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CHNG 1 : THUT TON THUT GII
III.9. Bn lun v A*
C nhiu bi ton cho n nay vn cha tm ra mt cch gii theo kiu thut
ton v cng khng bit l c tn ti thut ton hay khng.
C nhng bi ton c gii theo nhng cch gii vi phm thut ton nhng
vn chp nhn c.
T nhng nhn nh trn, ngi ta thy rng cn phi c nhng i mi cho khi
nim thut ton. Ngi ta m rng hai tiu chun ca thut ton: tnh xc nh
v tnh ng n. Vic m rng tnh xc nh i vi thut ton c th hin qua
1
cc gii thut quy v ngu nhin. Tnh ng ca thut ton by gi khng cn bt
buc i vi mt s cch gii bi ton, nht l cc cch gii gn ng. Trong thc
tin c nhiu trng hp ngi ta chp nhn cc cch gii thng cho kt qu tt
(nhng khng phi lc no cng tt) nhng t phc tp v hiu qu. Chng hn nu
gii mt bi ton bng thut ton ti u i hi my tnh thc hin nhiu nm th
chng ta c th sn lng chp nhn mt gii php gn ti u m ch cn my tnh
chy trong vi ngy hoc vi gi.
Cc cch gii chp nhn c nhng khng hon ton p ng y cc tiu chun
ca thut ton thng c gi l cc thut gii. Khi nim m rng ny ca thut
ton m ca cho chng ta trong vic tm kim phng php gii quyt cc bi
ton c t ra.
Thut gii Heuristic l mt s m rng khi nim thut ton. N th hin cch gii
bi ton vi cc c tnh sau:
Gii bi ton theo thut gii Heuristic thng d dng v nhanh chng
a ra kt qu hn so vi gii thut ti u, v vy chi ph thp hn.
2
Bi ton: Hy tm mt hnh trnh cho mt ngi giao hng i qua n im khc
nhau, mi im i qua mt ln v tr v im xut pht sao cho tng chiu di on
ng cn i l ngn nht. Gi s rng c con ng ni trc tip t gia hai im
bt k.
3
Hnh : Gii bi ton s dng nguyn l Greedy
Mt cng ty nhn c hp ng gia cng m chi tit my J1, J2, Jm. Cng ty c n
my gia cng ln lt l P1, P2, Pn. Mi chi tit u c th c gia cng trn bt
k my no. Mt khi gia cng mt chi tit trn mt my, cng vi s tip tc cho
n lc hon thnh, khng th b ct ngang. gia cng mt vic J1 trn mt my
bt k ta cn dng mt thi gian tng ng l t1. Nhim v ca cng ty l phi lm
sao gia cng xong ton b n chi tit trong thi gian sm nht.
4
Theo hnh ny, ti thi im t=0, ta tin hnh gia cng chi tit J2 trn my P1, J5 trn
P2 v J1 ti P3. Ti thi im t=2, cng vic J1 c hon thnh, trn my P3 ta gia
cng tip chi tit J4. Trong lc , hai my P1 v P2 vn ang thc hin cng vic u
tin mnh S phn vic theo hnh trn c gi l lc GANTT. Theo lc
ny, ta thy thi gian hon thnh ton b 6 cng vic l 12. Nhn xt mt
cch cm tnh ta thy rng phng n (L) va thc hin l mt phng n khng tt.
Cc my P1 v P2 c qu nhiu thi gian rnh.
5
ta d dng a ra c mt trng hp m thut gii Heuristic khng a ra c
kt qu ti u.
Nu gi T* l thi gian gia cng xong n chi tit my do thut gii Heuristic a ra
v T0 l thi gian ti u th ngi ta chng minh c rng
, M l s my
Qua cc phn trc chng ta tm hiu tng quan v tng ca thut gii Heuristic
(nguyn l Greedy v sp th t). Trong mc ny, chng ta s i su vo tm hiu
mt s k thut tm kim Heuristic mt lp bi ton rt quan trng v c nhiu ng
dng trong thc t.
6
tin li cho vic trnh by, ta hy dnh cht thi gian lm r hn "i tng"
quan tm ca chng ta trong mc ny. Mt cch chung nht, nhiu vn -bi ton
phc tp u c dng "tm ng i trong th" hay ni mt cch hnh thc hn l
"xut pht t mt nh ca mt th, tm ng i hiu qu nht n mt nh no
". Mt pht biu khc thng gp ca dng bi ton ny l :
Cho trc hai trng thi T0 v TG hy xy dng chui trng thi T0, T1, T2, ..., Tn-1,
Tn = TG sao cho :
Trong , Ti thuc tp hp S (gi l khng gian trng thi state space) bao gm tt
c cc trng thi c th c ca bi ton v cost(Ti-1, Ti) l chi ph bin i t
trng thi Ti-1 sang trng thi Ti. D nhin, t mt trng thi Ti ta c nhiu cch
bin i sang trng thi Ti+1. Khi ni n mt bin i c th t Ti-1 sang Ti ta s
dng thut ng hng i (vi ng ni v s la chn).
Hnh : M hnh chung ca cc vn -bi ton phi gii quyt bng phng php tm
kim li gii. Khng gian tm kim l mt tp hp trng thi - tp cc nt ca th.
Chi ph cn thit chuyn t trng thi T ny sang trng thi Tk c biu din
di dng cc con s nm trn cung ni gia hai nt tng trng cho hai trng thi.
7
ngi ta hu nh chng bao gi vn dng mt trong hai kim tm kim ny mt cch
trc tip m khng phi sa i g.
Trong tm kim theo chiu su, ti trng thi (nh) hin hnh, ta chn mt trng
thi k tip (trong tp cc trng thi c th bin i thnh t trng thi hin ti) lm
trng thi hin hnh cho n lc trng thi hin hnh l trng thi ch. Trong
trng hp ti trng thi hin hnh, ta khng th bin i thnh trng thi k tip
th ta s quay lui (back-tracking) li trng thi trc trng thi hin hnh (trng thi
bin i thnh trng thi hin hnh) chn ng khc. Nu trng thi trc ny
m cng khng th bin i c na th ta quay lui li trng thi trc na v c
th. Nu quay lui n trng thi khi u m vn tht bi th kt lun l khng c
li gii. Hnh nh sau minh ha hot ng ca tm kim theo chiu su.
Hnh : Hnh nh ca tm kim chiu su. N ch lu "m rng" trng thi c chn
m khng "m rng" cc trng thi khc (nt mu trng trong hnh v).
Ngc li vi tm kim theo kiu chiu su, tm kim chiu rng mang hnh nh ca
vt du loang. T trng thi ban u, ta xy dng tp hp S bao gm cc trng thi
k tip (m t trng thi ban u c th bin i thnh). Sau , ng vi mi trng
thi Tk trong tp S, ta xy dng tp Sk bao gm cc trng thi k tip ca Tk ri ln
lt b sung cc Sk vo S. Qu trnh ny c lp li cho n lc S c cha trng thi
kt thc hoc S khng thay i sau khi b sung tt c Sk.
8
Hnh : Hnh nh ca tm kim chiu rng. Ti mt bc, mi trng thi u c m
rng, khng b st trng thi no.
9
hai chin lc ny u c tnh cht "m qung" v chng khng ch n nhng
thng tin (tri thc) trng thi hin thi v thng tin v ch cn t ti cng mi
quan h gia chng. Cc tri thc ny v cng quan trng v rt c ngha thit
k cc thut gii hiu qu hn m ta sp sa bn n.
Hm Heuristic l g ?
T tng
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2) Lp li cho n khi t n trng thi kt thc hoc cho n khi khng tn ti
mt trng thi tip theo hp l (Tk) ca trng thi hin hnh :
b. nh gi trng thi Tk mi :
M gi
IF Ti TG THEN BEGIN
END;
ELSE BEGIN
Better:=FALSE;
ELSE BEGIN
Ti :=Tk; Better:=TRUE;
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END;
END;
END; {WHILE}
END; {ELSE}
END;{WHILE}
12
Hnh : Bi ton 4 khi lp phng
G:=TRUE
ELSE
G:=FALSE;
G:=TRUE
ELSE
G:=FALSE;
Bi ton ny n gin thut gii leo i c th hot ng tt. Tuy nhin, khng
phi lc no ta cng may mn nh th!
III.3.2. Leo i dc ng
13
T tng
2) Lp li cho n khi t n trng thi kt thc hoc cho n khi (Ti) khng tn ti
mt trng thi k tip (Tk) no tt hn trng thi hin ti (Ti)
t Ti = Tkmax
M gi
Ti := T0;
Stop :=FALSE;
IF Ti TG THEN BEGIN
<tm c kt qu >;
STOP :=TRUE;
END;
ELSE BEGIN
Best:=h(Ti);
Tmax := Ti;
Best :=h(Tk);
Tmax := Tk;
END;
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END;
IF (Best>Ti) THEN
Ti := Tmax;
ELSE BEGIN
<khng tm c kt qu >;
STOP:=TRUE;
END;
END;{WHILE STOP}
III.3.3. nh gi
15
Hnh : Cc tnh hung kh khn cho tm kim leo o.
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na, s bc nhy l bao nhiu v nhy theo hng no l mt vn ph thuc rt
nhiu vo c im khng gian tm kim ca bi ton.
+ Ly mt khi nh mt ct v t n ln nh mt ct khc
17
Hnh : Trng thi khi u v trng thi kt thc
T1 TA TB TC
18
Hnh Cc trng thi c th t c t T1
19
III.4. Tm kim u tin ti u (best-first search)
20
tr v E. E c m rng v cc nt c sinh ra t E l I v J. bc k tip, J s
c m rng v n c kh nng nht. Qu trnh ny tip tc cho n khi tm thy
mt li gii.
2.a. Chn trng thi tt nht (Tmax) trong OPEN (v xa Tmax khi
OPEN)
BFS kh n gin. Tuy vy, trn thc t, cng nh tm kim chiu su v chiu rng,
him khi ta dng BFS mt cch trc tip. Thng thng, ngi ta thng dng cc
phin bn ca BFS l AT, AKT v A*
21
Thng tin v qu kh v tng lai
Thut gii AT
22
g(Tk) = g(Tmax) + cost(Tmax, Tk);
Thm Tk vo OPEN.
Thut gii AKT m rng AT bng cch s dng thm thng tin c lng h. tt
ca mt trng thi f l tng ca hai hm g v h.
Tnh h(Tk)
Thm Tk vo OPEN.
1. Trng thi cha ca trng thi Ti (k hiu l Cha(Ti) : cho bit trng thi dn n
trng thi Ti. Trong trng hp c nhiu trng thi dn n Ti th chn Cha(Ti) sao
cho chi ph i t trng thi khi u n Ti l thp nht, ngha l :
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g(Ti) = g(Tcha) + cost(Tcha, Ti) l thp nht.
2.b. Ngc li, chn Tmax trong OPEN sao cho f(Tmax) l nh nht
t g(Tk) = g(Tk)
Tnh li f(Tk)
t Cha(Tk) = Tmax
t g(Tk) = g(Tk)
Tnh li f(Tk)
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t Cha(Tk) = Tmax
Thm Tk vo OPEN
C mt s im cn gii thch trong thut gii ny. u tin l vic sau khi tm
thy trng thi ch TG, lm sao xy dng li c "con ng" t T0 n TG. Rt
n gin, bn ch cn ln ngc theo thuc tnh Cha ca cc trng thi c lu
tr trong CLOSE cho n khi t n T0. chnh l "con ng" ti u i t TG n
T0 (hay ni cch khc l t T0 n TG).
25
ph tng ng, chiu di theo ng chim bay mt thnh ph n Bucharest c
cho trong bng km theo.
Chng ta s chn hm h chnh l khong cch ng chim bay cho trong bng trn
v hm chi ph cost(Ti, Ti+1) chnh l chiu di con ng ni t thnh ph Ti v
Ti+1.
Ban u :
26
CLOSE {}
OPEN {}
h(Sibiu) 253
g(Sibiu) g(Arad)+cost(Arad,Sibiu)
0+140 140
f(Sibiu) g(Sibiu)+h(Sibiu)
140+253 393
Cha(Sibiu) Arad
h(Timisoara) 329
0+118 118
118+329 447
Cha(Timisoara) Arad
h(Zerind) 374
0+75 75
f(Zerind) g(Zerind)+h(Zerind)
75+374 449
Cha(Zerind) Arad
27
Do c 3 nt Sibiu, Timisoara, Zerind u khng c trong c OPEN v CLOSE nn ta
b sung 3 nt ny vo OPEN.
h(Arad) 366
g(Arad) g(Sibiu)+cost(Sibiu,Arad)
140+140 280
f(Arad) g(Arad)+h(Arad)
280+366 646
h(Fagaras) 178
28
f(Fagaras) g(Fagaras)+ h(Fagaras)
239+178 417
h(Oradea) 380
140+151 291
291+380 671
h(R.Vilcea) 193
140+80 220
220+193 413
29
(Oradea,g 291,h 380,f 617,Cha Sibiu)
h(Sibiu) 253
220+80 300
f(Sibiu) g(Sibiu)+h(Sibiu)
300+253 553
h(Craiova) 160
220+146 366
f(Craiova) g(Fagaras)+h(Fagaras)
366+160 526
h(Pitesti) 98
220+97 317
f(Pitesti) g(Oradea)+h(Oradea)
317+98 415
30
OPEN {(Timisoara,g 118,h 329,f 447,Cha Arad)
h(Bucharest) 0
317+100 418
f(Bucharest) g(Fagaras)+h(Fagaras)
417+0 417
31
bc k tip, ta s chn c Tmax Bucharest. V nh vy thut ton kt thc
(thc ra th ti bc ny, c hai ng c vin l Bucharest v Fagaras v u cng c
f 417 , nhng v Bucharest l ch nn ta s u tin chn hn).
Cha(Bucharest) Pitesti
Cha(R.Vilcea) Sibiu
Cha(Sibiu) Arad
Trong trng hp ny, chng ta vn tin hnh bc 1 nh trn. Sau khi thc hin
hin bc 2 (m rng Sibiu), chng ta c cy tm kim nh hnh sau. Lu l c
thm nhnh TP.
32
R.Vilcea vn c gi tr f thp nht. Nn ta m rng R.Vilcea nh trng hp u tin.
h(Pitesti) 98
240+75 315
33
OPEN {(Timisoara,g 118,h 329,f 447,Cha Arad)
n y ta thy rng, ban u thut gii chn ng i n Pitesti qua R.Vilcea. Tuy
nhin, sau , thut gii pht hin ra con ng n Pitesti qua TP l tt hn nn n
s s dng con ng ny. y chnh l trng hp 2.b.iii.2 trong thut gii.
Bc sau, chng ta s chn m rng Pitesti nh bnh thng. Khi ln ngc theo
thuc tnh Cha, ta s c con ng ti u l Arad, Sibiu, TP, Pitesti, Bucharest.
III.9. Bn lun v A*
34
n y, chc bn c c th bt u cm nhn c rng thut gii A* khng
hon ton l mt thut gii ti u tuyt i. Ni ng hn, A* ch l mt thut gii
linh ng v cho chng ta kh nhiu ty chn. Ty theo bi ton m ta s c mt b
thng s thch hp cho A* thut gii hot ng hiu qu nht.
Nu h lun bng 0 mi trng thi (tr v thut gii AT) th qu trnh tm kim s
c iu khin hon ton bi gi tr g. Ngha l thut gii s chn i theo nhng
hng m s tn t chi ph/bc i nht (chi ph tnh t trng thi u tin n trng
thi hin ang xt) bt chp vic i theo hng c kh nng dn n li gii hay
khng. y chnh l hnh nh ca nguyn l tham lam (Greedy).
Nu chi ph t trng thi sang trng thi khc lun l hng s (d nhin lc ny h
lun bng 0) th thut gii A* tr thnh thut gii tm kim theo chiu rng! L do l
v tt c nhng trng thi cch trng thi khi u n bc u c cng gi tr g v v
th u c cng f v gi tr ny s nh hn tt c cc trng thi cch trng thi khi
u n+1 bc. V nu g lun bng 0 v h cng lun bng 0, mi trng thi ang xt
u tng ng nhau. Ta ch c th chn bng trng thi k tip bng ngu nhin !
35
Hnh : h nh gi thp h
Hnh : h nh gi cao h
n y chng ta kt thc vic bn lun v thut gii A*, mt thut gii linh
ng, tng qut, trong hm cha c tm kim chiu su, tm kim chiu rng v
nhng nguyn l Heuristic khc. Chnh v th m ngi ta thng ni, A* chnh l
thut gii tiu biu cho Heuristic.
36
A* rt linh ng nhng vn gp mt khuyt im c bn ging nh chin lc tm
kim chiu rng l tn kh nhiu b nh lu li nhng trng thi i qua
nu chng ta mun n chc chn tm thy li gii ti u. Vi nhng khng gian tm
kim ln nh th y khng phi l mt im ng quan tm. Tuy nhin, vi nhng
khng gian tm kim khng l (chng hn tm ng i trn mt ma trn kch thc
c 106 x 106) th khng gian lu tr l c mt vn hc ba. Cc nh nghin cu
a ra kh nhiu cc hng tip cn lai gii quyt vn ny. Chng ta s tm
hiu mt s phng n nhng quan trng nht, ta cn phi nm r v tr ca A* so
vi nhng thut gii khc.
Fk=2+1+3+1+0+1+2+2=12
Chng ta bit qua 4 kiu tm kim : leo o (L), tm theo chiu su (MC), tm
theo chiu rng (BR) v tm kim BFS. Bn kiu tm kim ny c th c xem nh 4
thi cc ca khng gian lin tc bao gm cc chin lc tm kim khc nhau. gii
thch iu ny r hn, s tin hn cho chng ta nu nhn mt chin lc tm kim li
gii di hai chiu sau :
37
Chiu kh nng quay lui (R): l kh nng cho php quay li xem xt
nhng trng thi xt n trc nu gp mt trng thi khng th i tip.
Theo hng R, chng ta thy leo o nm mt thi cc (n khng cho php quay
li nhng trng thi cha c xt n), trong khi tm kim quay lui v BFS mt
thi cc khc (cho php quay li tt c cc hng i cha xt n). Theo hng S
chng ta thy leo o v ln ngc nm mt thi cc (ch tp trung vo mt phm
vi hp trn tp cc trng thi mi to ra t trng thi hin ti) v BFS nm mt
thi cc khc (trong khi BF xem xt ton b tp cc con ng c, bao gm c
nhng con ng mi c to ra cng nh tt c nhng con ng khng c xt
ti trc y trc mi mt quyt nh).
Nhng thi cc ny c trc quan ha bng hnh trn. Vng in m biu din mt
mt phng lin tc cc chin lc tm kim m n kt hp mt s c im ca mt
trong ba thi cc (leo o, chiu su, BFS) c c mt ha hp cc c tnh tnh
ton ca chng.
38
Hnh : Chin lc lai BFS-MC trong , BFS p dng ti nh v MC ti y.
39
trng thi trong OPEN nh nhng trng thi con trc tip ca trng thi ban u v
chuyn giao chng cho tm kim chiu su. Tm kim chiu su s chn trng thi tt
nht trong nhng trng thi con ny v "bnh trng" n dng BFS, ngha l n
chuyn trng thi chn cho tm kim BFS cc b cho n khi mt lng b nh M0
li c dng ht v trng thi con mi trong OPEN li tip tc c xem nh nt
con ca nt "bnh trng"...Nu vic "bnh trng" bng BFS tht bi th ta quay lui
li v chn nt con tt th hai ca tp OPEN trc , ri li tip tc bnh trng
bng BFS...
40
A. TNG QUAN TR TU NHN TO
I. M U
To ra nhng chic my tnh c kh nng nhn thc, suy lun v phn ng.
Nhn thc c hiu l kh nng quan st, hc hi, hiu bit cng nh nhng kinh
nghim v th gii xung quanh. Qu trnh nhn thc gip con ngi c tri thc. Suy
lun l kh nng vn dng nhng tri thc sn c phn ng vi nhng tnh hung
41
hay nhng vn - bi ton gp phi trong cuc sng. Nhn thc v suy lun t
a ra nhng phn ng thch hp l ba hnh vi c th ni l c trng cho tr tu
ca con ngi. (D nhin cn mt yu t na l tnh cm. Nhng chng ta s khng
cp n y!). Do , cng khng c g ngc nhin khi mun to ra mt chic
my tnh thng minh, ta cn phi trang b cho n nhng kh nng ny. C ba kh
nng ny u cn n mt yu t c bn l tri thc.
42
II. THNG TIN, D LIU V TRI THC
Nh bc hc ni ting Karan Sing tng ni rng "Chng ta ang ngp chm trong
bin thng tin nhng li ang kht tri thc". Cu ni ny lm ni bt s khc bit
v lng ln v cht gia hai khi nim thng tin v tri thc.
Trong ng cnh ca ngnh khoa hc my tnh, ngi ta quan nim rng d liu l
cc con s, ch ci, hnh nh, m thanh... m my tnh c th tip nhn v x l.
Bn thn d liu thng khng c ngha i vi con ngi. Cn thng tin l tt c
nhng g m con ngi c th cm nhn c mt cch trc tip thng qua cc gic
quan ca mnh (khu gic, v gic, thnh gic, xc gic, th gic v gic quan th 6)
hoc gin tip thng qua cc phng tin k thut nh tivi, radio, cassette,... Thng
tin i vi con ngi lun c mt ngha nht nh no . Vi phng tin my tnh
(m c th l cc thit b u ra), con ngi s tip thu c mt phn d liu c
ngha i vi mnh. Nu so v lng, d liu thng nhiu hn thng tin.
Trong ton hc :
Trong vt l :
I U R
5 10 2
2.5 20 8
43
4 12 3
7.3 14.6 2
Hng ngy, ngi nng dn vn quan st thy cc hin tng nng, ma, rm v
chun chun bay. Rt nhiu ln quan st, h c nhn xt nh sau :
Chun chun bay thp th ma, bay cao th nng, bay va th rm.
44
Tri thc m t : cho bit mt i tng, s kin, vn , khi nim, ... c
thy, cm nhn, cu to nh th no (mt ci bn thng c 4 chn, con ngi c 2
tay, 2 mt,...)
Tri thc Heuristic : l mt dng tri thc cm tnh. Cc tri thc thuc loi ny
thng c dng c lng, phng on, v thng c hnh thnh thng qua kinh
nghim.
45
Bn cn phi bit rng, t ra l cho n thi im bn ang c cun sch ny, con
ngi vn cha th tm ra mt kiu biu din tng qut cho mi loi tri thc!
IV. LM QUEN VI CCH GII QUYT VN BNG CCH CHUYN GIAO TRI
THC CHO MY TNH
Bi ton 2 : Cho bit mt s yu t ca tam gic (nh chiu di cnh v gc, ...).
Hy tnh cc yu t cn li.
Hai bi ton u l hai bi ton kh tiu biu, thng c dng minh ha cho
nt p ca phng php gii quyt vn bi ton bng cch chuyn giao tri thc
cho my tnh. Nu s dng thut ton thng thng, chng ta thng ch gii c
mt s trng hp c th ca cc bi ton ny. Thm ch, nhiu ngi khi mi tip
cn vi 2 bi ton ny cn khng tin l n c th hon ton c gii mt cch tng
qut bi my tnh!. Bi ton s 3 l mt minh ha p mt cho k thut gii quyt
vn "v m", ngha l ta ch cn m t cc bc gii quyt mc tng qut cho
my tnh m khng cn i vo ci t c th.
Bi ton 1 s c gii quyt bng cch s dng cc lut dn xut (lut sinh). Bi
ton 2 s c gii quyt bng mng ng ngha v bi ton 3 s gii quyt bng
cng c frame. y chng ta cng nhau tm hiu cch gii bi ton u tin. Hai
bi ton k tip s c gii quyt ln lt cc mc sau.
Mc y bnh 7
ht nc trong bnh 5
Mc y bnh 7
Tuy nhin, vi nhng s liu khc, bn phi "my m" li t u tm ra quy trnh
nc. C th, mi mt trng hp s c mt cch nc hon ton khc nhau.
46
Nh vy, nu c mt ai yu cu bn a ra mt cch lm tng qut th chnh bn
cng s lng tng (d nhin, ngoi tr trng hp bn bit trc cch gii theo tri
thc m chng ta sp sa tm hiu y!).
x = z hoc y = z
Qu trnh gii c thc hin bng cch xt ln lt cc lut sau, lut no tha mn
th s c p dng. Lc ny, cc lut chnh l cc "kinh nghim" hay tri thc m ta
chuyn giao cho my tnh. Sau khi p dng lut, trng thi ca bi ton s thay
i, ta li tip tc xt cc lut k tip, nu ht lut, quay tr li lut u tin. Qu
trnh tip din cho n khi t c iu kin kt thc ca bi ton.
Ba lut ny c m t nh sau :
47
...
x := 0; y := 0;
IF (x = Vx) THEN x := 0;
x := x + k;
y := y - k;
END;
END;
...
Vx = 3, Vy = 4 v z = 2
Ban u : x = 0, y = 0
48
z = n USCLN(VX, VY) (vi n nguyn dng)
Cch gii quyt vn theo kiu ny khc so vi cch gii bng thut ton thng
thng l chng ta khng a ra mt trnh t gii quyt vn c th m ch a ra
cc quy tc chung chung (di dng cc lut), my tnh s da vo (p dng cc
lut) t xy dng mt quy trnh gii quyt vn . iu ny cng ging nh vic
chng ta gii ton bng cch a ra cc nh l, quy tc lin quan n bi ton m
khng cn phi ch ra cch gii c th.
BEGIN
CASE L OF
1 : DK := (x = Vx);
2 : DK := (y = 0);
3 : DK := (y>0);
END;
END;
BEGIN
CASE L OF
1 : x := 0;
2: y := Vy;
3 : BEGIN
k := min(Vx-x,y);
x := x+k;
y := y-k;
END;
49
END;
END;
CONST SO_LUAT = 3;
BEGIN
END;
END.
on chng trnh chnh cng thi hnh bng cch ln lt xt qua 3 lnh IF nh
chng trnh u tin. Tuy nhin, y, biu thc iu kin c thay th bng hm
DK v cc hnh ng ng vi iu kin c thay th bng th tc ThiHanh. Tnh
cht "mm" hn ca chng trnh ny th hin ch, nu mun b sung "tri thc",
ta ch phi iu chnh li cc hm DK v ThiHanh m khng cn phi sa li chng
trnh chnh.
V d : GiaTriBoolean(6<7) s tr ra FALSE
Th tc ThucHien cng nhn vo mt chui, n cng s phn tch chui ri tin hnh
thc hin nhng hnh ng c miu t trong chui ny.
CONST SO_LUAT = 3;
TYPE
Luat RECORD
DK : String;
ThiHanh : String;
50
END;
VAR
CacLuat DSLuat;
PROCEDURE KhoiDong;
BEGIN
CacLuat[1].DK := x = Vx;
CacLuat[2].DK := y = 0;
CacLuat[3].DK := y>0; 9;
CacLuat[1].ThaoTac := x:=0;
CacLuat[2].ThaoTac:= y:=Vy;
END;
BEGIN
IF GiaTriBoolean(CacLuat[i].DK)
THEN ThucHien(CacLuat[i].ThaoTac);
END;
END.
Chng ta tm cho rng trong qu trnh chng trnh thi hnh, ta c th d dng thay
i s phn t mng CacLuat (cc ngn ng lp trnh sau ny nh Visual C++,
Delphi u cho php iu ny). Vi chng trnh ny, khi mun sa i "tri thc",
bn ch cn thay i gi tr mng Luat l xong.
Tuy nhin, ngi dng vn gp kh khn khi mun b sung hoc hiu chnh tri thc.
H cn phi nhp cc chui i loi nh x=0 hoc k:=min(Vx-x,y) ...Cc chui
ny, tuy c ngha i vi chng trnh nhng vn cn kh xa l i vi ngi dng
bnh thng. Chng ta cn gim bt "khong cch" ny li bng cch a ra nhng
chui iu kin hoc thao tc c ngha trc tip i vi ngi dng. Chng trnh
51
s c chuyn i li cc iu kin v thao tc ny sang dng ph hp vi chng
trnh.
Trng thi c bn :
Thao tc
"Mc y X"
K tip, ta s vit cc on chng trnh cho php ngi dng nhp vo cc lut
(dng nu ... th ...) c hnh thnh t cc trng thi v iu kin c bn ny, ng
thi tin hnh chuyn sang dng my tnh c th x l c nh v d trn. Chng
ta s khng bn n vic ci t cc on chng trnh giao tip vi ngi dng
y.
ng c suy din : l phng php vn dng tri thc trong c s tri thc gii
quyt vn .
52
Nu xt theo quan nim biu din tri thc m ta va bn lun trn th c s tri
thc ch l mt dng d liu c bit v ng c suy din cng ch l mt dng ca
thut ton c bit m thi. Tuy vy, c th ni rng, c s tri thc v ng c suy
din l mt bc tin ha mi ca d liu v thut ton ca chng trnh! Bn c th
hnh dung ng c suy din ging nh mt loi ng c tng qut, c chun ha
c th dng vn hnh nhiu loi xe my khc nhau v c s tri thc chnh l loi
nhin liu c bit vn hnh loi ng c ny !
Hnh nh trn tm tt cho chng ta thy cu trc chung nht ca mt chng trnh
tr tu nhn to.
V. LOGIC MNH
53
y c l l kiu biu din tri thc n gin nht v gn gi nht i vi chng ta.
Mnh l mt khng nh, mt pht biu m gi tr ca n ch c th hoc l ng
hoc l sai.
V d :
VI. LOGIC V T
Biu din tri thc bng mnh gp phi mt tr ngi c bn l ta khng th can
thip vo cu trc ca mt mnh . Hay ni mt cch khc l mnh khng c
cu trc . iu ny lm hn ch rt nhiu thao tc suy lun . Do , ngi ta a
vo khi nim v t v lng t ( - vi mi, - tn ti) tng cng tnh cu
trc ca mt mnh .
54
Nh vy biu din v ca cc tri cy, cc mnh s c vit li thnh :
...
Nh vy nu ta c cc mnh c s l :
LnHn(x,y) = x>y
NhHn(x,y) = x<y
x, y : LnHn(y,x) v x, y : NhHn(y,x)
55
Cu chm ngn "Gn mc th en, gn n th sng" c hiu l "chi vi bn xu
no th ta cng s thnh ngi xu" c th c biu din bng v t nh sau :
R rng rng vi hai php suy lun c bn ca logic mnh (Modus Ponens, Modus
Tollens) cng vi cc php bin i hnh thc, ta cng c th chng minh c php
suy din. Tuy nhin, thao tc bin i hnh thc l rt kh ci t c trn my
tnh. Thm ch iu ny cn kh khn vi c con ngi!
V d :
p q, (r s), g, p r s, p
p q, p r, p (r s), g, s
V d :
p q, r ( p s) q, s
56
p, q, r, p s q, s
V d :
p, p q q
p, p q p, q q
V d :
p, q q c chng minh
p, p q p p, q
B6 :
Thut gii ny hot ng da trn phng php chng minh phn chng.
57
Nu KLi c php th thay bng du ","
V d : &#p q r s q
prs
B6 : Thay th hai mnh va tuyn trong danh sch mnh bng mnh mi.
V d :
{ p q , r s q , w r, s q }
{ p r s , w r, s q }
p q, q r, r s, u s p, u
B3: { p q, q r, r s, u s, p, u }
B5 : tuyn mt cp mnh (chn hai mnh c bin i ngu). Chn hai mnh
u :
pqqrpr
{ p r , r s, u s, p, u }
58
Tuyn hai cp mnh u tin
prrsps
p s u s p u
puup
VIII. BIU DIN TRI THC S DNG LUT DN XUT (LUT SINH)
Phng php biu din tri thc bng lut sinh c pht minh bi Newell v Simon
trong lc hai ng ang c gng xy dng mt h gii bi ton tng qut. y l mt
kiu biu din tri thc c cu trc. tng c bn l tri thc c th c cu trc
bng mt cp iu kin hnh ng : "NU iu kin xy ra TH hnh ng s
c thi hnh". Chng hn : NU n giao thng l TH bn khng c i thng,
NU my tnh m m khng khi ng c TH kim tra ngun in,
P1 P2 ... Pn Q
59
Ty vo cc vn ang quan tm m lut sinh c nhng ng ngha hay cu to
khc nhau :
Trong logic v t : P1, P2, ..., Pn, Q l nhng biu thc logic.
ONE mt.
TWO hai.
JANUARY thng mt
biu din mt tp lut sinh, ngi ta thng phi ch r hai thnh phn chnh sau
:
f1 ^ f2 ^ ... ^ fi q
Trong , cc fi , q u thuc F
Cc s kin : A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K
R1 : A E
R2 : B D
R3 : H A
R4 : E G C
R5 : E K B
R6 : D E K C
R7 : G K F A
60
VIII.2. C ch suy lun trn cc lut sinh
Suy din tin : l qu trnh suy lun xut pht t mt s s kin ban u, xc
nh cc s kin c th c "sinh" ra t s kin ny.
S kin ban u : H, K
R3 : H A {A, H. K }
R1 : A E { A, E, H, H }
R5 : E K B { A, B, E, H, K }
R2 : B D { A, B, D, E, H, K }
R6 : D E K C { A, B, C, D, E, H, K }
Suy din li : l qu trnh suy lun ngc xut pht t mt s s kin ban u, ta
tm kim cc s kin "sinh" ra s kin ny. Mt v d thng gp trong thc t l
xut pht t cc tnh trng ca my tnh, chn on xem my tnh b hng hc
u.
V d :
Tp cc s kin :
Tp cc lut :
61
Nh vy l xc nh c nguyn nhn gy ra hng hc l do cng hng hay
cp mn hnh lng, h thng phi ln lt i vo cc nhnh kim tra cc iu kin
nh in vo my "c", m thanh cng "khng"Ti mt bc, nu gi tr cn xc
nh khng th c suy ra t bt k mt lut no, h thng s yu cu ngi dng
trc tip nhp vo. Chng hn nh bit my tnh c in khng, h thng s hin
ra mn hnh cu hi "Bn kim tra xem c in vo my tnh khng (kim tra n
ngun)? (C/K)". thc hin c c ch suy lun li, ngi ta thng s dng
ngn xp ( ghi nhn li nhng nhnh cha kim tra).
VIII.3. Vn ti u lut
VIII.3.1. Rt gn bn phi
A B A (1)
Do lut
ABAC
ABC
62
Quy tc rt gn : C th loi b nhng s kin bn v phi nu nhng s kin
xut hin bn v tri. Nu sau khi rt gn m v phi tr thnh rng th lut l
lut hin nhin. Ta c th loi b cc lut hin nhin ra khi tri thc.
VIII.3.2. Rt gn bn tri
Xt cc lut :
Lut A B C
AC
BC
B1 : Rt gn v phi
Vi mi lut r trong R
Vi mi s kin A VPhi(r)
63
Nu A VTri(r) th Loi A ra khi v phi ca R.
B2 : Phn r cc lut
Vi mi lut r : X1 X2 Xn Y trong R
Vi mi i t 1 n n R := R + { Xi Y }
R := R {r}
Vi mi lut r thuc R
B4 : Rt gn v tri
Vi mi s kin Ai thuc r
Gi lut r1 : X Ai Y
S = ( R {r} ) {r1}
u im
Biu din tri thc bng lut c bit hu hiu trong nhng tnh hung h thng cn
a ra nhng hnh ng da vo nhng s kin c th quan st c. N c nhng
u im chnh yu sau y :
64
Nhc im
Mng ng ngha l mt phng php biu din tri thc u tin v cng l phng
php d hiu nht i vi chng ta. Phng php ny s biu din tri thc di dng
mt th, trong nh l cc i tng (khi nim) cn cc cung cho bit mi
quan h gia cc i tng (khi nim) ny.
Chng hn : gia cc khi nim chch che, chim, ht, cnh, t c mt s mi quan
h nh sau :
Chim bit ht
Chim c cnh
65
Do mng ng ngha l mt loi th cho nn n tha hng c tt c nhng mt
mnh ca cng c ny. Ngha l ta c th dng nhng thut ton ca th trn
mng ng ngha nh thut ton tm lin thng, tm ng i ngn nht, thc
hin cc c ch suy lun. im c bit ca mng ng ngha so vi th thng
thng chnh l vic gn mt ngha (c, lm, l, bit, ...) cho cc cung. Trong
th tiu chun, vic c mt cung ni gia hai nh ch cho bit c s lin h gia hai
nh v tt c cc cung trong th u biu din cho cng mt loi lin h.
Trong mng ng ngha, cung ni gia hai nh cn cho bit gia hai khi nim tng
ng c s lin h nh th no. Vic gn ng ngha vo cc cung ca th gip
gim bt c s lng th cn phi dng biu din cc mi lin h gia cc
khi nim. Chng hn nh trong v d trn, nu s dng th thng thng, ta phi
dng n 4 loi th cho 4 mi lin h : mt th biu din mi lin h "l",
mt th cho mi lin h "lm", mt cho "bit" v mt cho "c".
Tuy mng ng ngha l mt kiu biu din trc quan i vi con ngi nhng khi a
vo my tnh, cc i tng v mi lin h gia chng thng c biu din di
dng nhng pht biu ng t (nh v t). Hn na, cc thao tc tm kim trn
mng ng ngha thng kh khn (c bit i vi nhng mng c kch thc ln).
Do , m hnh mng ng ngha c dng ch yu phn tch vn . Sau , n
s c chuyn i sang dng lut hoc frame thi hnh hoc mng ng ngha s
c dng kt hp vi mt s phng php biu din khc.
66
X.2. u im v nhc im ca mng ng ngha
u im
Mng ng ngha hot ng kh t nhin theo cch thc con ngi ghi
nhn thng tin.
Nhc im
67
V d 2 : Gii bi ton tam gic tng qut
gii bi ton ny bng cng c mng ng ngha, ta phi s dng khong 200 nh
cha cng thc v khong 22 nh cha cc yu t ca tam gic. Mng ng
ngha cho bi ton ny c cu trc nh sau :
Cung : ch ni t nh hnh trn n nh hnh ch nht cho bit yu t tam gic xut
hin trong cng thc no (khng c trng hp cung ni gia hai nh hnh trn hoc
cung ni gia hai nh hnh ch nht).
68
C ch suy din thc hin theo thut ton "loang" n gin sau :
69
Cng thc (4) c kch hot (v ). T cng thc (4) tnh c
gc
kim tra xem mt cng thc c n-1 yu t hay cha (ngha l kim tra iu
kin "nh hnh ch nht c cung ni vi n nh hnh trn m n-1 nh hnh trn
c kch hot"), ta ch vic ly hiu gia tng s c gi tr bng 1 v tng s
c gi tr -1 trn ct ng vi cng thc cn kim tra. Nu kt qu bng n, th cng
thc c n-1 yu t.
Tr li mng ng ngha cho. Qu trnh thi hnh kch hot c din ra nh sau :
-1 0 0 -1 0
-1 -1 0 -1 0
0 -1 0 -1 0
a -1 0 -1 0 0
b -1 -1 -1 0 0
70
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
hC 0 0 0 0 -1
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
0 -1 0 -1 0
a 1 0 1 1 0
b -1 -1 -1 0 0
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
hC 0 0 0 0 -1
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
0 -1 0 -1 0
a 1 0 1 1 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
hC 0 0 0 0 -1
71
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
a 1 0 1 1 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
hC 0 0 0 0 -1
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
A 1 0 1 1 0
B 1 1 1 0 0
C 0 1 1 0 1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
hC 0 0 0 0 -1
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
a 1 0 1 1 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 1 1 0 1
72
S 0 0 1 0 1
hC 0 0 0 0 -1
Frame thng c dng biu din nhng tri thc "chun" hoc nhng tri thc
c xy dng da trn nhng kinh nghim hoc cc c im c hiu bit cn
k. B no ca con ngi chng ta vn lun "lu tr" rt nhiu cc tri thc chung m
khi cn, chng ta c th "ly ra" vn dng n trong nhng vn cn phi gii
quyt. Frame l mt cng c thch hp biu din nhng kiu tri thc ny.
73
XI.2. Cu trc ca frame
Value (gi tr) : cho bit gi tr ca thuc tnh (nh xanh, , tm vng nu slot
l mu xe).
Range (min gi tr) : (tng t nh kiu bin), cho bit gi tr slot c th nhn
nhng loi gi tr g (nh s nguyn, s thc, ch ci, ...)
Frame : XE HI
Tn nh sn xut : Audi
Hp s : 3 s t ng
74
Kiu : In-line, overhead cam
S xy-lanh : 5
Kh nng tng tc
Hnh sau y cho thy cu trc phn cp ca cc loi hnh hnh hc c bn. Gc ca
cy trn cng tng ng vi mc tru tng cao nht. Cc frame nm di
cng (khng c frame con no) gi l l. Nhng frame nm mc thp hn c th
tha k tt c nhng tnh cht ca nhng frame cao hn.
Cc frame cha s cung cp nhng m t tng qut v thc th. Frame c cp cng
cao th mc tng qut cng cao. Thng thng, frame cha s bao gm cc nh
ngha ca cc thuc tnh. Cn cc frame con s cha ng gi tr thc s ca cc
thuc tnh ny.
75
Mt v d biu din cc i tng hnh hc bng frame
Cc kiu d liu c bn :
pi : (val:numeric = 3.14159)
r : radius;
s : area;
p : perimeter;
d : diameter;
d = 2 r;
s = pi r2;
p = 2 pi r;
b1 : side;
b2 : side;
s : area;
p : perimeter;
s = b1 b2;
76
p = 2 (b1+b2);
d2 = b12 + b22;
L : RECTANGLE
b1 = b2;
b : side;
d1 : diagonal;
d2 : diagonal;
s : area;
p : perimeter;
alpha1 : angle;
alpha2 : angle;
h : height;
cos (alpha2/2) d1 = h;
s = d1 d2 / 2;
p = 4 b;
s = b h;
Chng ta c th d dng khai bo cc i tng hnh hc khc theo cch ny. Sau
khi biu din cc tri thc v cc hnh hnh hc c bn xong, ta c th vn dng n
gii cc bi ton hnh hc, chng hn bi ton tnh din tch. V d, cho hnh
vung k v vng trn ni tip c, bit cnh hnh vung c chiu di l x, hy vit
chng trnh tnh din tch phn t en.
77
D thy rng, din tch phn t en chnh l hiu gia din tch hnh vung v din
tch hnh trn ni tip. D nhin l bn cng c th vit mt chng trnh bnh thng
tnh ton, nhng khi "tch hp" cc tri thc v tnh din tch bn trong biu
din, chng trnh ca chng ta tr nn rt gn nh. Bn hy lu 3 lnh c in
m trong v d di. Lnh u tin s "c t" li gi thit "hnh vung c cnh vi
chiu di x", lnh k tip c t gi thit "hnh trn ni tip", cn lnh th 3 m t
vic tnh din tch bng cch ly din tch hnh vung tr cho din tch hnh trn.
BEGIN
<Nhp x>;
k.b1 := x;
c.d := x;
s := k.s c.s;
END.
78
Script l mt cch biu din tri thc tng t nh frame nhng thay v c t mt
i tng, n m t mt chui cc s kin. m t chui s kin, script s dng
mt dy cc slot cha thng tin v cc con ngi, i tng v hnh ng lin quan
n s kin .
Tuy cu trc ca cc script l rt khc nhau ty theo bi ton, nhng nhn chung mt
script thng bao gm cc thnh phn sau :
Role (din vin): l nhng con ngi c lin quan trong script.
Result (Kt qu) : trng thi ca cc Role sau khi script thi hnh xong.
Ngi phc v.
Tc t : Bn phc v.
Ch ngi.
Khay ng thc n
Thc n
79
Tin
iu kin vo :
Khch hng i
Tnh hung 2: Ku mn n.
Tnh hung 4 : Ra v
Khch hng b rc (thc n tha, xng, mng vn, ...) vo thng rc.
Khch hng li xe i.
80
Kt qu :
* Ty chn.
Mc tiu chnh biu din tri thc trong my tnh l phc v cho vic thu nhn tri thc
vo my tnh, truy xut tri thc v thc hin cc php suy lun da trn nhng tri
thc lu tr. Do , tha mn c 3 mc tiu trn, khi chn phng php
biu din tri thc, chng ta phi cn nhc mt s yu t c bn sau y :
Tnh hiu qu trong vic truy xut tri thc v sc mnh ca cc php suy
lun (theo kiu heuristic) .
81
Bng sau cho chng ta mt s u v khuyt im ca cc phng php biu din tri
thc c trnh by.
P.Php u im Nhc im
Tuy vy, nh chng ta bit, hin nay vn cha c mt kiu biu din tri thc no
ph hp vi mi tnh hung. Do , khi phi lm vic vi nhiu ngun tri thc khc
nhau (khc loi, khc tnh cht), chng ta nhiu lc phi hy sinh tnh ng b bng
cch s dng cng lc nhiu kiu biu din tri thc, mi kiu biu din ng vi mt
nhim v con. Nhng nh vy, chng ta li ny sinh ra vn "dch" mt tri thc t
kiu biu din ny sang kiu biu din khc. Tuy th nhng mt s h chng trnh
tr tu gn y vn dng cng lc nhiu kiu biu din d liu khc nhau.
82
Level5 Object v Nexpert Object minh chng cho iu ny. Frame cung cp mt
ngn ng cu trc hiu qu c t nhng i tng xut hin trong cc lut.
Frame cn ng vai tr nh mt lp h tr cho thao tc suy din c bn trn nhng
i tng khng cn phi tng tc mt cch tng minh trong cc lut. Kh nng
phn lp ca frame cn c th c dng phn hoch, to ch mc v sp xp cc
lut sinh trong h thng. Kh nng ny rt thch hp cho ngi dng trong vic xy
dng v hiu cc lut, cng nh cng c th theo di c cc lut c s dng khi
no v cho mc g.
Hnh sau cho thy mt kiu kt hp gia lut sinh v frame. S kt hp ny cho
php to ra cc lut so mu nhm tng tc tm kim ca h thng. Kt qu ca
s kt hp ny cho php to ra cc biu din phc tp hn rt nhiu so vi vic ch
dng frame, thm ch phc tp hn c vic lp trnh trc tip bng ngn ng C++ !!.
* Suy lun khng chc chn (Hypothetical reasoning) : l k thut suy lun da trn
cc iu kin c th c mu thun hoc khng chc chn.
V d kt hp biu din tri thc bng lut sinh v frame trong bi ton iu
ch cht ha hc
Na + Cl2 NaCl
83
Fe + Cl2 FeCl2
Cu + Cl2 CuCl2
...
Kim + Nc Xt + H2
84
D nhin l trong cc frame trn cn rt nhiu thuc tnh ha hc khc. y
chng ti ch trnh by s lc v mt tng bn c c c s bt u. tng
ny c mt s sinh vin nm 4 ca khoa Cng Ngh Thng Tin i Hc Khoa
Hc T Nhin TP. H Ch Minh ci t thnh cng. Chng trnh chy tt trong phm
vi cc phn ng trong sch gio khoa lp 10, 11 v 12.
85
Chng 3 M U V QUAN MY HC
I. TH NO L MY HC ?
II.1. m chi
II.2.1. Quinlan
II.2.2. o hn lon
II.4. Ti u tp lut
I. TH NO L MY HC ?
Thut ng "hc" theo ngha thng thng l tip thu tri thc bit cch vn
dng. ngoi i, qu tr hc din ra di nhiu hnh thc khc nhau nh hc thuc
lng (hc vt), hc theo kinh nghim (hc da theo trng hp), hc theo kiu nghe
nhn,... Trn my tnh cng c nhiu thut ton hc khc nhau. Tuy nhin, trong
phm vi ca gio trnh ny, chng ta ch kho st phng php hc da theo trng
hp. Theo phng php ny, h thng s c cung cp mt s cc trng hp
"mu", da trn tp mu ny, h thng s tin hnh phn tch v rt ra cc quy lut
(biu din bng lut sinh). Sau , h thng s da trn cc lut ny "nh gi"
cc trng hp khc (thng khng ging nh cc trng hp "mu"). Ngay c ch
vi kiu hc ny, chng ta cng c nhiu thut ton hc khc nhau. Mt ln na,
vi mc ch gii thiu, chng ta ch kho st mt trng hp n gin.
f : P | R
pr
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mi trng hp p trong tp P vi mt "lp" r trong tp R. Hn na, f phi bo
ton f, ngha l :
Vi mi p P th f(p) f (p)
Pht biu hnh thc c th kh hnh dung. c th hn, ta hy cng nhau quan st
mt v d c. Nhim v ca chng ta trong v d ny l xy dng cc quy lut c
th kt lun mt ngi nh th no khi i tm bin th b chy nng. Ta gi tnh cht
chy nng hay khng chy nng l thuc tnh quan tm (thuc tnh mc tiu). Nh
vy, trong trng hp ny, tp R ca chng ta ch gm c hai phn t {"chy
nng", "bnh thng"}. Cn tp P l tt c nhng ngi c lit k trong bng
di (8 ngi) Chng ta quan st hin tng chy nng da trn 4 thuc tnh sau :
chiu cao (cao, trung bnh, thp), mu tc (vng, nu, ) cn nng (nh, TB,
nng), dng kem (c, khng),. Ta gi cc thuc tnh ny gi l thuc tnh dn xut.
Tn Tc Ch.Cao Cn Dng Kt qu
Nng kem?
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Dana Vng Cao T.Bnh C Khng
C hai cch phn hoch hin nhin nht m ai cng c th ngh ra. Cch u tin l
cho mi ngi vo mt phn hoch ring (P1 = {Sarah}, P2 = {Dana}, tng cng
s c 8 phn hoch cho 8 ngi). Cch th hai l phn hoch thnh hai tp, mt tp
gm tt c nhng ngi chy nng v tp cn li bao gm tt c nhng ngi khng
chy nng. Tuy n gin nhng phn hoch theo kiu ny th chng ta chng gii
quyt c g !!
II.1. m chi
P = { Emmile }
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* Cc ngi b chy nng c gch di v in m.
Quan st hnh trn ta thy rng phn hoch Pnu v P tha mn c iu kin
"c chung thuc tnh mc tiu" (Pnu cha ton ngi khng chy nng, P cha
ton ngi chy nng).
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Vn m chng ta gp phi cng tng t nh bi ton tm kim : "ng trc
mt ng r, ta cn phi i vo hng no?". Hai phng php nh gi di y s
gip ta chn c thuc tnh phn hoch ti mi bc xy dng cy nh danh.
II.2.1. Quinlan
Quinlan quyt nh thuc tnh phn hoch bng cch xy dng cc vector c trng
cho mi gi tr ca tng thuc tnh dn xut v thuc tnh mc tiu. Cch tnh c th
nh sau :
T(j, ri) = (tng s phn t trong phn hoch c gi tr thuc tnh dn xut A
l j v c gi tr thuc tnh mc tiu l ri ) / ( tng s phn t trong phn
hoch c gi tr thuc tnh dn xut A l j )
Thuc tnh c chn phn hoch l thuc tnh c nhiu vector n v nht.
Tr li v d ca chng ta, trng thi ban u (cha phn hoch) chng ta s tnh
vector c trng cho tng thuc tnh dn xut tm ra thuc tnh dng phn
hoch. u tin l thuc tnh mu tc. Thuc tnh mu tc c 3 gi tr khc nhau
(vng, , nu) nn s c 3 vector c trng tng ng l :
S ngi tc vng l : 4
Do
Tng t
90
VTc(nu) = (0/3, 3/3) = (0,1) (vector n v)
S ngi tc nu l : 3
VC.Cao(T.B) = (2/3,1/3)
VC.Cao(Thp) = (1/3,2/3)
Sau khi phn hoch theo mu tc xong, ch c phn hoch theo tc vng (Pvng) l
cn cha nhng ngi chy nng v khng chy nng nn ta s tip tc phn hoch
tp ny. Ta s thc hin thao tc tnh vector c trng tng t i vi cc thuc
tnh cn li (chiu cao, cn nng, dng kem). Trong phn hoch Pvng, tp d liu
ca chng ta cn li l :
Tn Ch.Cao Cn Dng Kt qu
Nng kem?
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Annie Thp T.Bnh Khng Chy
VC.Cao(Thp) = (1/2,1/2)
2 thuc tnh dmg kem v chiu cao u c 2 vector n v. Tuy nhin, s phn
hoch ca thuc tnh dng kem l t hn nn ta chn phn hoch theo thuc tnh
dng kem. Cy nh danh cui cng ca chng ta s nh sau :
II.2.2. o hn lon
92
TA =
trong :
II.4. Ti u tp lut
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Khng chy Chy nng
nng
Mu 2 0
vng
Mu 1 0
khc
Theo bng thng k ny th r rng l thuc tnh tc vng (trong lut trn) khng
ng gp g trong vic a ra kt lun chy nng hay khng (c 3 ngi dng kem
u khng chy nng) nn ta c th loi b thuc tnh tc vng ra khi tp lut.
A1 v A2 v v An R
R R
Ai E F
G H
Ai
Trong
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G l s phn t trong P khng tha Ai v tha R
Hoc
(ch c hai lut v thuc tnh mc tiu ch c th nhn mt trong hai gi tr l chy
nng hay khng chy nng)
1) Chn lut mc nh sao cho n c th thay th cho nhiu lut nht. (trong
v d ca ta th nguyn tc ny khng p dng c v c 2 lut dn n chy
nng v 2 lut dn n khng chy nng)
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BI TP
CHNG 1
1) Vit chng trnh gii bi ton hnh trnh ngi bn hng rong bng hai
thut gii GTS1 v GTS2 trong trng hp c n a im khc nhau.
2) Vit chng trnh gii bi ton phn cng cng vic bng cch ng dng
nguyn l th t.
6) Vit chng trnh gii bi ton Ta-canh bng thut gii A*.
7) Vit chng trnh gii bi ton thp H Ni bng thut gii A*.
CHNG 2
CHNG 3
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Hy xy dng cy nh danh v tm lut xc nh mt ngi l Chu u
hay Chu bng hai phng php vector c trng ca Quinlan v o hn
lon.
1 To TB Nam
2 Nh Cao Nam
3 Nh TB Nam u
4 To Cao Nam u
5 Nh TB N u
6 Nh Cao Nam u
7 Nh Cao N u
8 To TB N u
2)* Vit chng trnh ci t tng qut thut ton hc da trn vic xy dng
cy nh danh. Chng trnh yu cu ngi dng a vo danh sch cc
thuc tnh dn xut, thuc tnh mc tiu cng vi tt c cc gi tr ca mi
thuc tnh; yu cu ngi dng cung cp bng s liu quan st. Chng trnh
s lit k ln mn hnh cc lut m n tm c t bng s liu. Sau , yu
cu ngi dng nhp vo cc trng hp cn xc nh, h thng s a ra kt
lun ca trng hp ny.
97