Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FUNDAMENTALS OF
VACUUM TECHNOLOGY
Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology
Fundamentals of
Vacuum Technology
Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology
Preface
Preface
Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
8 Instru%tions <or va%uum eHuipment operation . . . . . . . . .139
9. Tables, <ormulas, nomograms, 3iagrams an3 s9mbols . .147
10. The statutor9 units use3 in va%uum te%hnolog9 . . . . . . . .171
Table of Contents
Vacuum physics
VorEing pressure pV
Absolute pressure pabs
Total pressure pt
Important note+
partial ultimate pressure
Saturation vapor pressure ps
Vacuum physics
Volume V
=
=
Volumetri% <low S<low volumeT Hv
Pumping spee3 S
=
1g 83.14 mbar ! mol 1 K 1 293 K
p= =
10 ! K 4 g mol 1 =
= 609 mbar
1g 83.14 mbar ! mol 1 K 1 293 K
p= =
10 ! K 28 g mol 1 :uantit9 o< gas SpV valueT,
= 87 mbar
p V = m R T
M
Vacuum physics
p V M
m=
R T
Example:
100 mbar ! 28 g mol 1
m= =
83 mbar ! mol 1 K 1 300 K
2800
= g = 0.113 g
300 83
Con3u%tan%e C
Mass <low Hm
=
pV <low HpV
= =
=
Pump throughput HpV
= + + +
Vacuum physics
LeaE rate HL
8 k T 8 R T
c= =
mT M
1
=
2 n (2r)2
Outgassing
Outgassing rate
n c
zA =
4
a 4 a
= =
zA n c
Collision <reHuen%9 Iv
[ hal<
two one
zV = n z
2
-c
Vacuum physics
V = V0 (1 + t )
Amonton^s Law
p = p0 (1 + t )
Dalton^s Law
pi = p total
i
Poisson^s Law
Avoga3ro^s Law
m1 m 2
: = M1 : M 2
V1 V2
I3eal gas Law
m
p V = R T = R T
M
Clausius-Clape9ron EHuation
dp
L =T ( V Vm, l )
dT m, v
Vacuum physics
Mo3el %on%epts an3 basi% assumptions: mT = M = Mass / mol
NA Molecules / mol
mT
[ [ =1
M
[ [
n 1 m
c 2 m T c = n c2 m T = p p V = R T
6 3 M
N
n=
V 1013.25 mbar 22.4 ! mol 1
R= =
273.15 K
1 mbar !
p V = N mT c2 = 83.14
3 mol K
p V =
m 1
R T = N m T c2
1.4 The pressure ranges in
M 3 vacuum technology and their
characterization
mT R 2 m c2
pV = N ( ) T = N( T )
M 3 2
mT R J
k= = 1.38 10 23
M K
mT c 2
E kin = 2
2
p V = N k T = N E kin
3
Vacuum physics
1
100
2 75
470
25
0
turbulent <low s
Poiseuille <low
,ig. 1.1 Schematic representation of venting an evacuated vessel
Mole%ular <low
Knu3sen <low
%hoEe3 <low
d
<
p 100
pcrit = p1 1 2
p1 crit
Me3ium va%uum a Knu3sen <low
d d
<<
100 2
p2
= 0528 .
p1 crit bigh an3 ultrahigh va%uum a Mole%ular <low
d
>
2
Vacuum physics
1 1 1
= +
Seff S C
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + . . .
C C1 C2 C3 Cn
d4 d 3 1 + 192 d p
C = 135 p +12.1 !/s
l l 1 + 237 d p
1.5.2 Calculating conductance values
p1 + p2
p=
2
Vacuum physics
d 3 A !
C = 12.1 f (d p ) Cvisc = 76.6 0.712 1 0.288
l
1 s
1 + 203 d p + 2.78 10 3 d 2 p 2
f (d p ) = A !
1 + 237 d p C visc = 20
1 s
p
!
Cvisc = 20 A
Limit <or laminar <low s
p
d4
C = 135 p !/ s p
l
2
p1 crit
Limit <or mole%ular <low
p
d3
C = 12.1 ! /s
l
In the mole%ular <low region the %on3u%tan%e value is in3epen3ent o<
pressurec
p
,ig. 1.3 Conductance values relative to the areaA CBviscA CBmolA and pumping speed SBvisc and
,ig. 1.2 ,lo; of a gas through an opening (A) at high pressures (viscous flo;) SBmol for an orifice AA depending on the pressure relationship p2/p1 for air at 20 EC.
Vacuum physics
Fable 1.1 Conversion factors (see text)
Nomographi% 3etermination o< %on3u%tan%e values
The lines shoul3 be as short an3 as wi3e as possible.
qpV
Re = 15
d
leff = laxial +133
. d
180
Vacuum generation
2. Vacuum generation
2.1. Vacuum pumps: A survey
Vacuum pump
(Operating principle)
Liquid ring
Piston vacuum pump Turbine Liquid jet
Bulk getter pump
vacuum pump vacuum pump vacuum pump
Rotary vane
vacuum pump Axial flow Gas jet Sublimation
vacuum pump vacuum pump pump
Multiple vane
vacuum pump
Radial flow Vapor jet Getter ion pump
vacuum pump vacuum pump
Rotary piston
vacuum pump
Molecular drag
vacuum pump Diffusion pump Evaporation ion pump
Rotary plunger
vacuum pump
Dry compressing
vacuum pump
Fractionating
Cryopump
diffusion pump
Roots
vacuum pump
Scroll pump
Vacuum generation
pumps
a)
b)
c)
d)
,ig. 2.1 Schematic on the design of a diaphragm pump stage (Iacuubrand) ,ig. 2.2 Principle of operation for a t;o-stage diaphragm pump (Iacuubrand)
Vacuum generation
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.6 Cross section of a single-stage rotarO vane pump (FRIIAC V)
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.7 Cross section of a t;o-stage rotarO vane pumpA schematic ,ig. 2.8a Cross section of a t;o-stage rotarO vane pump (FRIIAC E)
,ig. 2.8b SZ[EIAC pump SI 300 ;ith three tangential vanes ,ig. 2.9 Cross section of a single-stage rotarO plunger pump (monoblocP design)
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.10 Zperating cOcle of a rotarO plunger pump (for positions 1 to 9 of the plunger)
Motor power
,ig. 2.11 Motor po;er of a rotarO plunger pump (pumping speed 60 m3/h) as a function of
intaPe pressure and operating temperature. Fhe curves for gas ballast pumps of other
si^es are similar. ,ig. 2.12 Cross section of a trochoid pump
Vacuum generation
Di
sc
ha
ion
rg
e
ss
t
inle
pre
st
alla
Com
sb
Ga
on
Sucti
,ig. 2.13 _orPing process ;ithin a rotarO vane pump ;ith gas ballast
,ig. 2.14 Diagram of pumping process in a rotarO vane pump ;ithout (left) and ;ith (right) gas
ballast device ;hen pumping condensable substances.
Simultaneous pumping o< gases an3 vapors
pvapour p
< vapour , sat
pvapour + pperm p sum
Vacuum generation
Example 1:
pvapour, sat
pvapour p
psum pvapour, sat perm
pvapour, H O 312 (p p )
= 0. 23 pvapour B psum Vapour, sat vapour, g.b. +
2
<
pvapour, H O + pair 1350
2 S p sum pvapour, sat
pvapour sat
+p pperm
sum pvapour sat
Example 2:
pvapour,. acid 0.5 1
=< =
. acid + pair
pvapour, 1.5 3
pure
,ig. 2.15 Saturation vapor pressures
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.16 Partial pressure p_ of ;ater vapor that can be pumped ;ith the gas ballast valve
open ;ithout condensation in the pumpA as a function of the pump temperature for
various partial pressures pL of air. Fhe lo;est curve corresponds to the ;ater vapor
3
5
Other gases as ballast
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.18 Maximum compression P0 of the Roots pump RaIAC _A 2001 as a function of fore
vacuum pressure pI
pV S
k= = th
pa SV
Q eff
=
Q th
pV SiR
= 1
pa Sth
k0
=
ko + k th
SiR
= 1 k
Sth
Sth
k0 = ( ) =
SiR 0
= 1 k
ko
RUVAC VA 2001 /
E 250
Vacuum generation
Power reHuirement o< a roots pump
Fable 2.3
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.19 Pumping speed curves for different pump combinations ;ith the corresponding bacPing pumps
Loa3 rating o< a roots pump Maintaining the allowe3 pressure 3i<<eren%e
Vacuum generation
WAU 2001
3esign prin%iple
,ig. 2.21 Iacuum diagram b Roots pump ;ith integrated bOpass line and bacPing pump
Pre-a3mission %ooling
4
4 c
1 Intake port 2 Discharge port 3 Gas cooler 4 Flow of cold gas
,ig. 2.22 Diagram of a Roots pump ;ith pre-admission cooling ,ig. 2.23 Principle of operation
Vacuum generation
Z
P
Z
P
Z
P
,ig. 2.24 Arrangement of the pumps and guiding of the gas flo;. P c Pump stage d c
Intermediate ring
P P
W Compr. 1 W Compr.
1 2 2
4 3
V V
,ig. 2.27 Compression curve for a cla; pump ;ithout internal compression (Qisochoric
,ig. 2.26 Compression curve for a cla; pump ;ith internal compression compressionR)
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.29a Iacuum diagram for the DReIAC V
,ig. 2.28 DReIAC pump
ALL[ex
(DRYVAC series)
Design o< DReVAC Pumps
Vacuum generation
CS Current sensor
,ig. 2.29c Iacuum diagram for the DReIAC S ,ig. 2.30 feO to ,igures 2.29a b 2.29c
q pV mbar ! s 1
v = =
Gas p A mbar cm2
10 q pV m
=
pA s
Particle size
Limit speed
Gas velocity
Pressure
,ig. 2.31 Settling speed as a function of pressure p. Parameter+ particle si^e ,ig. 2.32 Mean gas velocitO vg during compression ;ithout purge gas (left) and ;ith purge gas
(right) in stages 2A 3 and 4
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.34 Pumping speed ;ith and ;ithout purge gas ,ig. 2.35 Simple arrangement of the drO compression QALLgexR pump
Vacuum generation
Operating prin%iple
Vacuum generation
1000
m
3 . h-1
Saugvermgen
100
Pumping speed
10
8
6
4
2
1 2 4 6 8
1 10 100 mbar 1000
Ansaugdruck
Intake pressure
,ig. 2.37 Circulation of the cold gas in the QALLgexR ;ith cooler / condenser ,ig. 2.39 Pumping speed characteristic of an ALLgex 250
Vmax
Vmax
Vmin
Vmax
,ig. 2.38 Diagrams illustrating the pumping principle of the ALLgex pump (cla; pump ;ithout inner compression)
Vacuum generation
%on3ensate traps
3is%harge <ilters
Elimination of dust
3ust separator
3ust <ilter
Elimination of oil vapor
me3ium va%uum a3sorption traps
2.1.5 Condensers
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.41 Condenser (I) ;ith do;nstream gas ballast pump (II) for pumping of large quantities
of ;ater vapor in the rough vacuum range (III) b adjustable throttle
,ig. 2.42 Condensation capacitO of the condenser (surface area available to condensation 1
m2) as a function of intaPe pressure pD1 of the ;ater vapor. Curve a+ Cooling ;ater
temperature 12EC. Curve b+ Femperature 25 EC. Consumption in both cases 1 m3/h at
3 bar overpressure.
Vacuum generation
throttle se%tion
Next to the large pump hol3ing pump with low
spee3
ne%essar9 Huantit9 o< air
Vacuum generation
maximum ba%Eing pressure or %riti%al <orepressure
Di<<usion pumps
Vapor het pumps
Combine3
oil 3i<<usion/ vapor het pumps
Vater het pumps
Vacuum generation
3egassing se%tion
,ig. 2.45 Diagram sho;ing the basic differences in LEeVZLD oil diffusion pumps
LEeBODIFF series
<ra%tionating 3evi%e
Pumping spee3
-c
DI series
Vacuum generation
expan3e3
%ompresse3
,ig. 2.48 Pumping speed of various vapor pumps as a function of intaPe pressure related to a ,ig. 2.49 Pumping speed of various vapor pumps (derived from ,ig. 2.48)
nominal pumping speed of 1000 l/s.
End of the ;orPing range of oil vapor ejector pumps (A) and diffusion pumps (V)
Vacuum generation
aT Oils
DC 705
ULTRALEN i
%ol3 %ap ba<<le
APIEZON AP 201
bT Mer%ur9
Shell ba<<les
plate ba<<les
2.1.6.4 Pump fluid backstreaming and its
suppression (vapor barriers, baffles) b93ro%arbon-<ree va%uum
%ol3 traps
Vacuum generation
anti%reep barrier
Note:
,ig. 2.50 Schematic arrangement of baffleA anticreep barrier and cold trap above a diffusion
2.1.6.5 Water jet pumps and steam ejectors
pump
water het pumps
LN2 %ol3
traps
steam ehe%tor pumps
Vacuum generation
-c
8 R T
c=
M
Table 2.4 -c as a function of molar mass M
_ __
,ig. 2.51 Schematic representation of the operation of a steam ejector pump ~ c ~ " M
__
~ "M ~ " M
log k0(He) 4 1 1
= = =
log k0(N2) 28 7 2.65
log k0(N 2) = 2.65 log k0(He)
Gae3e mole%ular pump
j
c
turbomole%ular pump
Vacuum generation
S9stem KFA klli%h
Steel ball bearings / h9bri3 ball bearings S%erami% ball bearingsT:
magneti% suspension
Turbomolecular
pump stage
3
Siegbahn stage
5
8
1
1 Vacuum port 4 Stator 7 Fan
2 High vacuum flange 5 Bearing 8 Bearing
3 Rotor 6 Motor
Vacuum generation
10000
600 1000/1000 MC
1000
500
S
200 340M 361
151
100
50/55
10 2 4 6 8
6 5 4 3 2 1
10 10 10 p 10 10 mbar 10
,ig. 2.53 Pumping speed for air of different turbomolecular pumps ,ig. 2.54 Pumping speed curves of a FaRVZIAC 600 for k2A keA N2 and Ar
pumping spee3 %hara%teristi%s
%ompression ratio %ompression
,ig. 2.55 FaRVZIAC 450 b Maximum compression P0 as a function of molar mass M ,ig. 2.56 Maximum compression P0 of a turbomolecular pump FaRVZIAC 340 M for k2A ke
and N2 as a function of bacPing pressure
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.57 Spectrum above a FaRVZIAC 361 ,ig. 2.58 Determination of the cut-in pressure for turbomolecular pumps ;hen evacuating large
Sv
< 40 h1
V
SV
pV, Start = e 6 V mbar
Venting
A<ter swit%hing o<< or in the event o< a power <ailure, turbomole%ular
pumps shoul3 alwa9s be vente3
Vacuum generation
spe%ial appli%ations
evaporator
pumpssputter pumps
NEG
pumps
,ig. 2.60 Adsorption isotherms of ^eolite 13m for nitrogen at b195 EC and 20 ECA as ;ell as for
helium and neon at b195 EC
Vacuum generation
Vacuum generation
The pumping spee3 o< trio3e sputter-
ion pumps <or noble gases 3oes not 3e%rease 3uring the operation o<
,ig. 2.62 Electrode configuration in a diode sputter-ion pump
the pump.
3io3e-t9pe, sputter-ion pumps
trio3e sputter-ion pumps
,ig. 2.63 Electrode configuration in a triode sputter-ion pump
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.64 StraO magnetic field of a sputter-ion pump in t;o places parallel to the inlet flange
(inserts) curves sho; lines of constant magnetic induction V in [auss.1 [auss c 1
10b4 Fesla
Vacuum generation
2.1.9 Cryopumps
bath %r9ostat
re<rigerator %r9opumps
,ig. 2.65 All items of a refrigerator crOopump
Vacuum generation
Regenerator Displacer
Regenerator Displacer
V2 (cold) V1 (warm)
Phase 3
Regenerator Displacer
V2 (cold) V1 (warm)
Phase 4:
Regenerator Displacer
,ig. 2.66 Refrigerating phases using a single-stage cold head operating according to the [ifford-McMahon process
Vacuum generation
(
,ig. 2.68 Design of a refrigerator crOopump (schematic)
,ig. 2.67 F;o-stage cold head
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.69 CrOopanels b temperature and position define the efficiencO in the crOopump
Cr9o%on3ensation
Cr9osorption
Cr9otrapping
2.1.9.5 Pumping speed and position of the 2.1.9.6 Characteristic quantities of a cryopump
cryopanels
Vacuum generation
Cool3own time:
.
Re<rigerating power Q SVT:
Crossover value:
.
Net re<rigerating power Q SVT:
35
pc Q 2 (20 K ) mbar
V
pV <low
.
Q Regeneration time:
Ultimate pressure pen3:
TG
pend = ps( TK ) total regeneration
TK
Example:
Partial regeneration:
Fable 2.6 altimate temperatures at a ;all temperature of 300 f
Capa%it9 C Smbar [ lT: <ast regeneration
,ast Regeneration SOstem
Vacuum generation
2
S2T S1T
Throughput maximum pV <low:
R TG TG
SA = c =
= 365
. !/ s cm2
4 2 M M
%ontinuous operation
.
Q
.
Q
intermittent operation
Fable 2.7 Surface-related pumping speeds for some gases
Vacuum generation
CG C
t op, G = = G
QG pG SG
In all wet pro%esses the provision o< the ne%essar9 heat
<or evaporation o< the moisture is o< great importan%e.
Vacuum generation
Mass spectrometers
Molecular beam apparatus
Ion sources
Particle accelerators
Electron microscopes
Electron diffraction apparatus
Vacuum spectographs
Low-temperature research
Production of thin films
Surface physics
Plasma research
Nuclear fusion apparatus
Space simulation
Material research
Preparations for
electron microscopy
Pressure [mbar]
,ig. 2.71 Pressure ranges (p i 1000 mbar) of phOsical and chemical analOtical methods
Annealing of metals
Melting of metals
Degassing of molten metals
Steel degassing
Electron-beam melting
Electron-beam welding
Evaporation coating
Sputtering of metals
Zone melting and crystal growing in high-vacuum
Molecular distillation
Degassing of liquids
Sublimation
Casting of resins and lacquers
Drying of plastics
Drying of insulating papers
Freeze-drying of mass materials
Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical products
Production of incandescent lamps
Production of electron tubes
Production of gas-discharge tubes
Pressure [mbar]
Vacuum generation
processes)
bT Me3ium va%uum S1 a 10-3 mbarT
Vacuum generation
the pro%ess.
Region A: A Roots pump with a single-stage rotar9 plunger pump
without gas ballast.
Region B: Single-stage rotar9 plunger pumps with gas ballast an3 an
inlet %on3enser.
Vacuum generation
Region C: A Roots pump, an interme3iate %on3enser, an3 a gas Air partial pressure pp
ballast pump.
,ig. 2.74 Areas of application for Roots pumps and condensers pumping ;ater vapor (o.[. c
;ithout gas ballast)
Region D: A roots pump an3 a gas ballast pump. E. I< the 3r9ing pro%ess shoul3 terminate at still lower pressures
Dr9ing o< soli3 substan%es
2.2.4 Drying processes
A. Eva%uating the vessel b9 a gas ballast pump an3 a Roots pump
with a b9pass line.
B. Conne%ting the two %on3ensers be%ause o< the in%reasing vapor
pressure pro3u%e3 b9 heating the material.
C. B9passing the main %on3enser E0
E= %
(1 + K t )q
Vacuum generation
aT Rough va%uum region S1013 to 1 mbarT
3.2 6
= 10 s
bT Me3ium va%uum region S1 to 10-3 mbarT p
Vacuum generation
A<ter testing, the UbV apparatus must be
baEe3 out. e<<e%tive pumping spee3
a%tual pumping spee3 that prevails
at the vessel
Vacuum generation
0.5 1013
Seff = 2.3 log
1/ 6 1
= 3 2.3 3.01 = 20.8 m3/h
dp Seff
= p
dt V
p dp Seff 0.5
p = t Seff = 7 = 21 m 3/ h or
1013 V 1
6
p S 0.5
Seff = 8 = 24 m 3/ h
!n = eff t 1
1013 V 6
V 1013 V 1013
Seff = !n = 2.3 log
t p t p
1013 1013
= !n p = 2.3 log p
V
Seff =
t
= V
Seff
= !n 1013
p
,ig. 2.75 DependencO of the dimensionless factor s for calculation of pumpdo;n time t
according to equation 2.36. Fhe broPen line applies to single-stage pumps ;here the
pumping speed decreases belo; 10 mbar.
Vacuum generation
2 10 3
K= = 200
110 5
500 !
pressure-rise metho3 Seff = 2.3 log 200 9 s
5 60
Q=
p V
t
S eff p p
Q
dp end
Q =
Seff = dt V
pend
Example p p
end Q / Seff
o
V
t= !n
S p p Q/S
eff end eff
5 2 10 4 mbar !/ s
Seff = = 100 ! / s
110 5 mbar
Vacuum generation
110 4
2.3.2 Determination of a suitable backing SV = 200 = 0.1 !/s = 0. 36 m 3/h
2 10 1
pump
p
SV = A Seff
pV
Example:
110 2
SV = 50 = 2.5 !/s = 9 m 3/ h
2 10 1
110 3
SV = 200 = 1!/s = 3. 6 m 3/h
2 10 1
Vacuum generation
2.3.3 Determination of pump-down time
from nomograms
right-han3
Vacuum generation
2.3.4 Evacuation of a chamber where
gases and vapors are evolved
,ig. 2.77 Pumpdo;n timeA tpA of a 5 m3 vessel using a rotarO plunger pump E 250 having a
nominal pumping speed of 250 m3/h ;ith (a) and ;ithout (b) gas ballastA as ;ell as
Roots/rotarO plunger pump combination _A 1001 / E250 for a cut-in pressure of 10
mbar for the _A 1001 (e).
Vacuum generation
2. Pre3r9ing
3. Main 3r9ing
,ig. 2.78 Iacuum diagram for drOing of salt. Pump combination consisting of Roots pumpA V p
Seff =
condenser and rotarO plunger pump for step;ise s;itching of the pumping process tp
(see text)
m R T 15 83.14 288
V p = =
M 18
20000
Seff = = 750 m 3/h
5 5. 3
Dr9ing o< paper
1. Eva%uation
Vacuum generation
VITILAN
aluminum seals
150 nC 200 nC
Vacuum generation
,ig. 2.80 Right angle vacuum valve ;ith electropneumatic actuator
Vacuum generation
DN
h1 h2
,ig. 2.81 [as locP ;ith centering ring and seal-off fittingA sectional vie;
Vacuum measurement
Relative measurement uncertainty (%)
20
Vacuum measurement
%apsule
va%uum gauge
Vacuum measurement
3.2.2.3 Precision diaphragm vacuum gauges
MEMBRANOVAC
PIEZOVAC
1 2
C1 C2
p1 p2
,ig. 3.3 Cross-section of DIAIAC DI 1000 diaphragm vacuum gauge ,ig. 3.5 Capacitive sensor (basic diagram)
Vacuum measurement
Amplifier + 15 V DC
15 V DC
0 10 V
Vacuum measurement
torr torr
,ig. 3.7 McLeod compression vacuum gauge ;ith linear scale (equation 3.1b) ,ig. 3.8 McLeod compression vacuum gauge ;ith square-la; scale (equation 3.1f)
2
p = h2 d
4 V
permanent gases
Prin%iple o< measurement with %ompression va%uum gauges
2
p = h2 d
3 V
Vc
p = h
V Vc
Vc
p = h
measuring range
V
a%%ura%9 o< the pressure measurement
p = 4 h Vc
3 V
Vc = h d 2
4
Vacuum measurement
,ig. 3.9 Cross-section of the gauge head of a IISCZIAC IM 212 spinning rotor gauge (SR[)
df 10 p
f =
dt c r
transmitters
-c
3.3.1 Spinning rotor gauge (SRG)
(VISCOVAC)
Vacuum measurement
thermal %on3u%tivit9 gauges
with %onstant resistan%e
3.3.2 Thermal conductivity vacuum
gauges
#$M
Pirani
thermal %on3u%tivit9 gauges with variable
resistan%e
I II III
r2 -
l r r
Wrmeflu
r1 - 2 1
l r1
-
l ! r2
-
l r1
Abgefhrter
5 4 3 2 1
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 100
Druck [mbar]
,ig. 3.10 Dependence of the amount heat dissipated bO a heated filament (radius r1) in a tube
(radius r2) at a constant temperature difference on the gas pressure (schematic ,ig. 3.11 Calibration curves of FkERMZIAC gauges for various gasesA based on nitrogen
diagram). equivalent reading
Vacuum measurement
3.3.3 Ionization vacuum gauges
Fable 3.2 Correction factors ,ig. 3.12 Cross-section of PENNIN[IAC PR 35 gauge
Vacuum measurement
3.3.3.2 Hot-cathode ionization vacuum gauges
i+
p=
i C
,ig. 3.13 Schematic diagram and potential curve in a hot-cathode ioni^ation vacuum gauge ,ig. 3.14 Apparent lo; pressure limit due to m-raO effect in a normal ioni^ation vacuum gauge
Vacuum measurement
b)
c)
d)
e)
,ig. 3.15 Explanation of the m-raO effect in a conventional ioni^ation gauge. Fhe electrons e- ,ig. 3.16 Schematic dra;ing of the electrode arrangement of various ioni^ation vacuum gauge
emitted bO the cathode C collide ;ith anode A and trigger a soft m-raO radiation measuring sOstems
(photons) there. Fhis radiation striPesA in partA the ion collector and generates
Vacuum measurement
p p
A M
pg =
1
A3hustment
Calibration inspe%tion
Calibration
Vacuum measurement
national stan3ar3s
V1 V2 Vn 1
pn = p
1 V1 + V2 V2 + V3 Vn 1 + Vn
30
Dynamic
expansion
Relative uncertainly of the pressure determination [%]
IM IM
10
V2 = 1000 cm3
p1 p3
+
3
V4 =
3
Molecular 13000 cm
+
beam p4
Static expansion
V1 = 25 cm3 V3 = 25 cm3
+
p2
+
1
U-Tube
+
0.3
0.1
1012 109 106 103 100 103
Pressure [mbar]
,ig. 3.17 Pressure scale of ,ederal PhOsical-Fechnical Institute (PFV)A VerlinA (status as at ,ig. 3.18 [eneration of lo; pressures through static expansion
August 1984) for inert gasesA nitrogen and methane
Vacuum measurement
L1 L1 L2
p2 = p =p (1 + )
1 S 1 L2 Sp
L1
3.5 Pressure monitoring, control
S
and regulation in vacuum
1 Volume 1 9 Valve 16 to pump
systems
2 Volume 2 10 LN2 cold trap (pumping speed PSp)
3 Inlet valve (conductance L1) 11 to pump system 17 Gas inlet
4
5
Aperture with conductance L2
Valve
12
13
U-tube vacuum gauge
McLeod vacuum gauge
18 Mass spectrometer
19,20 Gauges to be calibrated
3.5.1 Fundamentals of pressure
6 to pump system 14 Valve 21 Nude gauge to be calibrated monitoring and control
7 Valve 15 Calibrated ionization gauge 22 Bake-out furnace
8 to gas reservoir tube
,ig. 3.19 Apparatus for calibration according to the dOnamic expansion method
%T D9nami% expansion metho3 S
L 2 Sp L2
S= =
L + Sp L2
2 1+
Sp
Vacuum measurement
,ig. 3.20 Schematic diagram of a high vacuum pump sOstem ;ith optional operation of a Roots
pump or a diffusion pump
Vacuum measurement
Fu
R, Mp
Smax
Smin
PV
R1
K1
M
Dis%ontinuous pressure regulation
pmax
Fu
pmin pmax pmitte
R, Mp
pmin pmin Smax
Smin
Time Time Time EV
R2
K2
M
,ig. 3.21 Schematic diagram of t;o-step and three-step regulation ,ig. 3.23 F;o-step regulation through gas admission
Vacuum measurement
Fu
R, Mp
Smax
Smitte
Smin
T
PV
EV
R1
R2
K1
K2
M
,ig. 3.24 Fhree-step regulation sOstem ,ig. 3.26 LEeVZLD-A seriesA equipment ;ith level and interval triggers
3iaphragm %ontroller
,ig. 3.25 Diagram of level triggers and interval triggers ,ig. 3.27 Principle of a diaphragm controller
Vacuum measurement
DC
P
M
PS
V1
V2
Tb
RC
PC
CV
,ig. 3.30 Control of vacuum drOing processes bO regulation of the intaPe pressure of the
vacuum pump according to the ;ater vapor tolerance
Vacuum measurement
,ig. 3.31 Diaphragm controller ;ith external automatic reference pressure regulation
Vacuum measurement
Mass spectrometry
4. Analysis of gas at
low pressures using
mass spectrometry
4.1 General
c
a
b
Mass spectrometry
Quadrupole exit
Focussing plate diaphragm
(extractor diaphragm) Ion source exit
diaphragm
(total pressure measurement)
Cathode
Anode
Shielding
Ion source Quadrupole separation system Ion detector
,ig. 4.2 Schematic for quadrupole mass spectrometer ,ig. 4.3 nuadrupole mass spectrometer b Extractor ioni^ation vacuum gauge
Mass spectrometry
1 +
+U
Transmission:
+
U
Transmission:
+ full - none
+ Rod: - Rod:
2 +
+U+V, cos
+
UV cos
Transmission: Transmission:
+ low-pass - high-pass
i+ i+
3
V1 V V1 V
i+ i+
4
M1 M M1 M
xI
9I
xI
Fx = 2e x cos ( t )
r02
Fy = 2e2 y cos ( t )
r0
9I
Fz = 0
xI
9I
Mass spectrometry
Range III
Positive ion
Separation system output
Collector
Electron suppressor
Faraday cup
Connection Amplifier
to front end
of the inside
surface Resistance of the inner surface
,ig. 4.6 Left+ Principle of the ,aradaO cupo Right+ Configuration of the Channeltron
Mass spectrometry
4.4.2 Pressure converter
a. Process pressure i 1 mbar+ Single-stage pressure converter.
b. Process pressure p 1 mbar
Non-segregating gas inlet system
Stage B Stage A
p 10 4 mbar p = 1 ... 10 mbar p = 10 ... 1000 mbar
L2 L3
Mass Capillary
"
#
spectrometer QHV
"
#
L1
Seff QPumping
No
Molecular flow Laminar flow
segregation
L2 molecular " dL 2
1 QHV # QPumping
L2 ~ %$
M (Transition laminar/molecular)
1
L1 ~ %$
M
Seff " L1 Seff ~ 1
M
%$
,ig. 4.7 Principle of the pressure converter (stage V onlO in the single-stage version and
stages A and V in t;o-stage units)
Mass spectrometry
Impact chamber
10 -5
10 -5
10 -5
10 -3 Cathode chamber
Example of the sputter Exit diaphragm
process
To be detected is 1 ppm N2 as
contamination in argon,
the working gas
10 -5 10 -5 10 -5 10 -5
,ig. 4.8 Zpen ion source (left) and closed ion source (right)
Impact chamber
Working gas for the process (Ar)
Cathode chamber
Exit diaphragms
AGM protective gas valve
10 -5
Process:
e. g. 50 mbar 10 -3 10 -5
Diaphragm Pump
10 -5
Mass spectrometry
i+
R
4 10 14A
pmin(FC) = = 4 10 10 mbar
110 4A / mbar
4.5.3 Sensitivity
i+ A
E=
pG mbar
i+
R
E = 110 4
A
mbar
+2 A
E = 110
mbar
100%
i
+
15%
1 amu
7,5%
Mass spectrometry
Mr
M=
ne
4.5.7 Information on surfaces and +
4 2
++
amenability to bake-out +
2
isotopes
+
log i
Regulation
Exact measurement
range
Automatic shut-down:
5 10 4
108
10 7
10 6 5
10 104
10 3 log P
,ig. 4.12 nualitative linearitO curve Fable 4.2 Relative frequencO of isotopes
Mass spectrometry
12
10
+
Ar
2
0 100 200 300 400 500
Electron energy (eV)
,ig. 4.13 Number of the various Ar ions producedA as a factor of electron energO level
<ragment 3istribution patterns
<ingerprint, %ra%Eing patternImportant:
Fable 4.2 Relative frequencO of isotopes
Spe%i<i% ioniIation
relative ioniIation
probabilities SRIPT
,ig. 4.14 Specific ioni^ation S for various gases bO electrons exhibiting energO level E
Mass spectrometry
T9pe o< gas S9mbol RIP T9pe o< gas S9mbol RIP
Mass spectrometry
++
2 )
++ 2
2+
Mass spectrometry
CO+
O+
O+
H2+ Ar++ CO+
H 2 O+ O2 + Ar+ CO2+
H2+
O+
N+
H+ OH+ Ne+ N2+
C+ O+
13C+ H3O+ 22Ne +
13CO+
+
H+ Ne++ C 16O18O+ 36Ar+ 13C16O +
2
14N15N+
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Argon
Nitrogen Water Neon Carbon monoxide
+
igas , m (measured )
2
pgas =
BFgas , m E gas TF (m)
2
+
gas
+
pgas = igas , m 2 (measured )
1 1
E N2 BFgas , m2 RIPgas TF (m)
+
+ + +
igas ,m1
igas (produced )= igas + i
,m 1 gas ,m2 +.... =
+
BF gas ,m 1
igas,m2
= =.... = Egas pgas
BFgas,m2
F,
Mass spectrometry
Parent spectrum
A A = Parent
range
Library spectrum:
Krypton
Library spectrum:
Argon
Library spectrum:
4.6.4 Quantitative gas analysis Neon
Mass spectrometry
1
[FF T i] [FF T BF ]
I=
det[FF T BF ]
i j+ BF j, k BF j,o I k+
i + FFm, g I g+
m
=
4.7 Software
+ 4.7.1 Standard SQX software (DOS) for
iu BFu, k BFu,o I o+
stand-alone operation (1 MS plus 1
PC, RS 232)
m
0
im+ = BFm, g I g+
g=k
+
m
0
BFm, g
g=k
+g
Ff m, g
!""""#"""$ 4.7.2 Multiplex/DOS software MQX
im = pg E N2 RIPg FFm TFm
+ (1 to 8 MS plus 1 PC, RS 485)
Transmission factor
for the mass m
Fragment factor
for the gas to mass m
Relative ionization probability
for the gas
Nitrogen sensitivity (equipment constant)
Partial pressure of the gas 4.7.3 Process-oriented software
Ion current for atomic number m
Transpector-Ware for Windows
m c g m p g
+g
g+* m
+
*
+m
+ + 2
(im im*) = min
Mass spectrometry
4.9 Maintenance
4.8 Partial pressure regulation
Sensor balan%ing
%lean the sensor
t4
t5
Mass spectrometer
Pressure stage
Regulation valve t1 "
!"
#
Sensor
t6 t2 t3
! Vacuum vessel !"
!
TMP50CF
,ig. 4.18 Improving the signal-to-noise ratio bO increasing the pressure or extending the
,ig. 4.17 Partial shares for overall time constants integration time
Leak detection
5. Leaks and their 5.2 Leak rate, leak size, mass flow
detection
(p V ) R T m
QL = =
t M t
5.1 Types of leaks
nature
o< the material or hoining <ault:
( p V ) . mbar ! 298K 1g
8314
QL = =
t mol K 121g mol 1 1year
. 2.98 102 1 mbar !
8314
=
1211 . 107s
315
. 2.98102 7 mbar !
8314
= 10
1.21102 315
. s
mbar !
= 65 107
s
Leak detection
QL
p =
end S
eff
p = 1013 mbar, Hole diameter d = 1 cm
m
Gas speed = Speed of sound = 330 s
3
12 +3 cm
330 m
!
2
Volume/second: s 4 cm = 25.95 10 s = 25.95 s
,ig. 5.1 Correlation bet;een leaP rate and hole si^e Fable 5.1 Estimating borderline leaP rates
Leak detection
Leak <----> Hole Substance quantity trhough hole per unit of time Helium standard leak rate:
Q ... Leak rate, (p V) p1 = 1 bar, p2 < 1 mbar (p = 1 bar)
In short: Leak Definition: Q = Test gas = Helium
Helium leak detector ULTRATEST UL 200 dry/UL 500 t
Vacuum method
Contura Z
Familiar leaks: Quantity escaping: Standard He leak rate:
mg mbar ! mbar !
Helium leak detector ULTRATEST UL 200/UL 500 dry/Modul 200/LDS 1000
Dripping water faucet 34 s Water ! = 6.45 s Air " 0.17 s He Std
4 mm diam., 1 Hz, p = 4 bar
Pressure rise
mbar ! mbar !
Hair on a gasket 10 2 s Air 0.9 10 2 s He Std
103................100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 mbar l s-1
Bicycle tube in water
(bubble test)
3 Ncm mbar ! mbar !
3
Ecotec II / Protec 2 mm diam., 1 Hz, p = 0.1 bar 4.19 10 s ! = 4.24 10 3
s Air " 1.88 10 2 s He Std
Overpressure method
ULTRATEST with helium sniffer Car tire loses air mbar !
mbar ! 4.3 10 5 s He Std
25 l, 6 Mo: 1.8 --> 1.6 bar 3.18 10 4 s Air
Halogen sniffer HLD4000A
Small refrigerant cylinder
g mbar ! mbar !
Bubble test
empties in 1 year !
430 a Frigen = 2.8 10 3 s F12 " 4.33 10 5 s He Std
430 g refrigerant R12, 25C
,ig. 5.2 LeaP rate ranges for various leaP detection processes and devices ,ig. 5.3 Examples for conversion into helium standard leaP rates
va%uum metho3
5.2.2 Conversion equations
positive pressure metho3
QI p12 p22 II =
( ) Q II p12 p22 I
( ) QI (p1 p2)II = QII (p1 p2)I
lo%al measurement
Qgas A Mgas A = Qgas B Mgas B
integral measurement
Fable 5.2 Conversion formulae for changes of pressure and gas tOpe
Leak detection
Helium
Helium
Helium
,ig. 5.4 LeaP test techniques and terminologO
rehe%tion rate
Leak detection
Q 6 10 5 mbar ! s 1
pend = L =
Seff 30 ! s 1
= 2 10 6 mbar
,ig. 5.5 Pressure rise ;ithin a vessel after the pump is s;itched off
m mbar ! g
QL = = 6 105 29
t s mol
mol K g
= 7 10 8
2
. mbar ! 293 10 K
8314 s
Leak detection
5.4.6 Vacuum box check bubble
Leak detection
Method Test gas Smallest detectable Pressure range Quantitative
leak rate measurement
mbar !/s g/a R 134 a
Foaming Air and others 10
4
7 10
1
Positive pressure No
liquids
2
Ultrasonic Air and others 10 70 Positive pressure No
microphone
3 5 1
Thermal conducti- Gases other 10 10 10 7 Positive pressure No
vity leak detector than air and vacuum
Halogen Substances 10
6
7 10
3
Positive pressure With
5 1
leak detection containing (10 ) (10 ) (vacuum) limitations
halogens
Universal Refrigerants, 10
5
7 10
3
Positive pressure Yes
sniffer helium and
leak detector other gases
12 9
Helium Helium 10 7 10 Vacuum, Yes
leak detection 10
7
7 10
4
positive pressure
Bubble test Air and other 10
3
7 Positive pressure No
gases
2
Water pressure Water 10 70 Positive pressure No
test
4 1
Pressure Air and other 10 7 10 Positive pressure Yes
drop test gases 5.5.2 Leak detectors with mass
Pressure Air 10
4
7 10
1
Vacuum Yes spectrometers (MSLD)
rise test
Leak detection
leaE rate 3ispla9e3 3ire%t
Test specimen
Test connection
Leak detector
QHe = pHe SeffHe
Exhaust
,ig. 5.6 Vasic operating principle for a leaP detector ,ig. 5.7 Correct set-up for a MSLD
Leak detection
<loating Iero-point
suppression
Test leaEs
5.5.2.3 Calibrating leak detectors; test leaks
a b c d e
a Reference leak without gas supply, TL4, TL6 d Permeation (diffusion) reference leak, TL8
b Reference leak for sniffer and vacuum e Refrigerant calibrated leak
applications, TL4-6
c (Internal) capillary test leak TL7
,ig. 5.8 Example of ^ero-point suppression ,ig. 5.9 Examples for the construction of test leaPs
Leak detection
5.5.2.4 Leak detectors with quadrupole mass 5.5.2.5 Helium leak detectors with 180 sector
spectrometer (ECOTEC II) mass spectrometer (UL 200, UL 500)
tuning
14 1
13
2
external flow internal
limiter 1 particle
12 3
particle
4
filter filter
11 5
QMA 200 flow divider 1 6
flow
limiter 2
10
flow divider 2
flow
limiter 3
flow meter
7
9 8
pv
1
2
,ig. 5.10 Iacuum schematic for the ECZFEC II ,ig. 5.11 Configuration of the 180E sector mass spectrometer
Leak detection
%ounter-
<low leaE 3ete%tor
5.5.2.6 Direct-flow and counter-flow leak
detectors
3ire%t-<low leaE 3ete%tor
Solution 1: Direct-flow leak Solution 2: Counter-flow
detector leak detector
Test specimen Test specimen
Test gas stream Test gas stream
p TOT < 104 mbar
LN 2 pHe pHe
MS MS
p TOT < 104 mbar High vacuum pump
High vacuum pump 5.5.2.7 Partial flow operation
Auxiliary pump Roughing pump Auxiliary pump Roughing pump
Cold trap:
2
S = 6.1 !/s cm
Fl 1000 cm
S = 6,100 !/s
2
,ig. 5.12 ,ull-flo; and counter-flo; leaP detector
Leak detection
5.5.2.8 Connection to vacuum systems
V = 150 ! s =
Seff
V V V
S/2
! S S S
mbar !
8s ! mbar !
5 6
Signal to Leak detector: 3 10 s = 9.73 10 s MS MS MS
(8 + 16.66) s
Q Throttle
!
Check: Overall signal QHe = QLD + QPFP = 3.00 105 mbars ! Q = 2p 100%
S
2,0
/2
95%
Partial flow ratio = Fraction of the overall flow to the leak detector '
Q QLD 1
= LD =
or =
SLD
=
QHe QLD + QPFP 1 + nnn
= 1
Q
Q
S
PFP #
QLD = QHe
LD
)
Signal rise
,ig. 5.13 Partial flo; principle ,ig. 5.14 Signal responses and pumping speed
Leak detection
Q t
pHe = 1 e
Seff
response time
Leak detection
5.7.2 Sniffer technology
(local leak test using the positive
pressure method)
bT Dire%t measurement o< the leaE rate with the leaE 3ete%tor
Srigi3 envelopeT
5.7.3 Vacuum envelope test
(integral leak test)
bT Rigi3 envelope
Leak detection
6.1 Introduction
Mf F F
= or Mf = Mq with
Mq Fq Fq
Cr9stalSix
RateVat%her
Fq
F F
Df = Dq q =K
Fq Fq f f
Dq Fq q NAT q
K= =
2 2
Fq Fq
Thin film controllers/control units
E
Node
,ig. 6.2 FhicPness shear oscillations ,ig. 6.3 Shape of LEeVZLD-Inficon quart^ crOstals
F
Df = K
f
6.3 The shape of quartz oscillator
crystals
,ig. 6.4 ,requencO resonance spectrum
6.4 Period measurement
Mf (Tc Tq) F
= =
Mq Tq Fc
N d (Fq Fc)
Tf = AT q arctg Z tg
df Fc Z
Fq
dq Uq
Z=
df U f
Thin film controllers/control units
,ig. 6.5 Circuit of the active oscillator ,ig. 6.6 CrOstal frequencies near the series resonance point
,ig. 6.7 Zscillations of a thicPlO coated crOstal
F F
tg M Z c + Z tg c = 0
Fq Fq
Fc
tg M Z
Fq
Z=
Fc
tg
Fq
mo3e-lo%E
Thin film controllers/control units
Output K p 10 s
P =
Input s +1
I D
S
M(s) = Kc 1 + + Td S E (s)
Ti
1.00 K p
0.0632 K p
point of
maximum
rise
[process] [controller]
T1 = t(0.632) L
Kp = (change in output signal)/(change in control signal)
,ig. 6.8 Process response to a step change ;ith t c 0 (open loopA control signal amplified) ,ig. 6.9 VlocP diagram of the PID controller
0947
.
. L
136
Kc =
p T1
K
0.738
. L
119
Ti =
T1 T1
0995
.
L
Td = (0.381 T1)
T1
ISE = e2(t) dt
ISE
IAE
IAE = e(t) dt
ISE
IFAE
Auto Control
ITAE = t e(t) dt Tune
IFAE
IFAE
IFAE
6.10 INFICON instrument variants
Auto Control Tune
IFAE
IFAE
Thin film controllers/control units
7. Application of
vacuum technology
for coating
techniques
Annealing of metals
Degassing of melts
Evaporation
Sputtering of metals
Drying of plastics
10 7 3 0 3
10 10 10 10 10
Pressure [mbar]
Applications of vacuum technology
6
5
7
4
3 8
1 9
7.2.2 Electron beam evaporators (electron
guns)
Coating methods
,ig. 7.4 Diagramm of a batch sOstem for coating parts ,ig. 7.5 Multi-chamber parts-coating unit (rotationallO sOmmetric in-line sOstem DOnaMet 4I)
Applications of vacuum technology
High-perfor-
mance
plasma
source
Electron
beam
evaporator
Monomer O2
Ar
,ig. 7.6 Schematic diagram of a vacuum ;eb coating sOstem ,ig. 7.7 Coating unit for optical coating sOstems
7.3.3 Optical coatings
Coating methods
S1 SZ S2
to backing pumps
,ig. 7.8 Plant for coating glass panes b 3-chamber in-line sOstemA throughput up to ,ig. 7.9 Principle of chamber separation through pressure stages
3A600A000 m2 / Oear
Applications of vacuum technology
,ig. 7.10 Plant for coating data storage disPs ;ith carrier transport sOstem
8. Instructions for
vacuum equipment
operation
Eliminating %ontamination <or glass eHuipment
8.1 Causes of faults where the
desired ultimate pressure is not
achieved or is achieved too
slowly
Instructions for equipment operation
,ig. 8.1 Zil loss for oil-sealed pumps (referenced to an approximate maximum value of 2 cm3
oil loss per cubic meter of air dra;n in rSFPs)
Explosion prote%tion
AlEaline solutions
Elementar9 gases
Prote%tion against %on3ensation
h93rogen
Ox9gen: Parti%ular %aution is reHuire3 when pumping pure ox9genc
AlEanes
Corrosion prote%tion
Al%ohols
gT Solvents
A%etone:
BenIene:
A%i3s
Carbon tetra%hlori3e an3 tri%hloreth9lene:
Instructions for equipment operation
Toluene:
8.3.1.4 Operating defects while pumping with gas
ballast Potential sources of error where
the required ultimate pressure is not
achieved
pmax
p = where
E k th 1
Theoretical pumping speed for the roots pump
k th =
Nominal pumping speed for the roughing pump
Potential sour%es o< error when the pump no longer turns
8.3.2.2 Oil change, maintenance work
Oil exits at the sha<t
8.3.2 Roots pumps
8.3.2.1 General operating instructions, installation
and commissioning
be avoi3e3
Importantc
8.3.2.3 Actions in case of operational disturbances
Pump be%omes too warm:
Overloa3ing:
In%orre%t %learan%es:
Soile3 bearings:
Improper oil level:
In%orre%t oil t9pe:
Ex%essive power %onsumption:
Oiling at the pump %hamber:
Oil level too high:
Oil mixe3 with the pro3u%t: 8.3.3.2 Maintenance
Pump leaEing:
Abnormal running noises:
Grime at the impeller
Bearing or gearing 3amage
Impellers are tou%hing the housing
Instructions for equipment operation
Changing the pump <lui3:
8.3.6 Titanium sublimation pumps
I< at all
possible, install sensors verti%all9 an3 open to the bottom.
Instructions for equipment operation
Fable I+ Permissible pressure units including the torr 1) and its conversion
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
#****
cw =
2RT
M
cw = 1.29 104#*
M
T cm
s
cw = 410 [m/s]
of particles c #****
c = 8 R T
M
c = 1.46 10 #*
4
T
M
cm
s
c = 464 [m/s]
M s s
T cm 2 cm2
Mean square of velocity 2 3 R T 2 8 2
c = c = 2.49 10 2 c = 25.16 104 2
of particles c2 M
p=nkT p = 13.80 1020 n T [mbar] p = 4.04 1017 n [mbar] (applies to all gases)
1
p = n m T c2
3
1
p = $ c2
3
p
n = p/kT n = 7.25 1018 [cm3] p = 2.5 1016 p [cm3] (applies to all gases)
T
1 p ZA = 2.85 1020 p [cm2 s1] (see Fig. 78.2)
ZA = n c ZA = 2.63 1022 p [cm2 s1]
4 #**
M **
T
ZA = #****
N
p
2MkT
A
Fable II+ Compilation of important formulas pertaining to the Pinetic theorO of gases
Fable II+ Conversion of pumping speed (volume flo; rate) units
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
Fable Im+ Pressure ranges used in vacuum technologO and their characteristics (numbers rounded off to ;hole po;er of ten)
Fable mI+ Nominal internal diameters (DN) and internal diameters of tubesA pipes and apertures
;ith circular cross-section (according to PNEaRZP).
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
$ $ $ $
1 Sources+ Smithsonian Meteorological Fables 6th. ed. (1971) and IDI vapor tables 6th ed (1963).
Fable mIII+ Saturation pressure ps and vapor densitO $D of ;ater in a temperature range from b100EC to t140EC1
Legen3
MESG
MIC
Fable mII+ ka^ard classification of fluids according to their MES[1 and/or MIC2 values.
(Extract from European Standard EN 50.014)
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
Fable mI+ Chemical resistance of commonlO used elastomer gasPets and sealing materials
Fable mI+ Chemical resistance of commonlO used elastomer gasPets and sealing materials
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
Fable mI+ Chemical resistance of commonlO used elastomer gasPets and sealing materials
Vacuum symbols
Vacuum pumps
Accessories
Fable mII+ SOmbols used in vacuum technologO (extract from DIN 28401)
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
Modes of operation
Vacuum chambers
Shut-off devices
Fable mII+ SOmbols used in vacuum technologO (extract from DIN 28401) (continuation)
Measurement and
gauges
Measurement of throughput
Fable mII+ SOmbols used in vacuum technologO (extract from DIN 28401) (continuation)
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
Fable mIII+ Femperature comparison and conversion table (rounded off to ;hole degrees)
~ 1
p
,ig. 9.1+ Iariation of mean free path (cm) ;ith pressure for various gases
,ig. 9.3+ Decrease in air pressure (1) and change in temperature (2) as a function of altitude
,ig. 9.5+ Conductance values for piping of commonlO used nominal ;idth ;ith circular cross-
section for laminar flo; (p c 1 mbar) according to equation 53a. (FhicP lines refer to
preferred DN) ,lo; medium+ air (dA l in cmu)
,ig. 9.6+ Conductance values for piping of commonlO used nominal ;idth ;ith circular cross-section
for molecular flo; according to equation 53b. (FhicP lines refer to preferred DN) ,lo;
,ig. 9.4+ Change in gas composition of the atmosphere as a function of altitude medium+ air (dA l in cmu)
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
pEND pend, p
mbar
Example 1 Example 2
,ig. 9.7+ Nomogram for determination of pump-do;n time tp of a vessel in the rough vacuum pressure range
Example:
,ig. 9.8+ Nomogram for determination of the conductance of tubes ;ith a circular cross-section for air at 20 EC in the region of molecular flo; (according to v. DELA,ZSSE and [. MZN[ZDIN+ Les
calculs de la Fechnique du IideA special issue QLe IideRA 1961).
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
Pro%e3ure: Example:
,ig. 9.9+ Nomogram for determination of conductance of tubes (airA 20 EC) in the entire pressure range.
Example 1:
example 2
,ig. 9.10+ Determination of pump-do;n time in the medium vacuum range taPing into account the outgasing from the ;alls
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
1000
1,00E+03
Mercury
100
1,00E+02
10
1,00E+01
1,00E+00 1
Santovac 5
(similar to Ultralen)
10-1
1,00E-01
Aziepon 201
10-3
1,00E-03
DC 704 Diffelen ultr a
10-4
1,00E-04
10-5
1,00E-05
1,00E-06 -6
10 DC 705
1,00E-07-7
10
Diffelen
light
1,00E-08-8
10
Diffelen
normal
1,00E-09-9
10
,ig. 9.11+ Saturation vapor pressure of various substances
10 -10
1,00E-10
10-11
1,00E-11
10-12
1,00E-12
,ig. 9.12+ Saturation vapor pressure of pump fluids for oil and mercurO fluid entrainment pumps
,ig. 9.13+ Saturation vapor pressure of major metals used in vacuum technologO
# critical point
$ melting point
,ig. 9.14+ Iapor pressure of nonmetallic sealing materials (the vapor pressure curve for fluoro ,ig. 9.15+ Saturation vapor pressure ps of various substances relevant for crOogenic technologO in
rubber lies bet;een the curves for silicone rubber and Feflon). a temperaturerange of F c 2 b 80 f.
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
,ig. 9.17+ Specific volume Isp of saturated ;ater vapor in m3/Pg ;ithin a range of 0.013 to 133 mbar.
,ig. 9.18+ VreaPdo;n voltage a bet;een parallel electrodes in a homogeneous electrical field as
a function of gas pressure p distance bet;een electrodes d (in mm) (Paschen curve)A
for air.
Tables, Formulas, Diagrams
Statutory units
Statutory units
^p
Statutory units
Statutory units
Statutory units
3/1: A%tivit9
3/6: Veight
3/3: Pressure onl9
3ensit9
3/10: For%e
Conversions
981 mbar
981 mbar
3/11: Length/wavelength
3/12: LeaE rate
Statutory units
3/26: Angle
3/16: Stan3ar3 volume
3/17: Partial pressure
3/20: Relative atomi% mass
Statutory units
10.4.2 Derived coherent1 SI units with 10.4.4 Derived noncoherent SI units with
special names and symbols special names and symbols
(alphabetical)
Vacuum technology standards
to vacuum
technology
Vacuum technology standards
AT European/national agreements, EN, DIN/EN, CEN
BT International agreements, ISO, EN/ISO
CT PNEUROP/C5 S6.93T
References
12.References
1. Overview, definitions and
history
References
2. Vacuum pumps
References
References
References
References
References
3. Ultrahigh vacuum technology
4. Conductances, flanges,
valves, etc.
References
5. Measurement of low pressures
References
6. Pressure monitoring,
control and regulation
References
References
References
Index
13. Index
Index
Index
Index
Index