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 Journal of
Testing and Evaluation
Peng Cao,1 Decheng Feng,2 Feng Jin,3 Xiaohu Fan,4 and Changjun Zhou5

DOI: 10.1520/JTE20150235

TirePavement Contact Stress

With 3D Finite-Element Model.
Part 2: All-Steel Tire on Heavy
Vehicles
VOL. 44 NO. 2 / MARCH 2016

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 Journal of Testing and Evaluation

doi:10.1520/JTE20150235 Vol. 44 No. 2 / March 0000 / available online at www.astm.org

Peng Cao,1 Decheng Feng,2 Feng Jin,3 Xiaohu Fan,4 and Changjun Zhou5

TirePavement Contact Stress With 3D

Finite-Element Model. Part 2: All-Steel Tire
on Heavy Vehicles

Reference
Cao, Peng, Feng, Decheng, Jin, Feng, Fan, Xiaohu, and Zhou, Changjun, TirePavement Contact Stress
With 3D Finite-Element Model. Part 2: All-Steel Tire on Heavy Vehicles, Journal of Testing and
Evaluation, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2016, pp. 111, doi:10.1520/JTE20150235. ISSN 0090-3973

ABSTRACT
Manuscript received May 31, 2015; Heavy vehicles increase on highways in China year by year. Heavy loads are among the most
accepted for publication August 18,
important factors causing pavement distresses. The distribution of contact stresses between
2015; published online October 26, 2015.
tires and pavement surface greatly inuences the initiation and propagation of pavement
1
Ph.D., Postdoctoral Research Associate,
distresses, especially for the top-down cracking. Therefore, to accurately and precisely
Dept. of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua
Univ., Haidian District, Beijing 100084, describe pavement responses, the distribution of contact stresses should be rst
China, e-mail: caopeng518888@126.com investigated thoroughly. This study focuses on simulating the contact stresses between
2
Ph.D., Professor, School of all-steel tires on heavy vehicles and the pavement surface. A 3D nite-element model was
Transportation Science and Engineering, proposed and used to simulate the distribution of contact stresses in different conditions of
Harbin Institute of Technology, 73
Huanghe St., Harbin 150090, China,
tires, including standstill, free rolling, accelerating rolling, and decelerating rolling conditions.
e-mail: fdcgxy@vip.sina.com This model was validated by previous study of the authors. There were three loading levels
3
Ph.D., Professor, Dept. of Hydraulic
used in this study, including 20 kN, 40 kN, and 60 kN. In the standstill condition, the
Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Haidian maximum pressures on pavement surface were simulated as 1.2 MPa, 1.2 MPa, and 2.4 MPa in
District, Beijing 100084, China,
20 kN, 40 kN, and 60 kN loading levels, respectively, which were much higher than 0.7 MPa,
e-mail: jinfeng@tsinghua.edu.cn
the standard contact pressure in pavement design specication in China. An interesting
4
Ph.D., Weidlinger Associates, Inc., 40
phenomenon was observed that when the load passed a certain value, the width of contact
Wall St., 19th Floor, New York, NY 10005,
United States of America, area kept constant, whereas the length of contact area was prolonged. And the length of the
e-mail: xiaohu.fan@wai.com contact area prolonged linearly with the increase of load. Based on this phenomenon, the
5
Ph.D., Assistant Professor, School of Hertz contact theory was applied to simplify the traditional 3D nite-element model. In the
Transportation Science and Engineering, simplied model, the complicated 3D all-steel tire was simplied to an equivalent medium.
Harbin Institute of Technology, 73
Huanghe St., Harbin 150090, China
The 3D nite-element model and the simplied model were compared with the analytic
(Corresponding author), method. This indicates that the simplied model can simulate the contact stress of all-steel
e-mail: 4002cj@163.com
tires closely to the analytic results (no more than 10 % difference) and greatly improves the
calculation efciency.

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2 Journal of Testing and Evaluation
Keywords
asphalt pavement, all-steel tire, contact stress, Hertz contact theory, 3D nite-element model
Introduction
In the 1980s, Fryba [1] systematically addressed for the rst
time that the dynamic responses of beams, slabs, and solids
under moving loads, which built the theoretical foundation for
investigating vehiclepavement dynamic interaction using a
combination of onsite testing, theoretical analysis and numeri-
cal simulation.
The half-innite-space assumption of pavement plays an
important role in obtaining analytic solutions for pavement
dynamic responses. Siddharthan and colleagues [26] proposed
the continuum-based nite-layer approach, which treats the sub-
grade as layered materials and utilizes the Fourier transform to
solve the dynamic response of pavement under moving loads. This
approach can deal with complex contact tire stress of moving
vehicles, such as wide tires and those used on off-road vehicles.
Hanazato et al. [7] assumed the vehicle load as a moving
linear load and derived the solution of the pavement response
as an axisymmetric problem. However, the moving linear load
assumption is not appropriate for half-rigid tires. Cole and
Huth [8] treated the pavementtire interaction problem as an
elastic porous medium subjected to moving surface pressure
and analyzed the pavement response under tire loading. How-
ever, the attenuation of inertia force was disregarded and the
elastic porous medium assumption was only applicable to the
surface layer of the pavement. Baron et al. [9] investigated the
Rayleigh wave propagation in the pavement, which was
assumed as a half-innite space.
Jones and Petyt [10] and Sheng et al. [11,12] dened the
subgrade as an elastic half-space and utilized Fourier transform
to divide moving trafc loads into a combination of rectangular
and linear loads to solve the dynamic responses at different
locations in a railway structure. Hung and Yang [13] assumed
pavement structures as a visoelastic half-space system and ana-
lyzed the inuences of loading modes and speed on the dynamic
responses of pavement.
Hao and Ang [14] assumed that the trafc-induced ground
vibrations consist of primarily Rayleigh waves induced by mov-
ing forces and propagate along the surface of an elastic homoge-
neous half-space. They utilized a single-axle two-degrees-of-
freedom vehicle model and the theoretical solution derived by
Lamb for wave propagation on the surface of an elastic half-
space to derive a closed-form solution for ground vibration
power spectral densities at various locations in the pavement.
The above analytical theories are all based on the half-space
assumption, under which the classic Kelvin solution can analyze
pavement responses. Nevertheless, the half-space assumption is
not always true for the pavement system. Additionally, the
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contact area created by vehicle loading is oversimplied to cir-
cular, rectangular, or striped shapes, whereas vibration of the
vehicle loading is assumed as a simple harmonic vibration.
Therefore, more sophisticated pavement dynamic models were
developed later. Cebon [15] and Gillespie et al. [16] studied the
impact of heavy vehicles on pavement. They simplied heavy
vehicles as a mass-spring-damper system to consider the effect
of the suspension systems of heavy vehicles and developed
three-dimensional (3D) vehicle models to investigate the fatigue
performance of pavement.
Finite-element models of tires initially were only used in
the tire industry in the 1970s. Tire tread was usually ignored or
simplied as grooves. In recent years, pavement distresses, such
as top-down cracking, were thought to be related to the interac-
tion between tires and pavement. The real contact area of a tire
loading gained much interest from researchers. Meschke et al.
[17] and Shiraishi et al. [18] rst utilized incompatible tying
method to develop tire models considering tire treads. However,
the quality of the nite-element model for complex tire treads
was often found ill-conditioned. Cho et al. [19] developed a
mesh generation procedure for 3D automobile tire models in
which the detailed tread blocks with variable anti-skid depths
were considered. Firstly, tire body and tread mesh were con-
structed separately. Then they were assembled by the incompat-
ible tying method. Although this meshing technique is believed
to simulate tires properly, it is too complicated to be widely
used. Li [20] and Zeng et al. [21] proposed a meshing procedure
based on conformal mapping technique, which can conven-
iently simulate complicated tire treads and obtain hexahedral
meshes with high quality.
Wang and Al-Qadi [22] established 3D nite-element mod-
els for tires and investigated the contact pressure distribution of
tires in conditions including stationary, free rolling, accelerat-
ing, and decelerating cases [2327]. To improve the calculation
efciency, Wang et al. [28,29] set up an equivalent material for
the tire crown, which had the same stiffness as the tire crown. It
is worth noting that the tire simulated in Wang et al. [28,29] are
semi-rigid radial tires, which are quite different from the rigid
radial tires that heavy vehicles use in China. Unfortunately,
there are very few studies on such tires for pavement responses.
Therefore, it is of importance to develop nite-element models
for rigid radial tires and analyze the corresponding distribution
of contact pressure.
Methodology
Hertz originally dened an elastic solid as quadric surface and
analyzed its deformation and contact behavior in 1882.
 CAO ET AL. ON TIREPAVEMENT CONTACT STRESS. PART 2 3

 
The Hertz contact is based on the following assumptions: pp0 R 3WR 1=3
(1) a
1. The contact surfaces are smooth and do not have the 2E 4E
same curvature,
The contact area is:
2. the contact stress is small,
3. each solid body is viewed as a half-innite elastic sphere, (2) Are pa2 pRd
and
4. there is no friction on surfaces. The displacement of contact is:
Deformation of two elastic solids after contact initiates is r2
shown in Fig. 1. Any contact point can be dened as the coordi- (3) z1 u
u z2 d  z1  z2 d 
2R
nate origin. The x-y plane is the common tangent plane for the
two surfaces and the z axle is the normal direction of the com- and
mon tangent plane from top to bottom. Distance between the pp 2  1=3
a2 0 9W 2
two surfaces at x r is z1 z2 as shown in Fig. 1. When a com- (4) d a R
R 2E 16RE2
pressive load W is applied, the two solids T1 and T2 move to-
ward each other and displace d1 and d2 , respectively. If The center of the contact area has the largest pressure. The
intrusion is allowed, the two spheres will overlap as shown by contact pressure on the contact area is described as follows:
the dashed lines in Fig. 1. However, deformation of the two con-
tacting elastic spheres will result in a contact area length of 2a (5) p p0 1  r=a2 1=2
that is shorter than the length of the dashed overlapping area.
Assume that the maximum contact pressure p0 is 1.5 times
The displacements of T1 and T2 are uz1 and uz2 .
larger than the average contact pressure, pm , then we have
The total deformation, d d1 d2 , is the relative move-
 1=3
ment distance from two points belonging to the two solids in z 3 3W 6WE2
(6) p0 pm
direction, respectively. d is caused by the surface displacement 2 2pa2 p3 R2
and deformation.
1 1  12 1  22
If the two solids are revolution ones, the contact area would (7)


E E1 E2
be a circular area with the origin as the center.
When the two spheres with radii of R1 and R2 is subject to where:
a load W, the radius of the contact region is assumed as a and E1 and 1 the elastic modulus and Poissons ratio of one
the distribution of contact pressure is elliptical. The contact solid, whereas
pressure at radius r is dened as pr. According to Hertz E2 and 2 the elastic modulus and Poissons ratio of the
theory: other solid.

FIG. 1
Illustration of Hertz contact between two elastic
objects.

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4 Journal of Testing and Evaluation
The compound curvature is:
1 1 1
(8)
R R1 R2
Vertical Contact Pressure of Rigid
Radial Tire
Generally, the amplitude of contact pressure on semi-rigid
radial tires ranges from 0.5 MPa to 0.7 MPa, which can increase
up to 1.0 MPa under overloading. A better understanding of the
contact region shape for rigid radial tires is critical to fully eval-
uate the pavement distress because of such tires. The contact
pressure distribution because of a rigid radial tire is signicantly
different from that because of a semi-rigid tire. As discussed in
the accompanying paper, the contact region caused by a rigid
tire resembling a rectangular shape maintains a roughly con-
stant width, whereas it increases longitudinally at larger vertical
loads. Additionally, the rigid radial tire has a load capacity 5 to
10 times that of the semi-rigid radial tire, which leads to signi-
cantly larger contact pressure magnitudes, typically over
1.0 MPa and reaching nearly 3.0 MPa. Pavement structures in
China are typically subjected to a large number of overloading
vehicles. From the analysis in the accompanying paper, heavy
or overloaded vehicles can substantially inuence the stress dis-
tribution and magnitude in the pavement. Thus, it is paramount
to further study the effect of rigid radial tires used in heavy
vehicles on pavement performance.
Figure 2(a)2(c) illustrate the vertical contact pressure con-
tours on the rigid radial tires under vertical loads of 20 kN,
40 kN, and 60 kN, respectively, under a frictionless condition.
These load classes are typical of heavy vehicles or passenger
buses, which are usually equipped with rigid tires to accommo-
date the load demands. These gures show that the pressure
contour resembles more an ellipse at lower vertical loads (e.g.,
20 kN) and gradually transitions to a rectangular region as the
load class increases beyond 40 kN. The corresponding pressure
magnitudes at these load classes are 1.2 MPa, 1.2 MPa, and
2.4 MPa, respectively.
To further study the contact region shape of the rigid radial
tire with friction presenting at the contact interface, a series of
vertical load classes are considered starting at 20 kN with a
10 kN increment until reaching 80 kN. The friction coefcient is
set at 0.5 for all seven considered load classes. The contact pres-
sure contours corresponding to these load classes are plotted in
Fig. 2(d)2(j), respectively. Figure 2(d) shows that the contact
region remains an ellipse when friction presents at a 20-kN load
class while the pressure magnitude maintains at 1.2 MPa. The
width of the ellipse almost equals the tire width, whereas the
length is approximately 0.14 m. At the 30-kN (Fig. 2(e)) load
class, the contact region spreads further out both longitudinally
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and transversely, exhibiting a nearly rectangular shape with a
pressure magnitude of 1.2 MPa. The width of the contact region
reaches the full width of the tire and its length increases to
0.185 m. The stress magnitude maintains 1.2 MPa, whereas the
length of the contact contour reaches 0.219 m when the load is
at 40 kN (Fig. 2(f)). At load classes of 50 kN (Fig. 2(g)), 60 kN
(Fig. 2(h)), 70 kN (Fig. 2(i)) and 80 kN (Fig. 2(j)), the stress mag-
nitude increases to 1.3 MPa, 1.9 MPa, 2.4 MPa, and 3.0 MPa,
respectively, whereas the length of the contact area reaches
0.258 m, 0.290 m, 0.324 m, and 0.355 m, respectively. Table 1 and
Fig. 3 further show that an almost linear relationship exist
between the load class and the length of the contact region for a
rigid radial tire.
Contact Pressure of Rolling Rigid
Tires
To further investigate the effect of acceleration, free rolling, and
braking of the rigid tire on the vertical contact pressure distri-
butions, the steady-state transport theory is implemented when
the interaction between a rigid tire and pavement is simulated
using 3D nite-element models. The speed of the free rolling
tires is set at 60 km/h. The friction coefcient of 0.3 is used. The
modeled rigid tire has a radius of 0.533 m with an internal ina-
tion pressure of 0.86 MPa and a load capacity of 4165 kg. The
deformation of the tire at the load capacity is 36 mm. Steady-
state contact pressure analysis of a rolling tire is similar to that
of a static tire, except that a steady-state transport analysis is
required to simulate the effect of acceleration, free rolling, and
braking.
The criteria used to dene acceleration, free rolling, and
braking are based on the difference between the linear velocity
of the rigid tire at the center of the contact region and the prod-
uct of the angular velocity at the tire center and the distance
between the centers of the tire and the contact region. A positive
difference indicates the tire is undergoing acceleration and the
more the difference, the larger the acceleration is. Free rolling
occurs to the tire when the difference equals 0, whereas braking
initiates when the difference becomes negative.
When the tire travels at 60 km/h, the linear velocity at the
tire center is 16.667 m/s. A linear velocity of 33.44 m/s at the
tire center corresponds to a free rolling condition. If this veloc-
ity reduces to 31.44 m/s, braking then initiates. When simulat-
ing the acceleration process, this velocity increases to 35.44 m/s.
Fig. 4(a)4(c) show the vertical contact stress contours of the
tire under acceleration, free rolling, and braking conditions. The
acceleration case shows the largest contact pressure magnitude
at 1.7 MPa, whereas free rolling yields the lowest at 1.2 MPa and
braking at 1.3 MPa. Figure 5(a)5(c) also plot the shear stress
contours for the tire in the tire traveling direction. These gures
show clearly that braking leads to the largest shear stresses with
 CAO ET AL. ON TIREPAVEMENT CONTACT STRESS. PART 2 5

FIG. 2 Vertical contact stress contour of the rigid tire with different loading levels and friction conditions between tire and pavement.

a magnitude of 1.3 MPa. The shear stress contours in the trans-

verse direction are given in Fig. 6(a)6(c) and exhibit insigni-
cant differences between the three tire rolling cases.
TABLE 1 Length of the tire interaction area under different load
classes.

Vertical Load Class (kN) Length of Contact Region (m)

Simplification of the Finite-Element
20 0.140
30 0.185
Model for Rigid Tire
40 0.219 The preceding analysis shows that for rigid radial tires the con-
50 0.258
tact region keeps increasing longitudinally when its width
60 0.290
reaches the full tire width at high vertical load classes. A linear
70 0.324
relationship between the length of the contact region and the
80 0.355
load class is also observed. Past research [30,31] proposed Eq 9

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6 Journal of Testing and Evaluation

W the vertical load applied to a tire,

FIG. 3 Relationship between the length of the tire interaction area and the P the ination pressure of the tire, and
load class.
g the gravitational acceleration.
Based on the data presented in Table 1, Eq 9 can be modi-
ed to predict the longitudinal contact region length obtained
in this study:

Wg
(10) Lx
2:5P

Equations 9 and 10 only differ between the constants.

Equations 1 through 8 are derived based on the Hertz con-
tact theory. In the case of pavementtire interaction, these equa-
tions can be further simplied. If medium 1 shown in Fig. 1
represents the pavement, the radius of medium 1 then equals
innity (R1 1) assuming the pavement is an innite plate;
thus:

1 1
to predict the length of the contact region under a given vertical (11)
R R2
load level:
In a two-dimensional scenario, medium 2 representing a
Wg
(9) Lx rigid tire can be ideally reduced to a circle, then R2 in Eq 11
2:16P
takes on the tire radius, whereas the contact radius (i.e., a) in
where: Eq 1 becomes the longitudinal length of the tire contact region.
Lx the longitudinal length of the contact region, Variable E2 in Eq 7 is the stiffness of a rigid tire that needs to be

FIG. 4
Vertical contact stress contour of the rigid tire under
different conditions.

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FIG. 5
Longitudinal shear contact stress contour of the
rigid tire under different conditions.
solved. Because the transverse width of the tire contact area
stops increasing when the full tire width is engaged, variable  2
can be approximated by 0. Therefore, the relationship between
E and E2 can be dened. Owing to the linear relationship
between the length of the tire contact region and the vertical
load, Eq 1 can be used to solve for the equivalent tire stiffness, E2.
The above discussion demonstrates that the Hertz contact
theory can be applied to greatly simplify the nite-element
modeling process of a rigid radial tire by considering an equiva-
lent homogeneous material constitutive model, thus eliminating
the need for a complicated procedure to generate a tire model
and improving computation efciency. For the case where the
surface response of the pavement is not of interest, the simpli-
ed procedure has a great potential for application to research
the interaction between pavement and tires. The rest of this
paper focuses on implementing this equivalent tire model in
addressing pavement structuretire interaction.
The pavement structure modeled consists of ve layers of
different materials as shown in Fig. 7. The material properties of
the pavement layers are given in Table 2. The tire considered is
typical of a common vehicle type in Chinas EQ1168G1, which
has a load-carrying capacity of 25,000 kg including self-weight
[32]. The developed vehicle model is 900 cm long with two sus-
pension systems spaced 560 cm apart and the center of gravity
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CAO ET AL. ON TIREPAVEMENT CONTACT STRESS. PART 2 7
located at a third point near the rear axle. An ination pressure
of 0.86 MPa is used for inating the tire models.
Completed vehicle models with rigid radial tires are shown
in Figs. 8 and 9 considering two different approaches for model-
ing the tires. The tire model shown in Fig. 8 is developed using
the procedure discussed in the accompanying paper, whereas
the other in Fig. 9 is created using the equivalent stiffness
method proposed in this paper. The tire model in Fig. 8 after
meshing consists of nearly 15,000 elements for each tire and
requires heavily dense meshes to capture the steel wiring in a
rigid radial tire, which often result in computation inefciencies
when solving the interaction equations between the pavement
and tires using the central difference method. Contrarily, the
vehicle model (Fig. 9) with tire models developed using the
equivalent stiffness method needs only approximately 13,000
elements (3D eight-node reduced integration element) in total,
which are less than the elements required for a single tire in the
other model. The spring-damper system used for modeling the
connection between the tire and the vehicle body consists of a
spring with an elastic modulus of 2,000,000UNIT and a damper
with a critical damping constant of 5000UNIT [33].
The pavement model shown in Fig. 10 is 2.69 m deep, 10 m
wide, and 15 m long, meshed with over 59,000 three-
dimensional eight-node reduced integration elements, among
8 Journal of Testing and Evaluation

FIG. 6
Transverse shear contact stress contour of the rigid
tire under different conditions.

which 2464 elements are used to simulate the foundation
located far apart from the pavement structure. This pavement
model is used for analyzing the pavement response under static
vehicle loading.
FIG. 7 Pavement structure cross section.
The interaction between a vehicle and pavement can be
studied either statically or dynamically. In a static study, the
response of the pavement to the gravity imposed by the vehicle
can be generated to investigate the contact region pattern of the
tire and deformation and stress elds of the pavement. Addi-
tionally, theoretical solutions for static layered elastic systems
can be applied to verify the simulation results.
The deformation of the pavement subjected to the static
vehicle load shown in Fig. 11 exhibits a symmetric pattern with
deformations concentrated near the front and rear axles. The
largest deformation of 0.5 mm occurs at the locations beneath
the rear tires. This deformation agrees well with the theoretical
solution of 0.48 mm, which suggests the effectiveness and accu-
racy of the pavementvehicle interaction model. The difference
between the simulated and theoretical deformations is largely
because of the mesh density used in the analysis model in addi-
tion to the fact that the theoretical solution only applies to sin-
gle tire loading and innite pavement conditions.
The contact pressure contours under the rear axle in the
pavement is shown in Fig. 12. The magnitude of the contact
pressure reaches 2 MPa observed in pavement beneath the cen-
ter of the tire, whereas the rest contact region maintains a
roughly constant pressure at 0.7 MPa. The contact region shows
a bowl-like shape. Further analysis of the results indicates that
vehicle-induced pavement deformation concentrates in the

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 CAO ET AL. ON TIREPAVEMENT CONTACT STRESS. PART 2 9

TABLE 2 Pavement structure and material properties.

Layer Thickness (cm) Compressive Modulus (MPa) Dynamic Modulus (MPa) Poissons Ratio
Asphalt course 15 1200 3000 0.35
Base 34 2000 5000 0.2
Subbase 20 1000 2500 0.3
Subgrade 200 80 80 0.4
Natural soil 80 80 0.4

FIG. 8
Vehicle model with rigid radial tires modeled using
detailed nite elements.

FIG. 9
Vehicle model with rigid radial tires modeled using
an equivalent stiffness method.

FIG. 10
Pavement nite-element model.

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10 Journal of Testing and Evaluation
FIG. 11
Vertical deformation contour of the pavement.
FIG. 12 Vertical contact pressure contour at the rear axle due to a static
vehicle.
contact region with the tires, whereas the total inuence area of
the tires is within 3 times that of the contact area.
Conclusions
A three-dimensional nite-element model was developed for
analyzing the static contact interaction between the rigid radial
tire and the pavement. Parametric studies of the vertical load
effect showed that the contact region between a tire and pave-
ment maintains constant transversely at the full tire width and
only increases longitudinally, whereas the length of the contact
region shows an almost linear relationship with the vertical load
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class. The magnitude of the vertical pressure contours was also
found to be much greater than 0.7 MPa given in the Chinese
pavement codes.
In addition, the effect of a rolling tire on the vertical contact
pressure was also investigated with acceleration, free rolling,
and braking conditions considered for the tire.
Findings of the tirepavement interaction study were used
in conjunction with the Hertz contact theory to propose a simpli-
ed coupled vehicle tirepavement interaction model, which was
veried with theoretical solutions. This model of high computa-
tional efciency could be used for high-delity evaluation of the
performance of pavement structures under heavy vehicles.
References
[1] Fryba, L., Vibration of Solids and Structures Under Moving
Loads, Thomas Telford, London, 1999.
[2] Siddharthan, R. V., Sebaaly, P. E., and El-Desouky, M.,
Heavy Off-Road Vehicle TirePavement Interactions and
Response, J. Transport. Eng., Vol. 131, No. 3, 2005, pp.
239247.
[3] Siddharthan, R. V., Yao, J., and Sebaaly, P. E., Pavement
Strain From Moving Dynamic 3D Load Distribution,
J. Transport. Eng., Vol. 124, No. 6, 1998, pp. 557566.
[4] Siddharthan, R. V., Zar, Z., and Norris, G. M., Moving
Load Response of Layered Soil. Part 1: Formulation,
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