Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

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The other stone. Dacite quarries and workshops in the prehispanic

Tarascan territory, Michoacn, Mexico
Vronique Darras a,, Camilo Mireles b, Claus Siebe c, Osiris Quezada d,
Alejandra Castaeda a, Nanci Reyes-Guzmn c
a
ArchAm-UMR8096 (CNRS-Universit Paris 1), Maison Archologie et Ethnologie, 21 alle de l'universit, 92023 Nanterre, France
b
Universidad de Guadalajara (UDG), Guadalajara, Mexico
c
Departamento de Vulcanologa, Instituto de Geofsica, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Coyoacn, CP 04510 Mxico, D.F., Mexico.
d
Escuela Nacional de Restauracin, Conservacin y Museografa (ENCRYM), Mxico, D.F., Mexico.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to its sheer abundance and informative potential, Mesoamerican archaeology tends to focus on obsidian as a
Received 23 January 2017 mineral resource. As a result, other volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite, or dacite have received much less at-
Accepted 24 January 2017 tention. In the highlands of Mesoamerica, knapped tools from the latter raw materials are generally perceived to
Available online 7 February 2017
stem from local resources from which they were procured by simple surface collection. The extensive dacite
quarry-workshops of Las Lajitas and La Tronconera in Northern Michoacn represent thus an unprecedented dis-
Keywords:
Lithic
covery. In this paper, we examine from the quarry-workshop perspective how dacite was a crucial resource for
Dacite the economy of pre-Tarascan and Tarascan societies from the Early Classic period to the Postclassic period
Quarries (3501450 CE). Dacite was central to an integrated production system for the large-scale manufacture of normal-
Workshops ized knapped tools, which operated in the same way as at major obsidian deposits in Mesoamerica. The eldwork
Technology with methodical Global Positioning System (GPS) and total station surveying brought to light numerous zones of
Craft production lithic waste accumulation, some of which extend over several hectares. They are located on a lava ow identied
Tarascan as dacitic from a petrographic and chemical viewpoint. Topographic depressions correspond to open extraction
Mesoamerica
pits alongside areas reserved for debitage. The techno-morphological characteristics of the lithic sample gathered
in test units shows that production was mainly geared towards the normalized manufacture of large dome-
shaped scraper-plane preforms, which were traded within the entire region.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction contexts highlights the essential role of obsidian in ancient Mesoamer-

The geological environment and the availability of lithological re-
sources played a preponderant role in the strategies implemented by
ancient populations to acquire and process raw materials. Mesoamerica
benetted from a prodigious diversity of lithic resources but not all re-
gions were equal in terms of their availability. Volcanic provinces con-
centrate a large range of high quality raw materials, such as basalt,
andesite or obsidian, which were intensely used during pre-Hispanic
times. Mesoamerican populations are well known for the extensive
and methodical exploitation of obsidian deposits in the highlands of
the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and in the Central American Volcanic
Arc. These activities left durable imprints on the landscape, such as min-
ing remains and accumulations of debitage over surfaces of up to several
tens of hectares. Since the rst publications in the late nineteenth centu-
ry (e.g. Ordoez, 1892), the abundant literature published on these
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Veronique.darras@mae.cnrs.fr (V. Darras).
ican economies (e.g. Braswell, 1993; Braswell and Glascock, 1992;
Charlton, 1969; Charlton and Spence, 1982; Clark, 1979, 1981; Cobean,
1991, 2002; Darling, 1993; Darras, 1999; Healan, 1997, 2002; Lpez de
Aguilar and Nieto, 1989; Pastrana, 1998, 2002; Pierce, 2016; Weigand
and Spence, 1982). In addition to the many sourcing studies, several re-
searches on obsidian quarry-workshops have emphasized how these
production centers operated, studying mining techniques and special-
ized workshop production, and trying to provide a chronological frame-
work. Most of them discuss its economic and sociopolitical dimensions
including well-known theoretical issues, which argue that the variabil-
ity in intensity of technical and human investment implemented in craft
production reects the degree of economic and political sophistication
of the social group concerned (e.g. Brumeld and Earle, 1987; Clark
and Parry, 1990; Costin, 1991, 2001). It has long been demonstrated
that the major Mesoamerican obsidian sources appear to be closely re-
lated with specialized technologies like prismatic blade, and long dis-
tance trade networks, and managed by strong economic and political
entities (e.g. Carballo, 2011; Charlton, 1978; Pastrana, 1998, Pastrana
et al., 2011; Santley, 1984, 1989).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.01.034
2352-409X/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
220 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
But while Mesoamerican archaeology tends to focus on obsidian,
due to the abundance and informative potential of this mineral re-
source, other volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite, rhyolite, and dacite
have received much less attention. The latter were however also widely
used during the Pre-Hispanic period for construction, sculpture, and es-
pecially for tool manufacture. Several archaeological and ethnographic
studies of quarries exploited for construction works and the manufac-
ture of sculptures or grindstones (metates and manos) in Meso-
america and Central America have been published (Cook, 1973, 1982;
Garca-Arvalo, 2004; Rodrguez-Yc, 2013; Williams and Heizer,
1965), but studies focusing on quarries and workshops for percussion
tool manufacture are exceptional (e.g. Rees, 1990). It is therefore not
surprising that works on the physico-chemical characterization and
the circulation of this type of material remain extremely rare (e.g.
Palumbo et al., 2015). For the rest of the American continent, only re-
search on the Archaic periods has focused on these aspects (see
among others Funes-Coronel and Martnez, 2013).
It is clear that for researchers working on the complex societies of
the Mesoamerican highlands, the basalts, andesites, rhyolites, and
dacites used to make knapped tools are generally perceived as local re-
sources procured by surface collection.
The recent discovery of several dacite quarries associated with ex-
tensive specialized workshops in Michoacn was thus unexpected
(Figs. 1, 2, 3). This is the rst time that such contexts have been revealed
in Mesoamerica.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is twofold. First, it argues that
the ancient people of Michoacn systematically exploited an entire
range of volcanic raw materials suited for knapping, taking advantage
of their different physical properties. This means that each type of
rock was intended for a distinct production and was processed differ-
ently to obtain very specic tools. Secondly, it shows how dacite de-
posits were exploited much in the same way as major obsidian
Fig. 1. Location of the study region in central Mexico.
deposits, in terms of mining strategies, organization of craft activities,
and scale. It reveals the crucial role of volcanic rocks other than obsidian
in Mesoamerican and in particular in pre-Tarascan and Tarascan
economies.
The paper reports the results of an exploratory intervention con-
ducted in the eld in 2015 in order to establish a rst diagnosis. This ap-
proach was based on a surface study and aimed at characterizing the
contexts, that is, to understand the type of mining activities and produc-
tion aims, and also to obtain chrono-cultural information.
After presenting the method applied during eldwork to obtain data
rapidly and outlining preliminary results, we show that targeted strate-
gies were implemented to acquire a particular variety of volcanic rock
identied by chemical analysis as dacite, through the digging of open-
pit extraction mines. Then, based on the results of the technological
study of the lithic sample, we demonstrate that this raw material was
mainly intended for the fabrication of dome-shaped scraper-planes pre-
forms. The rst chronological data, based on the typo-morphological
characteristics of the pottery and comparison with lithic industries
from regional consumer sites allows to suggest that these massive
dacite production centers operated from the rst centuries of our era
to the Middle Postclassic period (12001450 CE).
2. General background
The quarry-workshops of Las Lajitas (Mich. 44) and La Tronconera
(Mich. 411) are located in Western Mexico, more precisely in northern
Michoacn (Mexico), northwest of Malpas de Zacapu (between
19.912563lat/101.873527long and 19.9117886lat/101.884212
long), at an altitude of 2080 to 2170 masl. They were identied several
years ago during surveys led by V. Darras as part of the Zacapu and
Uacusecha projects (Darras et al., 2015).
 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
Fig. 2. Location of dacite quarry-workshops in the Zacapu Region, Michoacn.
From a geological perspective, they are situated in the central part of
the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, in an area called the MichoacnGua-
najuato Volcanic Field by T. Hasenaka (Hasenaka and Carmichael,
1985; Siebe et al., 2014), which has recorded several eruptions during
Fig. 3. View of the accumulations of dacitic waste at the site of Las Lajitas.
221
the past 2000 years, including the voluminous eruption of the El Metate
shield volcano (Chevrel et al., 2016a, 2016b). The region of Zacapu is
characterized by the occurrence of monogenetic cones and viscous
domes and lavas, which are mainly andesitic in composition, although
rhyolites (obsidians) and dacites also occur (Kshirsagar et al., 2015).
From a historico-cultural viewpoint, according to the ethnohistoric
document known as Relacin de Michoacn (1977 [1574]), the Zacapu
Basin and its surroundings are considered as the region where the social
and political structures leading to the creation of the 15th century Taras-
can Empire were initiated. Archaeological research carried out over the
past thirty years brought to light a pre-Hispanic occupation beginning at
the onset of our era and becoming denser during the Classic and
Epiclassic periods (until 900 CE) (Arnauld et al., 1993; Arnauld and
Faugre-Kalfon, 1998; Michelet, 1992). However, the region only
underwent major structural mutations around 1200 CE in terms of ter-
ritorial organization, with the proliferation of communities, including
urban-type settlement, on the Malpas de Zacapu lava ows, which
are geologically so young that they have been reclaimed so far by very
little vegetation (Forest, 2014; Michelet, 1998; Migeon, 1998). These
transformations of territorial settlement modes have been interpreted
as the result of demographic growth linked to exogenous population in-
uxes (Michelet et al., 2005; Pereira et al., 2005). Changes have also
been observed in the domain of economic activities, with the advent
of metal objects, the local production of prismatic blades, and the use
of a new variety of obsidian (Darras, 2012). The region contains several
222 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
quality obsidian sources, the nearest of which are located about thirty
kilometres north of the Zacapu Basin (Zinparo, Cerro Varal, and Cerro
Prieto). They were exploited from the Classic period onwards for mak-
ing blades, bifacial preforms, scraper-planes or normalized ake cores,
using direct percussion (Darras, 1999). The local introduction of pris-
matic blade technology coincides afterwards with the emergence of
hamlets specialized in obsidian craft production in the areas surround-
ing the urban agglomerations of Zacapu (Darras, 2009). But work car-
ried out in the habitation sites of the Zacapu Basin also showed that a
signicant part of the toolkit was made on other volcanic rocks (andes-
ite and dacite) in accordance with distinctive lithic traditions: end
scrapers, scraper-planes, and tranchets (Darras, 1993; Migeon, 1990;
Pereira, 1999). These robust tools were probably linked to agricultural
activities or/and the exploitation of lacustrine and ligneous resources,
very abundant in the region. A use-wear analysis devoted to the
tranchets suggests that they were principally used for cutting with lon-
gitudinal action soft materials such as lacustrine plant bers (Cochin,
2014).
These deep changes in settlement patterns and material culture an-
nounce the advent of the Tarascan Empire with its seat established in
the Ptzcuaro Basin, several decades before the arrival of Spanish popu-
lations (Perlstein Pollard, 1993, 2008).
3. Methodology
The dacite quarry-mines were identied and delimited by a system-
atic survey and with the help of local informants. These zones are now
covered by dense vegetation (oaks, pines, cacti, thorny bushes) due to
the conjunction of two occurrences: these zones were neglected by ag-
riculture and grazing due to the lithic accumulations, and in turn, the
latter favored the retention of humidity and the development of shrub
vegetation. The existence of islands of vegetation in a sector strongly
Fig. 4. Extent of the quarry-workshops.
eroded by former deforestation is a very effective marker for identifying
the quarry-workshops in the eld and on satellite imagery. Each zone
was explored using a GPS Garmin 62sx to delimit their extension and
record the different components: extraction areas, potential workshop
zones with dense waste accumulations, habitation zones (Fig. 4). The
central part of each extraction unit was geo-referenced and described
(type, orientation, average dimensions and depth, type of materials).
During the rst stage, selective surface collections were obtained with
the exception of the habitation zone of the site of Las Lajitas where sys-
tematic collection was conducted in two sectors; one measuring 15 m2,
and the other 4 m2 in surface area. In this same zone, the archaeological
material (potsherds, obsidian, and other lithics) was counted in ve
4 m2 sectors in order to assess the density of material in the habitation
area. In addition, the rst chrono-cultural data were obtained from the
typological characteristics of a sample of 184 potsherds. Finally, the
raw material was sampled at different places for petrographic and
chemical characterization.
Then, emphasis was placed on the central sector of the site of Las
Lajitas (Mich. 44). After clearing the undergrowth over a surface of near-
ly two hectares, a topographic survey of the zone was conducted with
the Leica total station to bring to light depressions and mounds (Fig.
5). A detailed surface study was then carried out in a sector selected
based on four criteria: good visibility, very high density of debitage
waste, spatial association with an extraction area, and spatial variability
in the relative size of debitage. A 14 22 m grid was delimited and the
relative size of debitage was recorded for areas of 4 m2 (Fig. 6), and di-
vided into three classes (small 8 cm2; medium to 36 cm2;
large N 36 cm2). Five test zones were selected: two of 1 m2 in sectors
with medium to large-sized artifacts and three 0.5 m 0.5 m units in
three sectors with a high density of small to medium-sized artifacts.
For each of the rst two test units (UT 1 and UT 2), a total of 300 artifacts
were arbitrarily selected and described onsite using techno-
 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231 223

Fig. 5. Topographic survey of the central sector of Las Lajitas.

Fig. 6. Sketch showing the caliber of the waste in the systematically recorded sector.
224 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
Fig. 7. UT 1 (after removal of leaves) before and after the sampling of 300 artifacts.
morphological criteria (Fig. 7). Sampling was then carried out. Note that
for these two test units, the smallest akes and micro-debitage were not
taken into consideration since they represent a negligible portion of the
material. For the three other units (UT 3 to UT 5), all the material was
sampled to a depth of 5 cm for examination in the laboratory (Fig. 8).
Of the 8.274 kg of material retrieved, 7.250 kg corresponding to 1509 ar-
tifacts were analyzed in detail. The remaining mass corresponds to
micro-debitage with dimensions equal to or lower than 1 cm, including
219 g of dust and micro-akes of b0.4 mm in length. This rst approach
is thus based on a methodical description of a total of 2109 lithic arti-
facts, in addition to 15 tool preforms gathered in the same sector, giving
a total of 2124 artifacts.
In order to rapidly obtain a pertinent insight into the measurements
of the debitage analyzed either onsite (UT 1 and UT 2) or in the labora-
tory (UT 3 to UT 5), relative measurements were taken with a grid
subdivided into 2 cm classes. For these UT, a division of the rst class
(02 cm) was made in order to isolate akes smaller than 1 cm2. All
the akes were then separated into 6 classes corresponding to surface
size, ranging from micro-debitage to macro-debitage.
These classes are divided as follows: micro-debitage, b1 cm; very
small debitage, b 3 cm in length and width or average surface b 9 cm2;
small debitage, b6 cm in length and width or average surface b 36 cm2;
medium debitage, b10 cm in length and width or average
surface b 100 cm2; large debitage waste, b20 cm in length and width
or average surface b 196 cm2; macro-debitage waste, N20 cm in length
Fig. 8. UT 3 (after removal of leaves) before and after the systematic sampling of material.
and width or average surface N 196 cm2. Conversely, absolute measure-
ments were taken for the tools or tool preforms.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Petrographic and chemical characterization of the raw material
Both exploitation areas are on the surface of a thick lava ow that
emanated from the small Cerro Vicente dome, located SW (uphill)
from the sites. This small dome occurs at the periphery of the much larg-
er Las Flores silicic dome complex. Although covered by decimeters of
soil that sustains abundant vegetation, the blocky nature of the ow is
visible at many places. Judging by the good morphological preservation
of the steep lateral leves and front of the ow, and by its comparison
with dated lava ows in the Zacapu area (e.g. Kshirsagar et al., 2015),
we estimate an age of 40,000100,000 years for its eruption. Hand spec-
imens are dark grey (N3 in the Munsell rock color chart), dense (micro-
vesicles are rare), and glassy with angular and sharp edges when fresh.
All samples have an aphanitic texture and many display ow-banding.
Few mac (green to dark-grey) microphenocrysts (up to 1 mm in
size) can be recognized with the aid of a hand lense. Observation
under the polarized-light microscope revealed the occurrence of hyper-
sthene, augite, and minor olivine phenocrysts (b1 mm in size) set in a
glassy matrix with abundant ow-aligned feldspar and pyroxene
microlites (Fig. 9). Olivines and augites also occur in glomero-porphyrit-
ic clusters (up to 4 mm in size) and are occasionally surrounded by a re-
action corona of hypersthene microlites. Rare quartz xenocrysts (up to
2 mm in size) show corrosion embayments and are typically
surrounded by hypersthene reaction rims. Modal mineralogical
 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231 225

Table 2
Whole rock major (in wt%) and trace element (in ppm) analyses of dacite samples from
the Cerro Vicente dome an lava ow (Las Lajitas and La Tronconera quarry sites, Zacapu
area, Michoacn).

Location C. Vicente Las Lajitas La Tronconera

Sample no. 1068 1539 1540

Rock type Dacite bomb Dacite lava Dacite lava
Latitude (N) 195352.4 195511.1 195437.6
Longitude (W) 1015414.1 1015256.4 1015252.1
Altitude asl (m) 2262 2163 2142

Unit Detection Analysis method

symbol limit

SiO2 % 0.01 FUS-ICP 64.85 65.47 65.78

Al2O3 % 0.01 FUS-ICP 16 15.52 15.91
Fe2O3(T) % 0.01 FUS-ICP 4.77 5 5
MnO % 0.001 FUS-ICP 0.087 0.087 0.087
MgO % 0.01 FUS-ICP 2.5 2.68 2.61
CaO % 0.01 FUS-ICP 4.84 4.83 4.81
Na2O % 0.01 FUS-ICP 3.76 3.86 3.88
K2O % 0.01 FUS-ICP 2.31 2.27 2.3
TiO2 % 0.001 FUS-ICP 0.553 0.571 0.58
P205 % 0.01 FUS-ICP 0.19 0.18 0.19
LOI % FUS-ICP 0.17 0.11 0.24
Total % 0.01 FUS-ICP 99.69 100.4 100.9
Be ppm 1 FUS-ICP 2 2 2
S % 0.001 TD-ICP 0.013 0.006 0.005
Sc ppm 0.01 INAA 12 11.9 12
V ppm 5 FUS-ICP 88 91 91
Cr ppm 0.5 INAA 49.4 92.8 90.1
Co ppm 0.1 INAA 14.4 13.6 14.2
Ni ppm 1 TD-ICP 31 32 30
Cu ppm 1 TD-ICP 30 21 22
Fig. 9. Cross-polarized light photos (5) of the Las Lajitas dacite showing A) typical
Zn ppm 1 MULT 72 59 58
hypersthene phenocryst and B) occasional glomero-porphyritic cluster of augite and
INAA/TD-ICP
olivine crystals surrounded by a reaction corona of hypersthene, both in a groundmass
Ga ppm 1 FUS-MS 18 17 17
of glass and microlites (mostly feldspar and pyroxene laths).
Ge ppm 0.5 FUS-MS 1.3 1.3 1.4
Rb ppm 1 FUS-MS 51 46 45
Sr ppm 2 FUS-ICP 403 411 422
analyses are listed in Table 1. Whole-rock chemical analyses (major Y ppm 1 FUS-ICP 17 16 16
and-trace elements, Table 2) allow classifying these rocks as dacites Zr ppm 1 FUS-ICP 171 157 155
(SiO2 N 63 wt% and b70 wt%) following the classication scheme Nb ppm 0.2 FUS-MS 8.3 8.3 7.8
(total alkalies vs. silica diagram) of Lebas et al. (1986). Dacites are inter- Cs ppm 0.1 FUS-MS 1.7 1.5 1.6
Ba ppm 1 FUS-ICP 711 705 706
mediate in composition between andesites and rhyolites, which togeth-
La ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 20.5 21.6 21.5
er form the calc-alkaline rock series that is commonly associated with Ce ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 40.9 43 42.3
subduction related magmatism (as in the case of the Trans-Mexican Pr ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 5.21 4.98 4.92
Volcanic Belt). The high silica content of the analyzed rock samples Nd ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 19.5 19.7 19.3
Sm ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 3.88 3.71 3.68
(6466 wt%) is in correspondence with the observed mineralogy and
Eu ppm 0.005 FUS-MS 0.972 1 0.963
Gd ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 3.16 3.3 3.39
Table 1 Tb ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 0.5 0.52 0.5
Modal mineralogical analyses (vol% ) of dacite samples from the Cerro Vicente dome and Dy ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 2.92 2.9 2.88
lava ow (Las Lajitas and La Tronconera quarry sites, Zacapu area, Michoacn): Ho ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 0.57 0.54 0.56
Phenocryst = Phc (b0.3 mm), microphenocryst = mphc (0.30.03 mm), Er ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 1.68 1.63 1.64
groundmass = Grm (glass = gl + microlites = ml), hypersthene Tm ppm 0.005 FUS-MS 0.25 0.242 0.233
(orthopyroxene) = Opx, augite (clinopyroxene) = Cpx, olivine = Ol, quartz = Qz, Yb ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 1.71 1.68 1.48
oxides = Ox. Lu ppm 0.002 FUS-MS 0.283 0.258 0.242
Hf ppm 0.1 FUS-MS 3.9 4.6 4
Location C. Vicente Las Lajitas La Tronconera Ta ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 0.67 0.68 0.73
Sample no. 1068 1539 1540 Tl ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 0.17 0.2 0.2
Rock type Dacite bomb Dacite lava Dacite lava Pb ppm 5 TD-ICP 6 9 7
Latitude (N) 195352.4 195511.1 195437.6 Th ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 3.5 3.32 3.39
Longitude (W) 1015414.1 1015256.4 1015252.1 U ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 1.5 1.38 1.38
Altitude asl (m) 2262 2163 2142 Mass g INAA 1.726 1.873 1.747
Phc Opx 0.5 0.6 0.4
Cpx 0.9 0.6 0.4
Ol 0.1 0.4 0.3
Qz 0 0.1 0 the morphological characteristics of the lava ow and all point towards
Plg 0.3 0.3 0.1 a high viscosity during emplacement. In this context it is worth men-
Mphc Opx 0.8 3.3 0.8 tioning that the majority of volcanic rocks in this area of Michoacn
Cpx 2 0.8 4.4
(e.g. Malpas Prieto, El Tule, Capaxtiro, etc.) are andesitic (5363 wt%
Ol 1 0.2 0.5
Plg 2.6 2.6 6.1 SiO2) in composition. Dacite domes and lava ows are not exceptional,
Ox 2.4 2.3 2 but much less abundant. Similar to obsidians (which are usually rhyolit-
Grm gl 11.9 17.5 14.8 ic in composition, SiO2 N 70 wt%) the glassy nature of these dacites fa-
ml 77.5 71.3 70.2 vors formation of sharp edges, when broken. In contrast to the nearby
100 100 100
Zinparo-El Varal obsidian, these dacites are rich in microlites and,
226 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231

hence, less sharp, but also less friable. This combination of properties Table 4
seems to favor their use as a more crude but also a more durable cutting Summary of dacite material categories.

tool, which makes this material more suitable for certain types of labors UT 1 UT 2
(see below). Hammerstone 1
Nodule 1
4.2. Characterization of the archaeological contexts Small slabs 10 13
Angular blocks b 20 cm 6 14
Unidirectional cores 6
The studied contexts are surface accumulations of natural and
Primary akes 26 30
knapped dacitic materials that can extend without spatial interruption Flakes 235 222
over several hectares. These heaps present topographic irregularities Large dome-shaped scraper-plane preforms 3 5
identied as open extraction pits surrounded by quarry debris embank- Large dome-shaped scraper-plane 1
ments. These extraction pits alternate with sectors with a more regular Retouched akes 15 1
Utilized akes 2 2
topography, which are covered with different kinds of waste. They are Others 3 4
more or less closed depressions with sub-circular to oval morphology, TOTAL 300 300
or an open and deeper oblong depression excavated into the hillside
with an extraction face.
At the site of Las Lajitas, with a total surface of 4.4 ha, three zones of non-transformed raw materials on the surface and large-sized debris
lithic activity were distinguished, with the smallest measuring 4000 m2 resulting from the initial roughing out stage. These observations imply
and the largest 28,000 m2 (Fig. 4). At least 62 depressions were recorded that these sectors were also exploited for their raw materials, but in a
(Table 3). Their dimensions are variable but we observed a majority of different way, probably through the exploitation of surcial outcrops.
small pits (surface b 25m2), surrounded by a more or less prominent But it is also possible that extraction units may have been entirely lled
embankment of debitage. At the present time, the depth of these extrac- in by the debitage issued from knapping.
tion pits varies between 60 cm and 1 m but they are partially lled with In any case, observations at both sites point to open-pit extraction
quarry and knapping debris. The two longest depressions are open onto activities. Two operating methods can be distinguished: closed pits
the slope and present extraction faces over two meters high. The lithic seem to result from the localized extraction of blocks in the subsurface
materials are moved into the slope. dacitic ow, with the removal of waste around the edges, creating em-
The main concentration of lithic debitage is contiguous with a zone bankment; on their side, the elongated and open depressions on the
now destroyed by agriculture, and characterized by two small topo- slope, which are often large in size with extraction faces aligned on
graphic deformations that appear to correspond to the remains of hab- the side of the slope, seem to correspond to a more systematic exploita-
itation platforms. The archaeological material on the surface of this zone tion of good quality veins. In these cases, waste is mainly ejected further
was rather abundant with a density varying between one and two to 15 down the slope.
artifacts/4 m2: containing construction material, ceramic potsherds, ob-
sidian and dacite industry and bone remains. 4.3. Identication of production
The site of La Tronconera covers a total surface of 8.3 ha, spread over
six zones separated from each other by eroded areas. The smallest sec- The systematic exploration of the accumulations enabled us to ob-
tor measures 2000 m2 and the largest 50,000 m2 (Fig. 4). A minimum serve that mining activities were followed by lithic reduction activities
of 59 depressions have been recorded and these are mainly concentrat- carried out in the immediate proximity of the extraction units, most
ed in sectors no. 1 and no. 2 (Table 4). Unlike for the previous site, the often on the slopes, and that there were intra and inter-site spatial var-
pits are mainly of medium size; only 15 of them have a surface of iations in the caliber and type of debitage. It was thus important to iden-
b25 m2. This site also contains eleven large depressions, the largest of tify the goals of reduction to understand the origin of these variations.
which is nearly 150 m2, in sector no. 4. As with the site of Las Lajitas,
the oblong depressions generally open onto the slope, and are deeper 4.3.1. Debitage
at the extraction face. Several of them follow a topographic contour Surface examinations at the site of La Tronconera showed that the
line. The zones between the extraction units are covered with waste ac- extraction pits were generally associated with large-sized materials
cumulations corresponding to debris issued from extraction and/or (Fig. 10), made up of raw materials, several cores with very few
debitage process. At both sites however, we observed the presence of
rather spread out sectors with no apparent extraction areas but with

Table 3
Average surface of the extraction units.

Sites Morphology Dimension classes Number

Las Lajitas Small ( b 25 m2) 2 to 5 m in diameter

Sub-circular 54
or oblong Medium (25 m2 b 75 m2) 6 to 8 m 3
in diameter
Large (75 m2) 9 to 13 m in diameter 2
Open oblong Small ( b 25 m2)
Medium (25 m2 b 75 m2) 2
Large (75 m2) 1
La Tronconera Sub-circular Small ( b 25 m2) 3 to 5 m in diameter 15
or oblong Medium (25 m2 b 75 m2) 6 to 8 m 32
in diameter
Large (75 m2) 9 to 13 m in diameter 7
Open oblong Small ( b 25 m2)
Medium (25 m2 b 75 m2) 10 m in 1
length and 6 m in width
Large (75 m2) 11 to 18 m in length 4
and 6 to 9 m in width
Fig. 10. Extraction unit at la Tronconera with large-sized lithic waste.
 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
Fig. 11. Large dome-shaped scraper-planes preforms at la Tronconera.
removals, and tool preforms, that appear to be large dome-shaped
scraper-planes (Fig. 11). These observations are however preliminary
as visibility in the eld is limited due to plant cover.
In contrast, work carried out in the central sector of the site of Las
Lajitas allowed a more precise vision of the types of lithic activities. As
anticipated, the artifacts analyzed in UT 1 and 2 mainly correspond to
large akes obtained from angular blocks and sometimes from slabs
(n = 102 of the total of the akes, or 20%). The platform and ventral sur-
face of all the debitage products bear typical scars of direct percussion
with a hammerstone. Overall, the characteristics of the two test pits
are similar: they contained some non-transformed raw material, in par-
ticular small slabs and small blocks, akes corresponding to the rst
stages of the reduction sequence, and six cores, all found in UT 2, with
no predetermined morphology and with only several removals. Two
of them are unidirectional with a plain striking platform.
Out of the 442 complete akes (including primary akes), 372 are
large (84.1% present a length and width between 6 and 12 cm) and 83
of them are macro-akes (length and width are N 12 cm; Fig. 12).
These akes are generally thick (with an average of 22 mm), and the
Fig. 12. Dimension classes of the whole akes collected in the 5 UT.
227
Fig. 13. Cortical surfaces on whole akes from UT 1 and 2.
thickness is N25 mm for 129 of them (34.7%). As for the proportions
(Fig. 13), we observe that the akes are rather wide (43.9%) or symmet-
rical (27.8%). Not surprisingly, there are many akes with a cortical sur-
face (Fig. 14). We note also that 146 akes present cortex on their edges,
sometimes all around the edge like a slice of sausage. These akes are
often very thick (average thickness is 26 mm) and could indicate a spe-
cic debitage sequence. The dorsal surfaces of the other akes generally
only bear a single or two removal scars. The latter are mostly
bidirectional.
In regard to the other pits sampled, surface observations show that
the contents of UT 3 to 5 are very different. They display internal homo-
geneity since the material is characterized exclusively by small-ake
debitage (Figs. 12 and 15). Even when they are fragmented, it is easy
to perceive that these products are very small in relation to the average
caliber of the debitage refuse observed in UT 1 y 2. The 404 whole akes
counted among the 1509 analyzed akes generally present dimensions
ranging from 1 to 8 cm2 (=270). Larger akes are extremely rare.
The morphology of these akes is rather repetitive, with a trapezoid
to sub-triangular shape. They are rather symmetrical or wide, thin and
slightly curved akes (Fig. 16). The angle between the butt and the ven-
tral surface is often quite open (between 120 and 130). These butts are
generally plain. A more detailed examination of the dorsal surface
shows that most of the akes present one or two, generally unidirec-
tional removal scars. We also observe that some akes bear one or
two transverse scars (n = 126).
4.3.2. Shaped products
In parallel to the waste produced during knapping, UT 1 and 2 also
yielded several retouched products: seven preforms of possible dome-
shaped scraper-planes, two nished scraper-planes, 16 akes with
some lateral or distal retouch, four of which can be identied as
scrapers, and four akes with clear use wear on one of their edges,
attesting to their use on site.
The two nished tools are fragmented but they were identied from
a typological viewpoint as sub-circular-shaped scraper-planes with a
Fig. 14. Relative size of whole akes from UT 1 and 2.
228 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
Fig. 15. Debitage products from UT 4.
diameter of about 8 cm, one of which is 3.5 cm thick and the other
2.2 cm. Neither of these two artifacts presents use wear.
The seven preforms were examined with the 15 others sampled in
the central sector. In spite of the marked variability of the measure-
ments, these pieces present recurring morphological traits. They are
oval to sub-circular shaped artifacts with a curved upper face (like a
dome) with widespread or covering removal scars, sometimes with re-
sidual cortex, and a at to slightly concave ventral surface, very often
with two negative scars creating a longitudinal and central ridge
(Fig. 17). Seven of these preforms weigh between 570 and 930 g, with
Fig. 16. Proportion of the whole akes from UT 3, 4 and 5.
Fig. 17. Tool preforms.
the length varying between 13 and 18 cm and width between 9.5 and
15 cm. The working angles of the functional edges vary between 60
and 90. We observe a pattern in the elongation indexes (l/L); for 16
of these preforms, the index is between 0.82 and 1, which shows that
these are oval forms tending towards a rounded outline (Fig. 18). The
thickness index (ep/l) shows that these elements are rather thick,
with over half presenting an index of N 0.30.
We are thus in the presence of the polyhedral shaping of very large
and thick akes or slabs, aiming to obtain spheroid morphologies. It is
Fig. 18. Elongation and thickness indexes of the 22 tool preforms.
 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
clear that the regular morphology of these preforms is predetermined
and that its manufacture followed precise objectives.
4.3.3. Comments
The analysis of the debitage waste material from the ve test
units enables us to establish a number of observations linked to the
type of production and the spatial organization of the lithic activities.
The type of products recovered from the sector clearly shows that
the main purpose of the debitage was to make large dome-shaped
scraper-planes preforms from macro and thick akes or slabs. This
debitage aimed to reproduce normalized morphologies following
well-dened operative processes. The identication of some pieces
that appear to be nished implies that the knapping activities could
also result in the nished product. In addition, the presence of sever-
al other tools with non-normalized shapes shows that there were
also secondary productions on akes produced during the shaping
of the preforms.
The observed variations between the different studied areas are in-
teresting. UT 1 and 2 contained debitage waste that appears to corre-
spond to the preparation and roughing out of the preforms. The type
of waste from the three other UT relates to the nal preform stages
and even to tool making. Based on currently available information, it
is still too early to infer the spatial differentiation of activities, with
zones reserved for preform roughing out and others for the nishing
stages, or areas devoted to working and others reserved for discarding
small-sized waste products. We could expect the sectors with large-
sized waste to be right beside the extraction areas. Yet, there is no real
spatial correspondence between them. Although UT 2 is located in the
immediate vicinity of an extraction depression, UT 1 is at the base of
the slope. The UT with material of small dimensions are located at mid
slope, whereas UT 3, with abundant micro-waste, is located on the
same level as UT 2, near the extraction unit. Although we cannot rule
out the hypothesis that these spatial differences denote a specic type
of organization, they may also be due to taphonomic processes that
have yet to be deciphered. The taluses of lithic accumulations undergo
specic dynamics that can uctuate with the topography, environmen-
tal exposure, vegetal cover, and water circulation. Nevertheless, spatial
variations of debitage corresponding to spatial differentiation of reduc-
tion sequence have been reported in the Zinaparo and El Varal obsidian
quarry-workshops (Darras, 1999).
4.4. Chrono-cultural data
Ceramic material was collected from the surface of the site of Las
Lajitas, in particular in the zone interpreted as a habitation area. A
total of 184 potsherds were examined, 89 of which were diagnostic
from a typological viewpoint. The classication is based on the ceramic
chronology established for the region of study (Arnauld et al., 1993;
Carot, 2001; Michelet, 2013; Jadot, 2016). The potsherds from the
Milpillas phase (12001450 CE) are the most abundant (= 66), with
in particular two pipe fragments and a polychrome Malpas pulido
polcromo type fragment. But we also note the presence of older sherds,
dating from the Loma Alta and Lupe phases (100 BCE900 CE), with
namely a Tres Palos type fragment and several Lupe and Hornos type
sherds. Examination of the andesite and dacite toolkits from consumer
sites located in the Zacapu region shows clearly the recurrent presence
of similar dome-shaped scraper-planes, in general re-sharpened and
with use wear (Carot, 2001; Darras, 1993; Migeon, 1990; Pereira,
1999). Many of these sites were occupied during the Loma Alta and
Lupe phases and others during the Milpillas phase, supporting the hy-
pothesis that dacite quarry-workshops operated for a very long time.
Although these data are preliminary, they nonetheless indicate set-
tlement extending from the beginning of our era to the middle of the
15th century.
229
5. Conclusions
The dacite quarry-workshops of the region of Zacapu represent
an unprecedented discovery for Mesoamerica that undermines the
general idea that volcanic raw materials for knapped tools other
than obsidian came from surface collections. The amplitude of the
exploitation zones of Las Lajitas and La Tronconera shows the inten-
sity of mining activities and debitage during the pre-Hispanic period.
The rst analyses indicate that the choice of lava ows for raw mate-
rial extraction was guided by the search for very ne-grained homo-
geneous dacite, particularly well suited to knapping. High quality
zones were methodically exploited using procedures similar to
those used for the large obsidian deposits in western Mesoamerica:
principally open-pit extraction and lithic reduction activities carried
out in the immediate proximity of the mining units to make preforms
and nished tools destined for outside consumption (Darras, 1999;
Healan, 1997; Weigand and Spence, 1982).
Dacite was a very suitable material to make robust and durable tools
such as dome-shaped scraper-planes, using direct percussion. Interest-
ingly, we note that each volcanic deposit mined in the region was
used for different purposes, depending on its physical properties. For
example, the high quality obsidian deposits of Cerro Varal and Cerro
Zinparo were essentially exploited for the manufacture of percussion
blades and macro-blades which were used as blanks for shaping end-
scrapers, knives and bifacial products using pressure (Darras, 1999,
2012). In contrast, the crystal-bearing obsidians of the Cerro Prieto
were unsuitable for making blades but were principally devoted to
ake unidirectional core preforms (ibidem).
The extensive dacite quarries and specialized workshops show that
all the volcanic materials available in the Zacapu region and suitable
to knapping were systemically mined and processed on the spot
through predetermined technical schemes. Methodic mining and craft
processing of these specic mineral deposits, as well as manufactured
goods transportation to consumers, required complex organizational
aspects involving a massive technical and human investment, that im-
plied a minimum of operational centralization at the regional scale.
The large-scale manufacture of different types of tools with normalized
morphology had to meet the needs of a numerous population
representing a steady consumer market. This is consistent with the cur-
rent archaeological evidence which indicates a rst change from the be-
ginning of our era characterized by a population growth and the
development of public-ceremonial centers through the region, embody-
ing regional authority (Arnauld and Faugre-Kalfon, 1998;
Faugre-Kalfon, 1996). Between 1200 and 1450 C.E., the Zacapu region
and its surroundings suffered once more deep transformations with de-
mographic growth and population accommodated in urban-type settle-
ment. This period is the time of major population increase and
intensication of agriculture, and coincides with the sociopolitical
changes before the emergence of Tarascan Empire (Michelet et al.,
2005).
The tools produced at the Las Lajitas and Tronconera workshops
were traded at least at a regional scale: similar re-sharpened tools and
with use wear are present in every habitation site excavated by the ar-
chaeological projects developed since the eighties in the Zacapu region,
and we can thus now establish a stylistic analogy between them
(Darras, 1993; Migeon, 1990; Pereira, 1999).
But in order to better understand the mechanisms of circulation in
time and space, physico-chemical and technological correspondences
must be sought out between these artifacts and those issued from the
production centers. Furthermore, work must be developed in the quar-
ry-workshops to appreciate the organization of dacite production sys-
tem, and to obtain more data in regard to the temporality of
exploitation, as well as the lithic reduction processes.
The promising results obtained from this exploratory study will be
the starting point for further researches. Meanwhile, the identication
of extensive production centers shows already that dacite, in much
230 V. Darras et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12 (2017) 219231
the same way as obsidian, was a major and strategic resource for the
pre-Hispanic populations of Michoacn.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Commission des fouilles of the French
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAEDI; Uacsecha Project directed by G.
Pereira), the National Agency of Research (Msomobile programme
ANR-14-CE31-0016 granted to V. Darras), and the Archologie des
Amriques Laboratory (UMR 8096_CNRS). Field and laboratory costs of
C. Siebe and N. Reyes were defrayed from projects funded by the Consejo
Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologa (CONACyT-167231) and Direccin Gen-
eral de Asuntos del Personal Acadmico (UNAM-DGAPA IN-101915)
granted to C. Siebe. We wish to thank the director of the Uacusecha Pro-
ject, Grgory Pereira, for his logistic support, and Cesar Hernndez Es-
trada for the topographic survey. We also thank the inhabitants of
Caurio de Guadalupe for their assistance. Thanks are expressed to the
two anonymous reviewers whose comments improved our original
manuscript.
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