg/m2 s.

G2 k +1 5612 2.4
= = 0.0577
p1 1 k 1.0 10 9.35 1.4
6

fX 0.0195 50
= = 9.75 ; k = 0.58333
2D 2 0.05 k +1
0.58333
p2 p
= 1 0.04122(13.65 ln 2 )
p1 p1
Guess p2/p1=0.6 and iterations give 0.59977, 0.59975,
0.59975 p2 = 599.75 kPa.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

1.3.3 Maximum mass flow conditions

(I) Isothermal flow

1 fG 2 X
G ln + ( p2 p1 ) +
2
=0
From the equation 2 2 D

It is seen that G is a continuous function of p2 for a

given upstream pressure p1. If p2 = p1 there is no flow
occurring and G= 0. When p2 approaches zero, G must
be zero. Thus, for some intermediate value of p2, the
flow rate G must be a maximum.
G
Differentiation of mass flux p = 0 gives the maximum
2

flux.

p ( p p1 ) f X 2 2
ln 2 + 1 2 2 + =0
p1 p1G 2 2 D (3)

1 1 ( p2 p1 ) 1 1 dG
2 2
+ p2 + =0
p2 p1G 2
2 p1 2G dp2
3

If we denote the mass flux and pressure under

maximum conditions as G* and p*

1

G* = p *
p1

while p* can be given by substituting it into Eq(3) and

we get
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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

p1 p *2 p1
2
f X
ln + 2
+ =0
p* 2p* 2 D
p1 2 fX
2
p1
= ln( ) + 1 +
p *2 p* D
Under these conditions, the downstream velocity v*,
called the isothermal pressure wave velocity, is
obtained

G * p * 1 p* zRT
v* = = = =
* * p1 * M

Example 1.7

If the system in example 1.3 operates isothermally, what

is the maximum air velocity at the inlet?

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Solution

We should determine the downstream G* or p*.

p1 p *2 p1
2
f X
ln + 2
+ =0
p* 2p* 2 D
2
p fX p
ln( 1 ) 2 + (1 + )= 12
p* D p*
First we assume high Re and constant f = 0.0195, the
above equation is rearranged as

p1 2 p
ln( ) + 20.5 = ( 1 ) 2
p* p*

Guess p*/p1 = 0.5 and after iterations, p*/p1= 0.2056

p*=205.6 kPa.
Mp *
And * = zRT
= 1.9227 kg / m 3

1 9.35
Then G* = p * = 205 . 6 10 3
= 628. 7 kg / m 2
s
p1 1 10 6

Hence, the maximum inlet air velocity

v max = G*/1 = 67.24 m/s

It is noted that we need to check Re = 1.38x106 , which

assures that the assumption is correct.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

(II) Polytropic flow

The maximum mass flux and the limiting velocity
G* = kp* *

G* kp *
v* = =
* *

Example 1.8

Under polytropic condition, what is the limiting flow at

the inlet?

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Solution

Under polytropic conditions, G* = kp and

* *

k /( k +1)
2 fX 1 p2
G ln
p2 2 D k p1
= 1
p1 k
1 p1
k +1

Hence
k /( k +1)
fX 1 p *
kp * *
ln

p* 2D k p1
= 1
p1 k
1 p1
k +1

from p/k = constant * = c (p*)1/k
after rearranging, we have

k +1

p* k k + 1 fX k + 1 p *
= 1+ ln
p1 2 D k p1

Assuming high Re and f = 0.0195

k +1 k + 1 fX
= 1.7143 ; 1 + = 24.4
k 2 D
0.58333
p* p *
= 24.4 1.7143 ln
So p1 p1

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Guess p*/p1 = 0.6; iterations p*/p1 =0.14400

p* = 144.0 kPa * =2.3423 kg/m3 and
G* = kp* * = 1.4 144.0 103 2.3423 = 687.2kg / m 2 s
then G1 = G* v1 = 73.49 m/s
Checking Re =1.51x106 and f is unchanged.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

(III) Adiabatic flow

Similarly, the maximum flux is obtained by
differentiation of
+ 1 2 1 p1 1 2 2 fX
ln + 2 1 2 + =0
1 2 G 1 D
and dG/dp2=0 as follows

21 p1
G* =
12
( + 1) 2 ( 1)
2
The downstream velocity is called the acoustic
velocity, and is
G* p * RT *
v* = = = =a
* * M

Acoustic velocity, the speed of sound, is defined as

p
a =
s

RT
For an ideal gas a = M

Mach number (Ma) is defined as the ratio of the fluid

velocity to the local speed of sound (a)
v v
Ma = =
a RT
M

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Ma > 1, the flow is supersonic

Ma = 1, the flow is sonic
Ma < 1, the flow is subsonic

In the case of adiabatic conditions, the maximum

velocity is the acoustic velocity, so supersonic flow can
not developed in a pipe of constant cross-sectional
area. When the exit velocity of the gas reaches sonic
or acoustic velocity, this state is known as choked
flow.

Using Math number, we can write the equation for

adiabatic flow with friction

1 2
1 + Ma1
1 1 1 + 1 Ma2
2
fX

2
+ ln 2 + =0
Ma1 Ma2 2 Ma1 1 +
Ma2 D
2 2
1 2

2
Under choked flow, Ma22 =1

1
1
1 1 +1 2
1 + ln 1 +
Ma1 + fX = 0
Ma12 2 1 + 1 D

2
After rearrangement

2 1 2 fX 2 1
1=
+ ln 1 + 1

+ 1 Ma
+ 1 Ma
+1 D
2 2
1 1

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

2 1
let = 1
+ 1 Ma12
2 fX
then = + 1 D + ln(1 + )

after iterations we obtain

2
and Ma1 = 2 + ( + 1) and hence v1.

Note: For choked flow, the iterations based on the above

equations are superior to the density equations as they
are simpler. However, when choking does not occur, you
should normally use the standard form of the adiabatic
equation based on density and density ratios. This is
normally easier than using Mach number and Mach
number ratio.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Example 1.9

In the example 1.7, assuming adiabatic conditions, what

is the limiting flow?

Solution

(A). Standard Adiabatic Solution

21 p1
G* =
Substituting equation 12 into
( + 1) 2 ( 1)
2
+ 1 2 1 p1 1 2 2 fX
ln + 2 1 2 + =0
1 2 G 1 D
and giving
+ 1 1 + 1 12 fX
ln 2 1 + =0
2 2 2 D
1 1 2 fX
= 1 + 2 ln +
2 2 + 1 D
Assuming unchanged Re and f, the constants
2 fX
1+ = 23.75 then 1 = 23.75 + 2 ln 1
+1 D 2 2

Guess 2/1 =0.6 1/2 = 1.6667, 4.9771, 5.1923,

5.2004, 5.2007 2= 1.7978 kg/m3

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

21 p1 2 1.4 9.35 1.0 106

G* = = = 637.03kg / m 2 s
1 2
2.4 (
9.35 2
) 0.4
( + 1) ( 1)
22 1.7978
vmax =G*/1= 68.13 m/s

(B) using Mach numbers

2 1 2 fX 2 1

From + 1 Ma 2 1 = + 1 D + ln1 + + 1 Ma 2 1
1 1

Assuming constant Re, f, the constants

2 2 fX
= 0.8333 ; = 22.75
+1 +1 D

1 1

then Ma 2 1 = 27.30 + 1.2 ln1 + 0.8333 Ma 2 1
1 1
1

Ma 2 1 = 0, 27.30, 31.10, 21.251, 31.2569, 31.2571.
1
Ma1 = 0.1761
RT
a= = 386.92m / s
M

vmax = aMa1 = 68.14 m/s

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Property equation of adiabatic flow from Mach number

In adiabatic flow, the changes in pressure, temperature,

and density can also be calculated using Mach number.
The following equations are useful.

1
1+
2
Ma2
p1 Ma2 2
=
p2 Ma1 1
1+
2
Ma1
2

1
1+
2
Ma2
T1 2
=
T2 1 + 1 Ma 2
1
2

1
1+
2
Ma1
1 Ma2 2
=
2 Ma1 1 + 1 Ma 2
2
2

RT
Mass velocity G = v = Ma M
= Ma p

The maximum pipe length and minimum pipe diameter

under choked flow

For adiabatic flow, the temperature of the gas changes.

The viscosity also varies, and the Re number and
friction factor are not actually constant. But, in gas
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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

flow, the effect of temperature on viscosity is small, and

the effect of Re number on friction factor is still less. It
is satisfactory to use an average value for f as a constant
in calculation.
1 2
1 + Ma1
1 1 1 + 1 Ma2
2
fX
+ ln 2 + =0
Ma12 Ma2 2 2 Ma12 1
1+
2 D
Ma2
2

1 2
1 + Ma1
f X 1 1 1 + 1 Ma2
2
=
2
ln 2
D Ma1 Ma2 2 Ma1 1 + 1 Ma 2
2 2
2
2

under the choked conditions, Ma2=1

we get the maximum pipe length with a given entrance

Mach number.

1
1
1 1 +1 2
f X max
= 1 ln 1 +
Ma1
Ma1 1
2
2
D +
1
2
Using above equation, we can also get the minimum
pipe diameter.

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

Example 1.10

Air flows in a long straight pipe with diameter of 60 mm

at the temperature of 280 C and 20 atm. The Mach
number at the entrance of the pipe is 0.05. What is the
maximum pipe length? ( = 1.4, =0.029 cP)

Solution

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Chen3009 Fluid and Particle Processes Chapter 1 Compressible flow

1.4 Pipe and system design

Choose appropriate form of the energy statement

(1) For gas system, the gravitational term is generally
neglected.
(2) Kinetic energy term may not be important for
long pipeline systems, Friction loss is main term.
(3) Short pipes: almost adiabatic
(4) Long transmission lines: effective isothermal
since temperature effect on density is much
smaller.
(5) Choking flow always occurs if p2 is low enough.

38