BBSE2008 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering

www.hku.hk/bse/bbse2008/

Load and Energy Calculations

Dr. Sam C. M. Hui
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
E-mail: cmhui@hku.hk
Jan 2012
Contents

Basic Concepts
Outdoor and Indoor Design Conditions
Cooling Load Components
Cooling Load Principles
Heating Load
Load & Energy Calculations
Transfer Function Method
Energy Estimation
Basic Concepts

Heat transfer mechanism

Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Thermal properties of building materials
Overall thermal transmittance (U-value)
Thermal conductivity
Thermal capacity (specific heat)
Q = U A (t)
 Four forms of heat transfer

CONVECTION

(Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org)

Basic Concepts

Heat transfer basic relationships (for air at sea

level) (SI units)
Sensible heat transfer rate:
qsensible = 1.23 (Flow rate, L/s) (t)
Latent heat transfer rate:
qlatent = 3010 (Flow rate, L/s) (w)
Total heat transfer rate:
qtotal = 1.2 (Flow rate, L/s) (h)
qtotal = qsensible + qlatent
Basic Concepts

Thermal load
The amount of heat that must be added or removed
from the space to maintain the proper temperature
in the space
When thermal loads push conditions outside
of the comfort range, HVAC systems are used
to bring the thermal conditions back to
comfort conditions
Basic Concepts

Purpose of HVAC load estimation

Calculate peak design loads (cooling/heating)
Estimate likely plant/equipment capacity or size
Specify the required airflow to individual spaces
Provide info for HVAC design e.g. load profiles
Form the basis for building energy analysis
Cooling load is our main target
Important for warm climates & summer design
Affect building performance & its first cost
Basic Concepts

General procedure for cooling load calculations

1. Obtain the characteristics of the building, building
materials, components, etc. from building plans and
specifications
2. Determine the building location, orientation, external
shading (like adjacent buildings)
3. Obtain appropriate weather data and select outdoor
design conditions
4. Select indoor design conditions (include permissible
variations and control limits)
Basic Concepts

General procedure for cooling load calculations

(contd)
5. Obtain a proposed schedule of lighting, occupants,
internal equipment appliances and processes that would
contribute to internal thermal load
6. Select the time of day and month for the cooling load
calculation
7. Calculate the space cooling load at design conditions
8. Assess the cooling loads at several different time or a
design day to find out the peak design load
Cooling load profiles
Basic Concepts

A building survey will help us achieve a

realistic estimate of thermal loads
Orientation of the building
Use of spaces
Physical dimensions of spaces
Ceiling height
Columns and beams
Construction materials
Surrounding conditions
Windows, doors, stairways
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)
Basic Concepts

Key info for load estimation

People (number or density, duration of occupancy,
nature of activity)
Lighting (W/m2, type)
Appliances (wattage, location, usage)
Ventilation (criteria, requirements)
Thermal storage (if any)
Continuous or intermittent operation
Basic Concepts

Typical HVAC load design process

1. Rough estimates of design loads & energy use
Such as by rules of thumb & floor areas
See Cooling Load Check Figures
See references for some examples of databooks
2. Develop & assess more info (design criteria,
building info, system info)
Building layouts & plans are developed
3. Perform detailed load & energy calculations
Outdoor Design Conditions

They are used to calculate design space loads

Climatic design information
General info: e.g. latitude, longitude, altitude,
atmospheric pressure
Outdoor design conditions include
Derived from statistical analysis of weather data
Typical data can be found in handbooks/databooks,
such as ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
Outdoor Design Conditions

Climatic design info from ASHRAE

Previous data & method (before 1997)
For Summer (Jun to Sep) & Winter (Dec, Jan, Feb)
Based on 1%, 2.5% & 5% nos. hours of occurrence
New method (ASHRAE Fundamentals 2001+):
Based on annual percentiles and cumulative frequency
of occurrence, e.g. 0.4%, 1%, 2% (of whole year)
More info on coincident conditions
Findings obtained from ASHRAE research projects
Data can be found on a relevant CD-ROM
 Outdoor Design Conditions

Climatic design conditions (ASHRAE, 2009):

Annual heating & humidif. design conditions
Coldest month
Heating dry-bulb (DB) temp.
Humidification dew point (DP)/ mean coincident dry-
bulb temp. (MCDB) and humidity ratio (HR)
Coldest month wind speed (WS)/mean coincident dry-
bulb temp. (MCDB)
Mean coincident wind speed (MCWS) & prevailing
coincident wind direction (PCWD) to 99.6% DB
(Latest information from ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2009)
Outdoor Design Conditions

Climatic design conditions (ASHRAE, 2009):

Cooling and dehumidification design conditions
Hottest month and DB range
Cooling DB/MCWB: Dry-bulb temp. (DB) + Mean
coincident wet-bulb temp. (MCWB)
Evaporation WB/MCDB: Web-bulb temp. (WB) +
Mean coincident dry-bulb temp. (MCDB)
MCWS/PCWD to 0.4% DB
Dehumidification DP/MCDB and HR: Dew-point temp.
(DP) + MDB + Humidity ratio (HR)
Enthalpy/MCDB
Outdoor Design Conditions

Climatic design conditions (ASHRAE, 2009):

Extreme annual design conditions
Monthly climatic design conditions
Temperature, degree-days and degree-hours
Monthly design DB and mean coincident WB
Monthly design WB and mean coincident DB
Mean daily temperature range
Clear sky solar irradiance
Outdoor Design Conditions

Other sources of climatic info:

Joint frequency tables of psychrometric conditions
Annual, monthly and hourly data
Degree-days (cooling/heating) & climatic normals
To classify climate characteristics
Typical year data sets (1 year: 8,760 hours)
For energy calculations & analysis
 Recommended Outdoor Design Conditions for Hong Kong
Location Hong Kong (latitude 22 18 N, longitude 114 10 E, elevation 33 m)

Weather station Royal Observatory Hong Kong

Summer months June to September (four hottest months), total 2928 hours

Winter months December, January & February (three coldest months), total 2160 hours

Design For comfort HVAC (based on For critical processes (based on

temperatures: summer 2.5% or annualised 1% and summer 1% or annualised 0.4% and
winter 97.5% or annualised 99.3%) winter 99% or annualised 99.6%)
Summer Winter Summer Winter
DDB / CWB 32.0 oC / 26.9 oC 9.5 oC / 6.7 oC 32.6 oC / 27.0 oC 8.2 oC / 6.0 oC
CDB / DWB 31.0 oC / 27.5 oC 10.4 oC / 6.2 oC 31.3 oC / 27.8 oC 9.1 oC / 5.0 oC

Note: 1. DDB is the design dry-bulb and CWB is the coincident wet-bulb temperature with
it; DWB is the design wet-bulb and CDB is the coincident dry-bulb with it.
2. The design temperatures and daily ranges were determined based on hourly data
for the 35-year period from 1960 to 1994; extreme temperatures were determined
based on extreme values between 1884-1939 and 1947-1994.
(Source: Research findings from Dr. Sam C M Hui)
 Recommended Outdoor Design Conditions for Hong Kong (contd)
Extreme Hottest month: July Coldest month: January
temperatures:
mean DBT = 28.6 oC mean DBT = 15.7 oC
absolute max. DBT = 36.1 oC absolute min. DBT = 0.0 oC
mean daily max. DBT = 25.7 oC mean daily min. DBT = 20.9 oC
Diurnal range: Summer Winter Whole year
- Mean DBT 28.2 16.4 22.8
- Daily range 4.95 5.01 5.0
Wind data: Summer Winter Whole year
- Wind direction 090 (East) 070 (N 70 E) 080 (N 80 E)
- Wind speed 5.7 m/s 6.8 m/s 6.3 m/s

Note: 3. Wind data are the prevailing wind data based on the weather summary for the 30-
year period 1960-1990. Wind direction is the prevailing wind direction in degrees
clockwise from north and the wind speed is the mean prevailing wind speed.

(Source: Research findings from Dr. Sam C M Hui)

Indoor Design Conditions

Basic design parameters: (for thermal comfort)

Air temp. & air movement
Typical: summer 24-26 oC; winter 21-23 oC
Air velocity: summer < 0.25 m/s; winter < 0.15 m/s
Relative humidity
Summer: 40-50% (preferred), 30-65 (tolerable)
Winter: 25-30% (with humidifier); not specified (w/o
humidifier)
See also ASHRAE Standard 55
ASHRAE comfort zone
 ASHRAE Comfort Zones
(based on 2004 version of ASHRAE Standard 55)
Indoor Design Conditions

Indoor air quality: (for health & well-being)

Air contaminants
e.g. particulates, VOC, radon, bioeffluents
Outdoor ventilation rate provided
ASHRAE Standard 62.1
Air cleanliness (e.g. for processing), air movement
Other design parameters:
Sound level (noise criteria)
Pressure differential between the space &
surroundings (e.g. +ve to prevent infiltration)
 (NC = noise critera; RC = room criteria)
* Remark: buildings in HK often have higher NC, say add 5-10 dB (more noisy).
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)
Cooling Load Components

External
1. Heat gain through exterior walls and roofs
2. Solar heat gain through fenestrations (windows)
3. Conductive heat gain through fenestrations
4. Heat gain through partitions & interior doors
Internal
1. People
2. Electric lights
3. Equipment and appliances
Cooling Load Components

Infiltration
Air leakage and moisture migration, e.g. flow of
outdoor air into a building through cracks,
unintentional openings, normal use of exterior
doors for entrance
System (HVAC)
Outdoor ventilation air
System heat gain: duct leakage & heat gain, reheat,
fan & pump energy, energy recovery
 Components of building cooling load

Internal
External loads
loads

+ Ventilation load & system heat gains

Cooling Load Components

Total cooling load

Sensible cooling load + Latent cooling load
= (sensible items) + (latent items)
Which components have latent loads? Which
only have sensible load? Why?
Three major parts for load calculation
External cooling load
Internal cooling load
Ventilation and infiltration air
Cooling Load Components

Cooling load calculation method

Example: CLTD/SCL/CLF method
It is a one-step, simple calculation procedure developed
by ASHRAE
CLTD = cooling load temperature difference
SCL = solar cooling load
CLF = cooling load factor
See ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals for details
Tables for CLTD, SCL and CLF
Cooling Load Components

External
Roofs, walls, and glass conduction
q = U A (CLTD) U = U-value; A = area
Solar load through glass
q = A (SC) (SCL) SC = shading coefficient
For unshaded area and shaded area
Partitions, ceilings, floors
q = U A (tadjacent - tinside)
Cooling Load Components

Internal
People
qsensible = N (Sensible heat gain) (CLF)
qlatent = N (Latent heat gain)
Lights
q = Watt x Ful x Fsa (CLF)
Ful = lighting use factor; Fsa = special allowance factor
Appliances
qsensible = qinput x usage factors (CLF)
qlatent = qinput x load factor (CLF)
Cooling Load Components

Ventilation and infiltration air

qsensible = 1.23 Q (toutside - tinside)
qlatent = 3010 Q (woutside - winside)
qtotal = 1.2 Q (houtside - hinside)
System heat gain
Fan heat gain
Duct heat gain and leakage
Ceiling return air plenum
 Schematic diagram of typical return air plenum
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)
Cooling Load Principles

Terminology:
Space a volume w/o a partition, or a partitioned
room, or group of rooms
Room an enclosed space (a single load)
Zone a space, or several rooms, or units of space
having some sort of coincident loads or similar
operating characteristics
Thermal zoning
Cooling Load Principles

Definitions
Space heat gain: instantaneous rate of heat gain
that enters into or is generated within a space
Space cooling load: the rate at which heat must be
removed from the space to maintain a constant
space air temperature
Space heat extraction rate: the actual rate of heat
removal when the space air temp. may swing
Cooling coil load: the rate at which energy is
removed at a cooling coil serving the space
 Conversion of heat gain into cooling load

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)

Cooling Load Principles

Instantaneous heat gain vs space cooling loads

They are NOT the same
Effect of heat storage
Night shutdown period
HVAC is switched off. What happens to the space?
Cool-down or warm-up period
When HVAC system begins to operate
Need to cool or warm the building fabric
Conditioning period
Space air temperature within the limits
 Thermal Storage Effect in Cooling Load from Lights

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)

Cooling Load Principles

Space load and equipment load

Space heat gain (sensible, latent, total)
Space cooling / heating load [at building]
Space heat extraction rate
Cooling / heating coil load [at air-side system]
Refrigeration load [at the chiller plant]
Instantaneous heat gain
Convective heat
Radiative heat (heat absorption)
 Convective and radiative heat in a conditioned space
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd ed.)
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd ed.)
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd ed.)
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd ed.)
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd ed.)
Cooling Load Principles

Cooling load profiles

Shows the variation of space cooling load
Such as 24-hr cycle
Useful for building operation & energy analysis
What factors will affect load profiles?
Peak load and block load
Peak load = max. cooling load
Block load = sum of zone loads at a specific time
Cooling load profiles
Total cooling load

(Source: D.G. Stephenson, 1968)

 North

West East

South

Block load and thermal zoning

Cooling loads due to windows at different orientations

(Source: D.G. Stephenson, 1968)

Cooling Load Principles

Cooling coil load consists of:

Space cooling load (sensible & latent)
Supply system heat gain (fan + air duct)
Return system heat gain (plenum + fan + air duct)
Load due to outdoor ventilation rates (or
ventilation load)
Do you know how to construct a summer air
conditioning cycle on a psychrometric chart?
See also notes in Psychrometrics
 Typical summer air conditioning cycle

Cooling coil load

Ventilation load

Return system heat gain

Space cooling load

Supply system heat gain

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd ed.)
Cooling Load Principles
Sensible load (kW)
Supply airflow (L/s)
Space cooling load 1.2 t

To determine supply air flow rate & size of air

system, ducts, terminals, diffusers
It is a component of cooling coil load
Infiltration heat gain is an instant. cooling load
Cooling coil load
To determine the size of cooling coil &
refrigeration system
Remember, ventilation load is a coil load
Heating Load

Design heating load

Max. heat energy required to maintain winter
indoor design temp.
Usually occurs before sunrise on the coldest days
Include transmission losses & infiltration/ventilation
Assumptions:
All heating losses are instantaneous heating loads
Credit for solar & internal heat gains is not included
Latent heat often not considered (unless w/ humidifier)
Thermal storage effect of building structure is ignored
Heating Load

A simplified approach to evaluate worst-case

conditions based on
Design interior and exterior conditions
Including infiltration and/or ventilation
No solar effect (at night or on cloudy winter days)
Before the presence of people, light, and
appliances has an offsetting effect
Also, a warm-up/safety allowance of 20-25%
is fairly common
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)
Load & Energy Calculations

From load estimation to energy calculations

Only determine peak design loads is not enough
Need to evaluate HVAC and building energy consumption
To support design decisions (e.g. evaluate design options)
To enhance system design and operation
To compile with building energy code
Energy calculations
More complicated than design load estimation
Form the basis of building energy and economic analysis
Load & Energy Calculations
Load estimation and energy calculations
Based on the same principles
But, with different purposes & approaches
Design (peak) load estimation
Focus on maximum load or worst conditions
For a particular hour or period (e.g. peak summer day)
Energy calculations
Focus on average or typical conditions
On whole year (annual) performance or multiple years
consumption
May involve analysis of energy costs & life cycle costs
Load & Energy Calculations

Tasks at different building design stages

Conceptual design stage:
Rules of thumb + check figures (rough estimation)
Outline/Scheme design:
Load estimation (approximation)
Design evaluations (e.g. using simplified tools/models)
Detailed design:
Load calculations (complete)
Energy calculations + building energy simulation
Load & Energy Calculations

Basic considerations
1. Peak load calculations
Evaluate max. load to size/select equipment
2. Energy analysis
Calculate energy use and compare design options
3. Space cooling load Q = V cp (tr ts)
To calculate supply air volume flow rate (V) and size
the air system, ducts, terminals
4. Cooling coils load
To size cooling coil and refrigeration system
Load & Energy Calculations

Basic considerations (contd)

Assumptions:
Heat transfer equations are linear within a time interval
(superposition principle holds)
Total load = sum of individual ones
Convective heat, latent heat & sensible heat gains from
infiltration are all equal to cooling load instantaneously
Main difference in various methods
How to convert space radiative heat gains into space
cooling loads
 Different methods have different ways to convert space
radiative heat gains into space cooling loads

Conversion of heat gain into cooling load

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)

 Thermal Heat Gains/Losses
Load

Heat storage

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)

 qko = convective flux into the wall, W/m2
qki = convective flux through the wall, W/m2
Tso = wall surface temperature outside, C
Tsi = wall surface temperature outside, C

Possible ways to model this

process:

1. Numerical finite difference

2. Numerical finite element
3. Transform methods
4. Time series methods

Wall conduction process

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)
Load & Energy Calculations

Common methods:
Transfer function method (TFM)
Cooling load temperature difference/cooling load
factor (CLTD/CLF) method
Total equivalent temp. differential/time averaging
(TETD/TA) method
Other existing methods:
Finite difference method (FDM)
CIBSE method (based on admittance)
Load & Energy Calculations

Transfer Function Method (TFM)

Laplace transform and z-transform of time series
CLTD/CLF method
A one-step simplification of TFM
TETD/TA method
Heat gains calculated from Fourier series solution
of 1-dimensional transient heat conduction
Average heat gains to current and successive hours
according to thermal mass & experience
 Basic concepts of TFM, CLTD/CLF and TETD/TA methods

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)
Load & Energy Calculations

Other methods:
Heat balance (HB) method
The rigorous approach (mainly for research use)
Requires solving of partial differential equations and
often involves iteration
Radiant time series (RTS) method
A simplified method derived from HB procedure
Finite difference/element method (FDM or FEM)
Solve transient simultaneous heat & moisture transfer
Load & Energy Calculations

Heat Balance (HB) Method

Use heat balance equations to calculate:
Surface-by-surface conductive, convective & radiative
heat balance for each room surface
Convective heat balance for the room air
Calculation process
Find the inside surface temperatures of building
structures due to heat balance
Calculate the sum of heat transfer from these surfaces
and from internal loads
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)
Transfer Function Method

Transfer Function Method (TFM)

Most commonly adopted for energy calculations
Three components:
Conduction transfer function (CTF)
Room transfer function (RTF)
Space air transfer function (SATF)
Implemented numerically using weighting factors
Transfer function coefficients, to weight the importance
of current & historical values of heat gain & cooling
load on currently calculated loads
 Input Transfer Output
Function

Transfer function (K) Polynominals of z-transform

Y = Laplace transform of the output

G = Laplace transform of the input or driving force

When a continuous function f(t) is represented at regular intervals

t and its magnitude are f(0), f(), f(2),, f(n), the Laplace
transform is given by a polynominal called z-transform:
(z) = f(0) + f() z-1 + f(2) z-2 ++ f(n) z-n
where = time interval, hour
z = et
v0, v1, v2, & w1, w2, are weighting factors for the calculations
 Three components of transfer function method (TFM)

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)

Transfer Function Method

Sol-air temperature (te)

A fictitious outdoor air temperature that gives the
rate of heat entering the outer surface of walls and
roofs due to the combined effect of incident solar
radiation, radiative heat exchange with the sky
vault and surroundings, and convective heat
exchange with the outdoor air

Outdoor air temp Surface absorptance Surface emittance

Heat balance at a sunlit surface, heat flux is equal to:

q
Et ho (t o t s ) R
A

Assume the heat flux can be expressed in terms of sol-air temp. (te)

Thus, sol-air temperature is given by:

Transfer Function Method
Sol-air temperature
External walls and roofs:

Ceiling, floors & partition wall:

aj = adjacent
r = room
Transfer Function Method

Window glass
Solar heat gain:
Shading coefficient (SC)
Solar heat gain factor (SHGF)

Sunlit Shaded
Conduction heat gain: U-value

Sunlit Shaded
Transfer Function Method

Internal heat gains

People (sensible + latent)
Lights
Machine & appliances
Infiltration (uncontrolled, via cracks/opening)
If positive pressure is maintained in conditioned
space, infiltration is normally assumed zero
Transfer Function Method

Convert heat gain into cooling load

Space sensible cooling load (from radiative):

v0, v1, v2, & w1, w2, are weighting factors

Space sensible cooling load (from convective):

Space latent cooling load:

Transfer Function Method

Convert heat gain into cooling load (contd)

Heat extraction rate & space air temperature

Cooling coil load (sensible & latent)

Air mixture & air leaving the cooling coil
Ventilation load
Energy Estimation

Two categories
Steady-state methods
Degree-day method
Variable base degree-day method
Bin and modified bin methods
Dynamic methods
Using computer-based building energy simulation
Try to capture dynamic response of the building
Can be developed based on transfer function, heat
balance or other methods
Energy Estimation

Degree-day method
A degree-day is the sum of the number of degrees
that the average daily temperature (technically the
average of the daily maximum and minimum) is
above (for cooling) or below (for heating) a base
temperature times the duration in days
Heating degree-days (HDD)
Cooling degree-days (CDD)
Summed over a period or a year for indicating
climate severity (effect of outdoor air on a
building)
Heating degree-day:

+ Only take the positive values

Cooling degree-day:

tbal = base temperature (or balance point temperature)

(e.g. 18.3 oC or 65 oF); Qload = Qgain + Qloss = 0
to = outdoor temperature (e.g. average daily max./min.)

* Degree-hours if summing over 24-hourly intervals

Degree-day = (degree-hours)+ / 24
To determine the heating degree-day:
To determine the heating degree-day (contd):
Correlation between energy consumption and degree days
Energy Estimation

Variable base degree-day (VBDD) method

Degree-day with variable reference temperatures
To account for different building conditions and
variation between daytime and nighttime
First calculate the balance point temperature of a
building and then the heating and cooling degree hours
at that base temperature
Require tedious calculations and detailed processing of
hourly weather data at a complexity similar to hourly
simulations. Therefore, does not seem warranted
nowadays (why not just go for hourly simulation)
Energy Estimation

Bin and modified bin methods

Evolve from VBDD method
Derive building annual heating/cooling loads by
calculating its loads for a set of temperature bins
Multiplying the calculated loads by nos. of hours
represented by each bin (e.g. 18-20, 20-22, 22-24 oC)
Totaling the sums to obtain the loads (cooling/heating
energy)
Original bin method: not account of solar/wind effects
Modified bin method: account for solar/wind effects
Energy Estimation

Dynamic simulation methods

Usually hour-by-hour, for 8,760 hours (24 x 365)
Energy calculation sequence:
Space or building load [LOAD]
Secondary equipment load (airside system) [SYSTEMS]
Primary equipment energy requirement (e.g. chiller)
[PLANT]
Computer software
Building energy simulation programs, e.g. Energy-10,
DOE-2, TRACE 700, Carrier HAP
 Weather
data

Building Simulation tool Simulation

description (computer program) outputs
- physical data - energy consumption (MWh)
- design parameters - energy demands (kW)
- environmental conditions
Energy Estimation

Building energy simulation

Analysis of energy performance of building using
computer modelling and simulation techniques
Many issues can be studied, such as:
Thermal performance (e.g. bldg. fabric, glazing)
Comfort and indoor environment
Ventilation and infiltration
Daylighting and overshadowing
Energy consumption of building systems
Major elements of building energy simulation
 1 2
Seven
steps
of
simulation 3 4
output

6 7
(Source: eQUEST Tutorial Manual)
 Building energy simulation process

HVAC air systems HVAC water systems

Energy storage

Thermal Zone Systems Plant

(air-side) (water-
side &
refrig.)

Energy input Energy input by HVAC Energy input

by appliance air/water systems by HVAC plant
Software Applications

Examples of load calculation software:

Carmel Loadsoft 6.0 [AV 697.00028553 L79]
Commercial and industrial HVAC load calculation
software based on ASHRAE 2001 Fundamentals
radiant time series (RTS) method
Carmel Residential 5.0 [AV 697.00028553 R43]
Residential and light commercial HVAC load
calculation software based on ASHRAE 2001
Fundamentals residential algorithms
Software Applications

Examples of load/energy calculation software:

TRACE 700
TRACE = Trane Air Conditioning Economics
Commercial programs from Trane
http://www.trane.com/commercial/
Most widely used by engineers in USA
Building load and energy analysis software
Carrier E20-II HAP (hourly analysis program)
http://www.commercial.carrier.com/commercial/hvac/general/0,,C
LI1_DIV12_ETI495,00.html
Software Applications

Examples of energy simulation software:

Energy-10
A software tool that helps architects and engineers
quickly identify the most cost-effective, energy-saving
measures to take in designing a low-energy building
Suitable for small commercial and residential buildings
that are characterized by one, or two thermal zones (less
than 10,000 ft2 or 1,000 m2)
http://www.nrel.gov/buildings/energy10.html
MIT Design Advisor (online tool)
http://designadvisor.mit.edu/design/
 ENERGY-10 Design Tool

Example: Energy-10 ENERGY-10

ENERGY-10 focuses on the first phases (conceptual design)

Activity
Phase Develop reference case Tool
Develop low-energy case
Develop Brief Rank order strategies ENERGY-10
Initial strategy selection
Set performance goals

Review goals Preliminary team

Pre-design Review strategies
meetings
Set criteria, priorities

Develop schemes
Schematic Design Evaluate schemes ENERGY-10
Select scheme
Confirm that
Design Development component performances EnergyPlus
are as assumed or other
HVAC simulation
and tools
Construction Documents
 ENERGY-10 Design Tool

Example: Energy-10 ENERGY-10

Creates two building descriptions based on five inputs and

user-defined defaults.
Location For example:
Building Use
Floor area apply

Number of stories Reference Case Low Energy Case

HVAC system
R-8.9 walls (4" steel stud)
R-19 roof
No perimeter insulation
Gets you Conventional double windows
Conventional lighting
started Conventional HVAC
Conventional air-tightness
quickly. Uniform window orientation
Conventional HVAC controls
Conventional duct placement
R-19.6 Walls (6" steel stud with 2" foam)
R-38 roof
R-10 perimeter insulation
Best low-e double windows
Efficient lights with daylight dimming
High efficiency HVAC
Leakage reduced 75%
Passive solar orientation
Improved HVAC controls
Ducts located inside, tightened
 ENERGY-10 Design Tool

Example: Energy-10 ENERGY-10

2,000 m2 office building

ANNUAL ENERGY USE
100 96.5
Reference Case

80 Low-Energy Case
kWh / m

60
47.3

40 35.1

27.4
22.7
20 15.1

6.7 6.9
4.1
1.5
0
Heating Cooling Lights Other Total
 ENERGY-10 Design Tool

Example: Energy-10 ENERGY-10

RANKING OF ENERGY-EFFICIENT STRATEGIES

Duct Le akage 115.04

Gla zing 72.49
Insula tion 57.33
Ene rgy Efficie nt Lights 56.56
HVAC Controls 48.43
Air Lea ka ge Control 45.92
Sha ding 45.24
Da ylighting 38.84
High Efficiency HVAC 37.82
Economizer Cycle -4.02
The rma l Ma ss -6.23
Passive Solar Hea ting -57.14

-100 -50 0 50 100 150

Net Present Va lue, 1000 $
 ENERGY-10 Design Tool

Example: Energy-10 ENERGY-10

Sample - Lower-Energy Case

40

50

Temperature, ?
Energy, kWh

20

0
0

-50 -20
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average Hourly HVAC Energy Use by Month

Heating Cooling Inside T Outside T

References

Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering

(Wang and Norton, 2000)
Chapter 6 Load Calculations
ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals (2009 edition)
Chapter 14 Climatic Design Information
Chapter 15 Fenestration
Chapter 17 Residential Cooling and Heating Load
Calculations
Chapter 18 Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load
Calculations
References

Remarks:
Load & Energy Calculations in ASHRAE
Handbook Fundamentals
The following previous cooling load calculations
are described in earlier editions of the ASHRAE
Handbook (1997 and 2001 versions)
CLTD/SCL/CLF method
TETD/TA method
TFM method