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B5

FUNDAMENTALS OF
VACUUM TECHNOLOGY
Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology

Fundamentals of
Vacuum Technology


Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology

Preface

Preface


Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology

Table of Contents

1. Va%uum ph9si%s :uantities, their s9mbols,


units o< measure an3 3e<initions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9













2. Va%uum Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19







3. Va%uum measurement, monitoring, %ontrol
an3 regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76































Table of Contents

4. Anal9sis o< gas at low pressures using


mass spe%trometr9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95





























6 Thin <ilm %ontrollers an3 %ontrol units with HuartI
os%illators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125





5 LeaEs an3 their 3ete%tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110






7 Appli%ation o< va%uum te%hnolog9 <or
%oating te%hniHues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133








Table of Contents





8 Instru%tions <or va%uum eHuipment operation . . . . . . . . .139



































9. Tables, <ormulas, nomograms, 3iagrams an3 s9mbols . .147










10. The statutor9 units use3 in va%uum te%hnolog9 . . . . . . . .171




Table of Contents

11. National an3 international stan3ar3s an3


re%ommen3ations parti%ularl9 relevant
to va%uum te%hnolog9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178


12. Re<eren%es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

13. In3ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

Vacuum physics

1. Quantities, their Ultimate pressure pen3



symbols, units of

measure and

definitions

(cf. DIN 28 400, Part 1, 1990,
DIN 1314 and DIN 28 402)

1.1 Basic terms and concepts in Ambient pressure pamb


vacuum technology SabsoluteT atmospheri% pressure

Pressure p Overpressure pe or gauge pressure


VorEing pressure pV



Absolute pressure pabs



Total pressure pt

Parti%le number 3ensit9 n


Partial pressure pi

Important note+


partial ultimate pressure

Saturation vapor pressure ps

Vapor pressure p3 Gas 3ensit9



Stan3ar3 pressure pn The i3eal gas law




Vacuum physics

Volume V

=





=

Volumetri% <low S<low volumeT Hv







Pumping spee3 S



=



1g 83.14 mbar ! mol 1 K 1 293 K
p= =
10 ! K 4 g mol 1 =

= 609 mbar


1g 83.14 mbar ! mol 1 K 1 293 K
p= =
10 ! K 28 g mol 1 :uantit9 o< gas SpV valueT,
= 87 mbar

p V = m R T
M

Vacuum physics

p V M
m=
R T






Example:


100 mbar ! 28 g mol 1

m= =
83 mbar ! mol 1 K 1 300 K



2800
= g = 0.113 g
300 83

Con3u%tan%e C






Mass <low Hm




=


pV <low HpV




= =


=

Pump throughput HpV


= + + +


Vacuum physics

LeaE rate HL




8 k T 8 R T
c= =
mT M

1
=
2 n (2r)2
Outgassing





Outgassing rate

Outgassing rate Impingement rate IA


Sre<eren%e3 to sur<a%e areaT monola9er <ormation time





Mean <ree path o< the mole%ules an3 %ollision rate I

n c
zA =
4

a 4 a
= =
zA n c

Collision <reHuen%9 Iv
[ hal<
two one

zV = n z

2

-c

Vacuum physics

1.2 Atmospheric air Ga9-Lussa%^s Law SCharles^ LawT

V = V0 (1 + t )

Amonton^s Law

p = p0 (1 + t )


Dalton^s Law

pi = p total
i


Poisson^s Law



Avoga3ro^s Law
m1 m 2
: = M1 : M 2
V1 V2


I3eal gas Law

m
p V = R T = R T
M

EHuation o< state <or i3eal gases


van 3er Vaals^ EHuation
a
(p + ) ( Vm b) = R T
Vm2
1.3 Gas laws and models


1.3.1 Continuum theory EHuation o< state <or real gases

Clausius-Clape9ron EHuation

dp
L =T ( V Vm, l )
dT m, v

1.3.2 Kinetic gas theory


Summar9 o< the most important gas laws S%ontinuum theor9T

Bo9le-Mariotte Law





Vacuum physics


Mo3el %on%epts an3 basi% assumptions: mT = M = Mass / mol
NA Molecules / mol







mT
[ [ =1
M

[ [

n 1 m
c 2 m T c = n c2 m T = p p V = R T
6 3 M


N
n=
V 1013.25 mbar 22.4 ! mol 1
R= =
273.15 K
1 mbar !
p V = N mT c2 = 83.14
3 mol K

I3eal gas law S3erive3 <rom the Eineti% gas theor9T



c2

p V =
m 1
R T = N m T c2
1.4 The pressure ranges in
M 3 vacuum technology and their
characterization
mT R 2 m c2
pV = N ( ) T = N( T )
M 3 2






mT R J
k= = 1.38 10 23
M K



mT c 2
E kin = 2

2
p V = N k T = N E kin
3

Vacuum physics

1.5 Types of flow and conductance


p qm
mbar %

1
100

2 75

1.5.1 Types of flow 1000


qm
p
Vis%ous or %ontinuum <low 50

470
25

0
turbulent <low s

venting time (t)



Poiseuille <low
,ig. 1.1 Schematic representation of venting an evacuated vessel

Mole%ular <low


Knu3sen <low
%hoEe3 <low

Rough va%uum a Vis%ous <low

d
<
p 100
pcrit = p1 1 2
p1 crit
Me3ium va%uum a Knu3sen <low
d d
<<
100 2

p2

= 0528 .
p1 crit bigh an3 ultrahigh va%uum a Mole%ular <low
d
>
2


Vacuum physics

1 1 1
= +
Seff S C

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + . . .
C C1 C2 C3 Cn

1.5.3 Conductance for piping and orifices

d4 d 3 1 + 192 d p
C = 135 p +12.1 !/s
l l 1 + 237 d p

1.5.2 Calculating conductance values
p1 + p2
p=
2

Vacuum physics

d 3 A !
C = 12.1 f (d p ) Cvisc = 76.6 0.712 1 0.288
l
1 s


1 + 203 d p + 2.78 10 3 d 2 p 2
f (d p ) = A !
1 + 237 d p C visc = 20
1 s

p
!
Cvisc = 20 A
Limit <or laminar <low s
p

d4
C = 135 p !/ s p
l
2
p1 crit
Limit <or mole%ular <low
p

d3
C = 12.1 ! /s
l

In the mole%ular <low region the %on3u%tan%e value is in3epen3ent o<
pressurec

p

Con3u%tan%e value C <or an ori<i%e A



,ig. 1.3 Conductance values relative to the areaA CBviscA CBmolA and pumping speed SBvisc and
,ig. 1.2 ,lo; of a gas through an opening (A) at high pressures (viscous flo;) SBmol for an orifice AA depending on the pressure relationship p2/p1 for air at 20 EC.


Vacuum physics












Fable 1.1 Conversion factors (see text)

Nomographi% 3etermination o< %on3u%tan%e values

The lines shoul3 be as short an3 as wi3e as possible.




qpV
Re = 15
d

1.5.4 Conductance values for


other elements



leff = laxial +133
. d
180

Vacuum generation

2. Vacuum generation


2.1. Vacuum pumps: A survey

Vacuum pump
(Operating principle)

Gas transfer Entrapment


vacuum pump vacuum pump
Positive displacement Kinetic
vacuum pump vacuum pump

Reciprocating Rotary Drag Fluid entrainment Ion transfer Adsorption


positive displacement
vacuum pump vacuum pump vacuum pump vacuum pump vacuum pump pump

Diaphragm Liquid sealed Gaseous ring Ejector


vacuum pump vacuum pump vacuum pump vacuum pump Getter pump

Liquid ring
Piston vacuum pump Turbine Liquid jet
Bulk getter pump
vacuum pump vacuum pump vacuum pump

Rotary vane
vacuum pump Axial flow Gas jet Sublimation
vacuum pump vacuum pump pump

Multiple vane
vacuum pump
Radial flow Vapor jet Getter ion pump
vacuum pump vacuum pump

Rotary piston
vacuum pump
Molecular drag
vacuum pump Diffusion pump Evaporation ion pump

Rotary plunger
vacuum pump

Turbomolecular pump Self-purifying Sputter-ion pump


diffusion pump

Dry compressing
vacuum pump

Fractionating
Cryopump
diffusion pump
Roots
vacuum pump

Diffusion ejector Condenser


pump
Claw
vacuum pump

Scroll pump

Fable 2.1 Classification of vacuum pumps


Vacuum generation

2.1.1 Oscillation displacement vacuum


pumps


2.1.1.1 Diaphragm pumps






2.1.2 Liquid sealed rotary displacement

pumps

2.1.2.1 Liquid ring pumps






a)

b)

c)

d)

,ig. 2.1 Schematic on the design of a diaphragm pump stage (Iacuubrand) ,ig. 2.2 Principle of operation for a t;o-stage diaphragm pump (Iacuubrand)

Vacuum generation

,ig. 2.4 Arrangement of the sealing passage in rotarO vane pumps


also Pno;n as Qduo sealR

,ig. 2.3 Liquid ring vacuum pumpA schematic (Siemens)








2.1.2.2.1 Rotary vane pumps (TRIVAC A,


TRIVAC B, TRIVAC E, SOGEVAC)

2.1.2.2 Oil sealed rotary displacement pumps


,ig. 2.5 Cross section of a single-stage rotarO vane pump (FRIIAC A)


Vacuum generation




























,ig. 2.6 Cross section of a single-stage rotarO vane pump (FRIIAC V)





Fable 2.2 RotarO vacuum pump ranges

Vacuum generation

,ig. 2.7 Cross section of a t;o-stage rotarO vane pumpA schematic ,ig. 2.8a Cross section of a t;o-stage rotarO vane pump (FRIIAC E)

2.1.2.2.2 Rotary plunger pumps (E-Pumps)

,ig. 2.8b SZ[EIAC pump SI 300 ;ith three tangential vanes ,ig. 2.9 Cross section of a single-stage rotarO plunger pump (monoblocP design)


Vacuum generation

2.1.2.2.3 Trochoid pumps
























,ig. 2.10 Zperating cOcle of a rotarO plunger pump (for positions 1 to 9 of the plunger)

2.1.2.2.4 The gas ballast

Motor power













,ig. 2.11 Motor po;er of a rotarO plunger pump (pumping speed 60 m3/h) as a function of
intaPe pressure and operating temperature. Fhe curves for gas ballast pumps of other
si^es are similar. ,ig. 2.12 Cross section of a trochoid pump

Vacuum generation

Di
sc
ha
ion

rg
e
ss

t
inle
pre

st
alla
Com

sb
Ga

Gas ballast Position


inlet of the
leading
vane

on
Sucti

,ig. 2.13 _orPing process ;ithin a rotarO vane pump ;ith gas ballast

aT Vithout gas ballast bT Vith gas ballast


















,ig. 2.14 Diagram of pumping process in a rotarO vane pump ;ithout (left) and ;ith (right) gas
ballast device ;hen pumping condensable substances.



Simultaneous pumping o< gases an3 vapors



pvapour p
< vapour , sat
pvapour + pperm p sum


Vacuum generation

Example 1:






pvapour, sat
pvapour p
psum pvapour, sat perm






pvapour, H O 312 (p p )
= 0. 23 pvapour B psum Vapour, sat vapour, g.b. +
2
<
pvapour, H O + pair 1350
2 S p sum pvapour, sat
pvapour sat
+p pperm
sum pvapour sat


Example 2:








pvapour,. acid 0.5 1
=< =
. acid + pair
pvapour, 1.5 3

Vater vapor toleran%e





pure




,ig. 2.15 Saturation vapor pressures

Vacuum generation

B p ( H O ) pvapour, g.b. 2.1.3 Dry compressing rotary


p W, O = p sum s 2 displacement pumps
S psum ps ( H 2O )

2.1.3.1 Roots pumps












pL [mbar]



pW [mbar]

Temperature of the pump 1


2 2

,ig. 2.16 Partial pressure p_ of ;ater vapor that can be pumped ;ith the gas ballast valve
open ;ithout condensation in the pumpA as a function of the pump temperature for
various partial pressures pL of air. Fhe lo;est curve corresponds to the ;ater vapor

3
5

,ig. 2.17 Schematic cross section of a Roots pump









Other gases as ballast


Vacuum generation

Chara%teristi% Huantities o< roots pumps


,ig. 2.18 Maximum compression P0 of the Roots pump RaIAC _A 2001 as a function of fore
vacuum pressure pI









pV S
k= = th
pa SV




Q eff
=
Q th



pV SiR
= 1
pa Sth
k0
=
ko + k th
SiR
= 1 k
Sth



Sth
k0 = ( ) =
SiR 0






= 1 k
ko
RUVAC VA 2001 /
E 250

Vacuum generation


Power reHuirement o< a roots pump

Fable 2.3


Vacuum generation

,ig. 2.19 Pumping speed curves for different pump combinations ;ith the corresponding bacPing pumps

Loa3 rating o< a roots pump Maintaining the allowe3 pressure 3i<<eren%e













T9pes o< motors use3 with roots pumps

,ig. 2.20 Cross section of a Roots pumps ;ith bOpass line

Vacuum generation







WAU 2001

2.1.3.2 Claw pumps



SOGEVAC SV 1200

3esign prin%iple


,ig. 2.21 Iacuum diagram b Roots pump ;ith integrated bOpass line and bacPing pump



Pre-a3mission %ooling

4
4 c




1 Intake port 2 Discharge port 3 Gas cooler 4 Flow of cold gas

,ig. 2.22 Diagram of a Roots pump ;ith pre-admission cooling ,ig. 2.23 Principle of operation


Vacuum generation

Z
P
Z

P
Z
P

,ig. 2.25 Pressures in pump stages 1 to 4






,ig. 2.24 Arrangement of the pumps and guiding of the gas flo;. P c Pump stage d c

Intermediate ring

with internal %ompressionsemi%on3u%tor


in3ustr9 SDReVAC SeriesT
without internal %ompression%hemistr9
SfALL[exgT

P P
W Compr. 1 W Compr.
1 2 2

4 3

V V

,ig. 2.27 Compression curve for a cla; pump ;ithout internal compression (Qisochoric
,ig. 2.26 Compression curve for a cla; pump ;ith internal compression compressionR)

Vacuum generation



,ig. 2.29a Iacuum diagram for the DReIAC V


,ig. 2.28 DReIAC pump






ALL[ex

2.1.3.2.1 Claw pumps with internal compression


for the semiconductor industry

(DRYVAC series)
Design o< DReVAC Pumps


Vacuum generation

To be provided by the customer

TSH Temperature switch

PSL Pressure switch

PSH Pressure switch

FSL Flow switch

MPS Motor protection switch

PT 100 Temperature sensor

For DRYVAC with LIMS

CS Current sensor

EPS Exhaust pressure sensor

,ig. 2.29c Iacuum diagram for the DReIAC S ,ig. 2.30 feO to ,igures 2.29a b 2.29c





q pV mbar ! s 1
v = =
Gas p A mbar cm2

10 q pV m
=
pA s

Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4


2 500 mbar !/s 8 300 mbar !/s 20 000 mbar !/s

Particle size
Limit speed

Gas velocity

Throughput in mbar !/s

Pressure Throughput cross section 6.5 cm2, constant

Pressure

,ig. 2.31 Settling speed as a function of pressure p. Parameter+ particle si^e ,ig. 2.32 Mean gas velocitO vg during compression ;ithout purge gas (left) and ;ith purge gas
(right) in stages 2A 3 and 4

Vacuum generation

2.1.3.2.2 Claw pumps without internal


compression for chemistry applications
(ALLex )
,ig. 2.33 altimate pressure of the DReIAC 100S as a function of pure gas flo; in stages 2 b 4








Design o< the fALL[exg pump

,ig. 2.34 Pumping speed ;ith and ;ithout purge gas ,ig. 2.35 Simple arrangement of the drO compression QALLgexR pump


Vacuum generation

,ig. 2.36 QALLgexR pump

Operating prin%iple

Vacuum generation

1000

m
3 . h-1

Saugvermgen
100

Pumping speed
10
8
6
4
2

1 2 4 6 8
1 10 100 mbar 1000
Ansaugdruck
Intake pressure

,ig. 2.37 Circulation of the cold gas in the QALLgexR ;ith cooler / condenser ,ig. 2.39 Pumping speed characteristic of an ALLgex 250

Vmax

Exhaust slot Intake


Volume of the pump slot
chamber starts to increase
1
Suction
Cold gas inlet Vmin
100 1000 Pmbar
(10) (100)

Vmax

Volume of the pump


chamber at maximum
2
End of suction
Vmin
100 1000 Pmbar
(10) (100)

Cold gas inlet


Vmax

Volume of the pump chamber


stars to decrease (without
compression). Pressure
increase to 1000 mbar
3 only by admitting cold gas.

Vmin

Beginning of admitting cold gas 100 1000 Pmbar


(10) (100)

Vmax

Ejection of the mixture Exhaust slot


composed of sucked
in gas and cold gas.
4
Cold gas inlet Vmin
100 1000 Pmbar
(10) (100)

,ig. 2.38 Diagrams illustrating the pumping principle of the ALLgex pump (cla; pump ;ithout inner compression)


Vacuum generation

2.1.4 Accessories for oil-sealed


rotary displacement pumps

Elimination o< water vapor

%on3ensate traps

3is%harge <ilters

Elimination of dust



3ust separator

3ust <ilter

,ig. 2.40 Cross section of a medium vacuum adsorption trap



Elimination of oil vapor

Re3u%tion o< the e<<e%tive pumping spee3


me3ium va%uum a3sorption traps

2.1.5 Condensers





Vacuum generation







,ig. 2.41 Condenser (I) ;ith do;nstream gas ballast pump (II) for pumping of large quantities
of ;ater vapor in the rough vacuum range (III) b adjustable throttle











,ig. 2.42 Condensation capacitO of the condenser (surface area available to condensation 1
m2) as a function of intaPe pressure pD1 of the ;ater vapor. Curve a+ Cooling ;ater
temperature 12EC. Curve b+ Femperature 25 EC. Consumption in both cases 1 m3/h at
3 bar overpressure.


Vacuum generation

Pumping o< permanent gases




P^v2

Pv2
Pv1

Pumping o< water vapor



P^p2
Pp2
Pp1



,ig. 2.43 Schematic representation of the pressure distribution in the condenser. Fhe full lines
correspond to the conditions in a condenser in ;hich a small pressure drop taPes Important note
place (ptot 2 i ptot 1). Fhe dashed lines are those for an ideal condenser (ptot 2 ptot 1).
pD+ Partial pressure of the ;ater vaporA pL+ Partial pressure of the air


2.1.6 Fluid-entrainment pumps



throttle se%tion





Next to the large pump hol3ing pump with low
spee3


ne%essar9 Huantit9 o< air

















Vacuum generation

2.1.6.1 (Oil) Diffusion pumps




maximum ba%Eing pressure or %riti%al <orepressure
Di<<usion pumps


Vapor het pumps

Combine3
oil 3i<<usion/ vapor het pumps
Vater het pumps

Cooling o< <lui3 entrainment pumps

,ig. 2.44 Mode of operation of a diffusion pump


Vacuum generation

Degassing o< the pump oil






3egassing se%tion
,ig. 2.45 Diagram sho;ing the basic differences in LEeVZLD oil diffusion pumps

LEeBODIFF series
<ra%tionating 3evi%e





Pumping spee3




-c

DI series





Vacuum generation

1 Nozzle (Laval) 3 Mixing chamber


2 Diffuser nozzle (Venturi) 4 Connection to the vacuum chamber

,ig. 2.46 Zperation of a vapor jet pump

2.1.6.2 Oil vapor ejector pumps


expan3e3


%ompresse3














,ig. 2.48 Pumping speed of various vapor pumps as a function of intaPe pressure related to a ,ig. 2.49 Pumping speed of various vapor pumps (derived from ,ig. 2.48)
nominal pumping speed of 1000 l/s.
End of the ;orPing range of oil vapor ejector pumps (A) and diffusion pumps (V)


Vacuum generation

2.1.6.3 Pump fluids

aT Oils


DIFFELEN light, normal ultra





Sili%one DC 704, DC 705


DC 705



ULTRALEN i
%ol3 %ap ba<<le


APIEZON AP 201





bT Mer%ur9

Shell ba<<les







plate ba<<les



2.1.6.4 Pump fluid backstreaming and its
suppression (vapor barriers, baffles) b93ro%arbon-<ree va%uum

%ol3 traps

Vacuum generation

anti%reep barrier



Note:









,ig. 2.50 Schematic arrangement of baffleA anticreep barrier and cold trap above a diffusion
2.1.6.5 Water jet pumps and steam ejectors
pump


water het pumps




LN2 %ol3

traps


steam ehe%tor pumps









Vacuum generation


-c

8 R T
c=
M


Table 2.4 -c as a function of molar mass M



_ __
,ig. 2.51 Schematic representation of the operation of a steam ejector pump ~ c ~ " M

__

~ "M ~ " M


log k0(He) 4 1 1
= = =
log k0(N2) 28 7 2.65
log k0(N 2) = 2.65 log k0(He)

2.1.7 Turbomolecular pumps



Gae3e mole%ular pump




j
c
turbomole%ular pump



Vacuum generation


S9stem KFA klli%h

























Steel ball bearings / h9bri3 ball bearings S%erami% ball bearingsT:


magneti% suspension


Turbomolecular
pump stage
3

Siegbahn stage
5

8
1


1 Vacuum port 4 Stator 7 Fan
2 High vacuum flange 5 Bearing 8 Bearing
3 Rotor 6 Motor

,ig. 2.52a Cross section of a ke.CZNE turbomolecular pump


Vacuum generation

10000


600 1000/1000 MC
1000
500
S
200 340M 361
151
100
50/55

10 2 4 6 8
6 5 4 3 2 1
10 10 10 p 10 10 mbar 10

,ig. 2.53 Pumping speed for air of different turbomolecular pumps ,ig. 2.54 Pumping speed curves of a FaRVZIAC 600 for k2A keA N2 and Ar


pumping spee3 %hara%teristi%s






%ompression ratio %ompression

,ig. 2.55 FaRVZIAC 450 b Maximum compression P0 as a function of molar mass M ,ig. 2.56 Maximum compression P0 of a turbomolecular pump FaRVZIAC 340 M for k2A ke
and N2 as a function of bacPing pressure

Vacuum generation

M = Mass number = Relative molar mass at an ionization 1


I = Ion current

,ig. 2.57 Spectrum above a FaRVZIAC 361 ,ig. 2.58 Determination of the cut-in pressure for turbomolecular pumps ;hen evacuating large

In<ormation on the operation o< turbomole%ular pumps


Starting





resi3ual
gas %omposition



Sv
> 40 h1
V


Sv
< 40 h1
V


SV

pV, Start = e 6 V mbar



Venting
A<ter swit%hing o<< or in the event o< a power <ailure, turbomole%ular
pumps shoul3 alwa9s be vente3








Vacuum generation

Barrier gas operation

De%oupling o< vibrations

spe%ial appli%ations

,ig. 2.59 Cross section of an adsorption pump


2.1.8 Sorption pumps







a3sorption pumps
getter pumps



evaporator
pumpssputter pumps

NEG
pumps

2.1.8.1 Adsorption pumps



,ig. 2.60 Adsorption isotherms of ^eolite 13m for nitrogen at b195 EC and 20 ECA as ;ell as for
helium and neon at b195 EC

Vacuum generation

2.1.8.3 Sputter-ion pumps

Operation o< sputter-ion pumps

























2.1.8.2 Sublimation pumps

,ig. 2.61 Zperating principle of a sputter-ion pump


Vacuum generation






The pumping spee3 o< trio3e sputter-
ion pumps <or noble gases 3oes not 3e%rease 3uring the operation o<
,ig. 2.62 Electrode configuration in a diode sputter-ion pump
the pump.


3io3e-t9pe, sputter-ion pumps



trio3e sputter-ion pumps

In<luen%e on pro%esses in the va%uum %hamber b9 magneti% stra9

<iel3s an3 stra9 ions <rom the sputter-ion pump.











,ig. 2.63 Electrode configuration in a triode sputter-ion pump

Vacuum generation

,ig. 2.64 StraO magnetic field of a sputter-ion pump in t;o places parallel to the inlet flange
(inserts) curves sho; lines of constant magnetic induction V in [auss.1 [auss c 1
10b4 Fesla

2.1.8.4 Non evaporable getter pumps (NEG


Pumps)


Vacuum generation

2.1.9 Cryopumps


2.1.9.1 Types of cryopump

bath %r9ostat

%ontinuous <low %r9opumps

re<rigerator %r9opumps


,ig. 2.65 All items of a refrigerator crOopump

Vacuum generation

2.1.9.2 The cold head and its operating principle


(Fig. 2.66)






The two-stage %ol3 hea3




V2 (cold) V1 (warm) Phase 1:





Regenerator Displacer

V2 (cold) V1 (warm) Phase 2:






Regenerator Displacer

V2 (cold) V1 (warm)
Phase 3





Regenerator Displacer

V2 (cold) V1 (warm)
Phase 4:




Regenerator Displacer

,ig. 2.66 Refrigerating phases using a single-stage cold head operating according to the [ifford-McMahon process


Vacuum generation


(








,ig. 2.68 Design of a refrigerator crOopump (schematic)







,ig. 2.67 F;o-stage cold head










2.1.9.4 Bonding of gases to cold surfaces



2.1.9.3 The refrigerator cryopump






Vacuum generation

,ig. 2.69 CrOopanels b temperature and position define the efficiencO in the crOopump



Cr9o%on3ensation

Cr9osorption










Cr9otrapping

2.1.9.5 Pumping speed and position of the 2.1.9.6 Characteristic quantities of a cryopump
cryopanels


Vacuum generation

Cool3own time:

.
Re<rigerating power Q SVT:


Crossover value:







.
Net re<rigerating power Q SVT:



35
pc Q 2 (20 K ) mbar
V
pV <low
.
Q Regeneration time:

Ultimate pressure pen3:


TG
pend = ps( TK ) total regeneration
TK




Example:






Partial regeneration:



Fable 2.6 altimate temperatures at a ;all temperature of 300 f




Capa%it9 C Smbar [ lT: <ast regeneration




,ast Regeneration SOstem

Vacuum generation

Pumping spee3 Sth:



pend
S th = A K SA 1
p

2



S2T S1T








Throughput maximum pV <low:







R TG TG
SA = c =

= 365
. !/ s cm2
4 2 M M

%ontinuous operation

.
Q

.
Q
intermittent operation

















Fable 2.7 Surface-related pumping speeds for some gases


Vacuum generation

2.2 Choice of pumping process

2.2.1 Survey of the most usual pumping


processes
Servi%e li<e / 3uration o< operation

t op, G
CG = QG (t)dt
0






__
QG


CG C
t op, G = = G
QG pG SG

Dr9 pro%esses worE primaril9 in a narrow an3 limite3 pressure region.


Starting pressure po:



Vet pro%esses are un3ertaEen primaril9 in a pres%ribe3 worEing


operation that %overs a wi3er pressure region.








In all wet pro%esses the provision o< the ne%essar9 heat
<or evaporation o< the moisture is o< great importan%e.

Vacuum generation

Ultrahigh vacuum High vacuum Medium vacuum Rough vacuum

Mass spectrometers
Molecular beam apparatus
Ion sources
Particle accelerators
Electron microscopes
Electron diffraction apparatus
Vacuum spectographs
Low-temperature research
Production of thin films
Surface physics
Plasma research
Nuclear fusion apparatus
Space simulation
Material research
Preparations for
electron microscopy

1013 1010 107 103 100 103

Pressure [mbar]

,ig. 2.71 Pressure ranges (p i 1000 mbar) of phOsical and chemical analOtical methods

Classi<i%ations o< t9pi%al va%uum pro%esses an3 plants a%%or3ing to


the pressure regions





Ultrahigh vacuum High vacuum Medium vacuum Rough vacuum

Annealing of metals
Melting of metals
Degassing of molten metals
Steel degassing
Electron-beam melting
Electron-beam welding
Evaporation coating
Sputtering of metals
Zone melting and crystal growing in high-vacuum
Molecular distillation
Degassing of liquids
Sublimation
Casting of resins and lacquers
Drying of plastics
Drying of insulating papers
Freeze-drying of mass materials
Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical products
Production of incandescent lamps
Production of electron tubes
Production of gas-discharge tubes

1010 107 103 100 103

Pressure [mbar]

,ig. 2.72 Pressure ranges of industrial vacuum processes


Vacuum generation

2.2.2 Pumping of gases (dry processes)









%T bigh va%uum S10-3 to 10-7 mbarT







aT Rough va%uum S1013 a 1 mbarT

3T Ultrahigh va%uum Sm 10-7 mbarT




2.2.3 Pumping of gases and vapors (wet

processes)
bT Me3ium va%uum S1 a 10-3 mbarT

Pumping o< Vater Vapor



Between 1 an3 10-2 mbar












Vacuum generation

Region C: Single-stage rotar9 plunger pumps with a gas ballast.



A %on3enser shoul3 alwa9s be inserte3 at the pump^s inlet i< saturate3


water vapor arises <or a %onsi3erable time.






,ig. 2.73 Areas of application for gas ballast pumps and condensers pumping ;ater vapor
(o.[. c ;ithout gas ballast)





Pumping o< water vapor with gas ballast pumps

Region D: Two-stage gas ballast pumps, Roots pumps, an3 vapor

ehe%tor pumps, alwa9s a%%or3ing to the total pressure %on%erne3 in

the pro%ess.

Pumping o< water vapor with roots pumps





Region A: Single-stage, rotar9 plunger pumps without gas ballast
inlet.


Region A: A Roots pump with a single-stage rotar9 plunger pump

without gas ballast.





Region B: Single-stage rotar9 plunger pumps with gas ballast an3 an
inlet %on3enser.

Region B: A main %on3enser, a Roots pump with a b9pass line, an


interme3iate %on3enser, an3 a gas ballast pump.


Vacuum generation

the use o< gas ballast pumps is


wise onl9 i< air is also pumpe3




Region C: A Roots pump, an interme3iate %on3enser, an3 a gas Air partial pressure pp

ballast pump.
,ig. 2.74 Areas of application for Roots pumps and condensers pumping ;ater vapor (o.[. c
;ithout gas ballast)





Region D: A roots pump an3 a gas ballast pump. E. I< the 3r9ing pro%ess shoul3 terminate at still lower pressures



Dr9ing o< soli3 substan%es


2.2.4 Drying processes




A. Eva%uating the vessel b9 a gas ballast pump an3 a Roots pump

with a b9pass line.

B. Conne%ting the two %on3ensers be%ause o< the in%reasing vapor

pressure pro3u%e3 b9 heating the material.


C. B9passing the main %on3enser E0
E= %
(1 + K t )q

D. B9passing the interme3iate %on3enser.





Vacuum generation

%T bigh- an3 ultrahigh va%uum region Sm 10-3 mbarT


Fun3amentall9, in the 3r9ing o< a material, a <ew rules are noteworth9:











2.2.6 Ultrahigh vacuum working


Techniques
2.2.5 Production of an oil-free
(hydrocarbon-free) vacuum






aT Rough va%uum region S1013 to 1 mbarT

3.2 6
= 10 s
bT Me3ium va%uum region S1 to 10-3 mbarT p


Vacuum generation

2.3. Evacuation of a vacuum


chamber and determination of
pump sizes
Basi%all9, two in3epen3ent Huestions arise %on%erning the siIe o< a
va%uum s9stem:







A<ter testing, the UbV apparatus must be
baEe3 out. e<<e%tive pumping spee3
a%tual pumping spee3 that prevails
at the vessel









2.3.1 Evacuation of a vacuum chamber


(without additional sources of gas or
vapor)



Vacuum generation

2.3.1.1 Evacuation of a chamber in the rough


vacuum region Example:





0.5 1013
Seff = 2.3 log
1/ 6 1
= 3 2.3 3.01 = 20.8 m3/h
dp Seff
= p
dt V




p dp Seff 0.5
p = t Seff = 7 = 21 m 3/ h or
1013 V 1
6
p S 0.5
Seff = 8 = 24 m 3/ h
!n = eff t 1
1013 V 6

V 1013 V 1013
Seff = !n = 2.3 log
t p t p

1013 1013
= !n p = 2.3 log p

V
Seff =
t

= V
Seff

= !n 1013
p

,ig. 2.75 DependencO of the dimensionless factor s for calculation of pumpdo;n time t
according to equation 2.36. Fhe broPen line applies to single-stage pumps ;here the
pumping speed decreases belo; 10 mbar.


Vacuum generation

2.3.1.2 Evacuation of a chamber in the high


vacuum region p
Seff = V !n V = V !n K
t p t

2 10 3
K= = 200
110 5

500 !
pressure-rise metho3 Seff = 2.3 log 200 9 s
5 60

Q=
p V

t

2.3.1.3 Evacuation of a chamber in the medium


vacuum region











S eff p p
Q
dp end
Q =
Seff = dt V
pend

Example p p
end Q / Seff
o
V
t= !n
S p p Q/S
eff end eff




5 2 10 4 mbar !/ s
Seff = = 100 ! / s
110 5 mbar



Vacuum generation










110 4
2.3.2 Determination of a suitable backing SV = 200 = 0.1 !/s = 0. 36 m 3/h
2 10 1
pump












p
SV = A Seff

pV

Example:


110 2
SV = 50 = 2.5 !/s = 9 m 3/ h
2 10 1



110 3
SV = 200 = 1!/s = 3. 6 m 3/h
2 10 1


Vacuum generation

,ig. 2.76 Diagram for graphicallO determining a suitable bacPing pump


2.3.3 Determination of pump-down time

from nomograms






right-han3

Vacuum generation

Computer ai3e3 %al%ulations at LEeBOLD





2.3.4 Evacuation of a chamber where
gases and vapors are evolved










2.3.5 Selection of pumps for drying


processes



Dr9ing o< salt














,ig. 2.77 Pumpdo;n timeA tpA of a 5 m3 vessel using a rotarO plunger pump E 250 having a
nominal pumping speed of 250 m3/h ;ith (a) and ;ithout (b) gas ballastA as ;ell as
Roots/rotarO plunger pump combination _A 1001 / E250 for a cut-in pressure of 10
mbar for the _A 1001 (e).


Vacuum generation

2. Pre3r9ing











3. Main 3r9ing




,ig. 2.78 Iacuum diagram for drOing of salt. Pump combination consisting of Roots pumpA V p
Seff =
condenser and rotarO plunger pump for step;ise s;itching of the pumping process tp
(see text)



m R T 15 83.14 288
V p = =
M 18

20000 mbar m3 subsequently


20000
Seff = = 750 m 3/h

5 5. 3








Dr9ing o< paper



1. Eva%uation







Vacuum generation

2.3.6 Flanges and their seals


Small <langes SKFT 2.3.7 Choice of suitable valves


10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40 50





Clamp <langes SISO-KT 65, 100, 160, 250, 320, 400,
500 630




olte3 <langes SISO-FT







bigh va%uum %omponents



Ultrahigh va%uum %omponents CF


<langes

VITILAN
aluminum seals
150 nC 200 nC

,ig. 2.79 Right angle vacuum valve ;ith solenoid actuator


Vacuum generation

















,ig. 2.80 Right angle vacuum valve ;ith electropneumatic actuator



Vacuum generation

2.3.8 Gas locks and seal-off fittings

DN

h1 h2

,ig. 2.81 [as locP ;ith centering ring and seal-off fittingA sectional vie;


Vacuum measurement

3. Vacuum 3.1 Fundamentals of low-pressure


measurement
measurement,
monitoring, control

and regulation






Analog9 anal9sis




Depen3en%e o< the pressure in3i%ation on the t9pe o< gas


pressure whi%h

a%ts on an area3ire%t absolute va%uum gauges







rea3ing

is in3epen3ent o< the t9pe o< gas

in3ire%t pressure measurement





pressure

rea3ing 3epen3s on the t9pe o< gas



Relative measurement uncertainty (%)

20

favorable measuring range Example:


15
(relative measurement uncertainty < 5%)
10


5

1
6
10 105 104 103 102 101 1
Pressure (mbar)


,ig. 3.1 Measurement uncertaintO distribution over the measuring range+ IISCZIAC

Vacuum measurement

3.2 Vacuum gauges with pressure


reading that is independent of

the type of gas





3.2.1 Bourdon vacuum gauges









3.2.2 Diaphragm vacuum gauges

3.2.2.1 Capsule vacuum gauges





%apsule
va%uum gauge

Sele%tion o< va%uum gauges

,ig. 3.2 Cross-section of a Vourdon gauge


Vacuum measurement

3.2.2.2 DIAVAC diaphragm vacuum gauge

,ig. 3.4 Pie^oelectric sensor (basic diagram)









3.2.2.3 Precision diaphragm vacuum gauges

3.2.2.4 Capacitance diaphragm gauges






MEMBRANOVAC




PIEZOVAC

1 2

C1 C2




p1 p2


,ig. 3.3 Cross-section of DIAIAC DI 1000 diaphragm vacuum gauge ,ig. 3.5 Capacitive sensor (basic diagram)

Vacuum measurement









Amplifier + 15 V DC


15 V DC

0 10 V

,ig. 3.6 Capacitive sensors (basic diagram)

3.2.3.2 Compression vacuum gauges (according


to McLeod)


















3.2.3 Liquid-filled (mercury) vacuum

gauges


3.2.3.1 U-tube vacuum gauges

partial <inal pressureo<
me%hani%all9 %ompressing pumps


Vacuum measurement

torr torr





,ig. 3.7 McLeod compression vacuum gauge ;ith linear scale (equation 3.1b) ,ig. 3.8 McLeod compression vacuum gauge ;ith square-la; scale (equation 3.1f)

2
p = h2 d
4 V

permanent gases

Prin%iple o< measurement with %ompression va%uum gauges
2
p = h2 d
3 V




Vc
p = h
V Vc




Vc
p = h
measuring range
V

a%%ura%9 o< the pressure measurement


p = 4 h Vc


3 V




Vc = h d 2
4

Vacuum measurement

3.3 Vacuum gauges with gas-


dependent pressure reading

,ig. 3.9 Cross-section of the gauge head of a IISCZIAC IM 212 spinning rotor gauge (SR[)

df 10 p
f =
dt c r



transmitters
-c







3.3.1 Spinning rotor gauge (SRG)
(VISCOVAC)











Vacuum measurement



thermal %on3u%tivit9 gauges
with %onstant resistan%e


3.3.2 Thermal conductivity vacuum
gauges





#$M





Pirani











thermal %on3u%tivit9 gauges with variable
resistan%e


I II III

r2 -
l r r
Wrmeflu

r1 - 2 1
l r1

-
l ! r2
-

l r1
Abgefhrter


5 4 3 2 1
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 100
Druck [mbar]






,ig. 3.10 Dependence of the amount heat dissipated bO a heated filament (radius r1) in a tube
(radius r2) at a constant temperature difference on the gas pressure (schematic ,ig. 3.11 Calibration curves of FkERMZIAC gauges for various gasesA based on nitrogen
diagram). equivalent reading

Vacuum measurement

3.3.3.1 Cold-cathode ionization vacuum gauges


(Penning vacuum gauges)




3.3.3 Ionization vacuum gauges






























Fable 3.2 Correction factors ,ig. 3.12 Cross-section of PENNIN[IAC PR 35 gauge


Vacuum measurement




3.3.3.2 Hot-cathode ionization vacuum gauges


i+
p=
i C

,ig. 3.13 Schematic diagram and potential curve in a hot-cathode ioni^ation vacuum gauge ,ig. 3.14 Apparent lo; pressure limit due to m-raO effect in a normal ioni^ation vacuum gauge

Vacuum measurement

The o-ra9 e<<e%t







aT The %onventional ioniIation va%uum gauge



The ion 3esorption e<<e%t a)





b)



c)

d)

e)

,ig. 3.15 Explanation of the m-raO effect in a conventional ioni^ation gauge. Fhe electrons e- ,ig. 3.16 Schematic dra;ing of the electrode arrangement of various ioni^ation vacuum gauge
emitted bO the cathode C collide ;ith anode A and trigger a soft m-raO radiation measuring sOstems
(photons) there. Fhis radiation striPesA in partA the ion collector and generates


Vacuum measurement

p p
A M
pg =
1

bT The high-pressure ioniIation va%uum gauge Sup to 1 mbarT






eT Extra%tor ioniIation va%uum gauge




%T Ba9ar3-Alpert ioniIation va%uum gauge Sthe stan3ar3 measuring
s9stem use3 to3a9T








3.4 Adjustment and calibration;


DKD, PTB national standards
3T Ba9ar3-Alpert ioniIation va%uum gauge with mo3ulator

A3hustment

Calibration inspe%tion






Calibration



Vacuum measurement

3.4.1 Examples of fundamental pressure


measurement methods (as standard
methods for calibrating vacuum
German Calibration Servi%e SDKDT
gauges)

aT Measuring pressure with a re<eren%e gauge






trans<er stan3ar3s



national stan3ar3s

appli%ation o< bT Generation o< a Enown pressurep stati% expansion metho3


<un3amental metho3s





V1 V2 Vn 1
pn = p
1 V1 + V2 V2 + V3 Vn 1 + Vn

30

Dynamic
expansion
Relative uncertainly of the pressure determination [%]

IM IM
10

V2 = 1000 cm3
p1 p3
+

3
V4 =
3
Molecular 13000 cm
+

beam p4
Static expansion
V1 = 25 cm3 V3 = 25 cm3
+

p2
+

1
U-Tube
+

0.3

0.1
1012 109 106 103 100 103

Pressure [mbar]

,ig. 3.17 Pressure scale of ,ederal PhOsical-Fechnical Institute (PFV)A VerlinA (status as at ,ig. 3.18 [eneration of lo; pressures through static expansion
August 1984) for inert gasesA nitrogen and methane


Vacuum measurement


L1 L1 L2
p2 = p =p (1 + )
1 S 1 L2 Sp

L1
3.5 Pressure monitoring, control

S
and regulation in vacuum
1 Volume 1 9 Valve 16 to pump
systems
2 Volume 2 10 LN2 cold trap (pumping speed PSp)
3 Inlet valve (conductance L1) 11 to pump system 17 Gas inlet
4
5
Aperture with conductance L2
Valve
12
13
U-tube vacuum gauge
McLeod vacuum gauge
18 Mass spectrometer
19,20 Gauges to be calibrated
3.5.1 Fundamentals of pressure
6 to pump system 14 Valve 21 Nude gauge to be calibrated monitoring and control
7 Valve 15 Calibrated ionization gauge 22 Bake-out furnace
8 to gas reservoir tube


,ig. 3.19 Apparatus for calibration according to the dOnamic expansion method




%T D9nami% expansion metho3 S














L 2 Sp L2
S= =
L + Sp L2
2 1+
Sp

Vacuum measurement

3.5.2 Automatic protection, monitoring


and control of vacuum systems

,ig. 3.20 Schematic diagram of a high vacuum pump sOstem ;ith optional operation of a Roots
pump or a diffusion pump


Vacuum measurement

3.5.3 Pressure regulation and control in


rough and medium vacuum systems

Fu
R, Mp
Smax
Smin
PV
R1
K1
M

,ig. 3.22 F;o-step regulation through pumping speed throttling



Dis%ontinuous pressure regulation



Two-step regulation through Three-step regulation through

pumping speed throttling gas admission pumping speed throttling


and gas admission
Pressure Pressure Pressure

pAtm pAtm pAtm

pmax
Fu
pmin pmax pmitte
R, Mp
pmin pmin Smax
Smin
Time Time Time EV
R2
K2
M

,ig. 3.21 Schematic diagram of t;o-step and three-step regulation ,ig. 3.23 F;o-step regulation through gas admission

Vacuum measurement

Fu
R, Mp
Smax
Smitte
Smin
T
PV
EV
R1
R2
K1
K2
M

,ig. 3.24 Fhree-step regulation sOstem ,ig. 3.26 LEeVZLD-A seriesA equipment ;ith level and interval triggers

Continuous pressure regulation


ele%tri% %ontrollers




3iaphragm %ontroller






,ig. 3.25 Diagram of level triggers and interval triggers ,ig. 3.27 Principle of a diaphragm controller


Vacuum measurement

,ig. 3.28 Control characteristics of a diaphragm controller

DC
P
M
PS
V1
V2
Tb
RC
PC
CV

,ig. 3.30 Control of vacuum drOing processes bO regulation of the intaPe pressure of the
vacuum pump according to the ;ater vapor tolerance

3.5.4 Pressure regulation in high and

ultrahigh vacuum systems










,ig. 3.29 Friple connection of diaphragm controllers

Vacuum measurement

3.5.5 Examples of applications with


diaphragm controllers











,ig. 3.31 Diaphragm controller ;ith external automatic reference pressure regulation


Vacuum measurement

Mass spectrometry

4. Analysis of gas at
low pressures using
mass spectrometry
4.1 General

c
a
b

,ig. 4.1a FRANSPECFZR sensors

4.2 A historical review

,ig. 4.1b FRANSPECFZR mPR sensor


Mass spectrometry

4.3 The quadrupole mass


spectrometer (TRANSPECTOR)

4.3.1 Design of the sensor


One can think of the sensor as having been derived from an
extractor measurement system (see Fig. 4.3), whereby the
separation system was inserted between the ion source and the
ion trap.

4.3.1.1 The normal (open) ion source

Quadrupole exit
Focussing plate diaphragm
(extractor diaphragm) Ion source exit
diaphragm
(total pressure measurement)
Cathode
Anode

Shielding


Ion source Quadrupole separation system Ion detector

,ig. 4.2 Schematic for quadrupole mass spectrometer ,ig. 4.3 nuadrupole mass spectrometer b Extractor ioni^ation vacuum gauge

Mass spectrometry

Cathode xz plane yz plane


+ Rod: - Rod:

1 +
+U
Transmission:
+
U
Transmission:
+ full - none

+ Rod: - Rod:
2 +
+U+V, cos
+
UV cos
Transmission: Transmission:
+ low-pass - high-pass

i+ i+
3
V1 V V1 V

i+ i+

4
M1 M M1 M

,ig. 4.4 Zpen ion source


Superimposition of the xy and yz planes
i+
yz xz ( UV fixed)
5 I III
4.3.1.2 The quadrupole separation system II M

U .. Selectivity (resolution) Sensitivity


V

,ig. 4.5 Phenomenological explanation of the separation sOstem

xI

9I



xI

Fx = 2e x cos ( t )
r02
Fy = 2e2 y cos ( t )
r0
9I
Fz = 0

xI

9I


Mass spectrometry

4.3.1.3 The measurement system (detector)


xI




9I












Range I


Range II










m V
M=
e 14.438 f 2 ro2

Range III

Positive ion
Separation system output
Collector
Electron suppressor

Faraday cup

Connection Amplifier
to front end
of the inside
surface Resistance of the inner surface

Amplifier Resistance 108


. high voltage
Negative
6
R 4 10

,ig. 4.6 Left+ Principle of the ,aradaO cupo Right+ Configuration of the Channeltron

Mass spectrometry

4.4 Gas admission and pressure


adaptation

4.4.1 Metering valve


4.4.3 Closed ion source (CIS)


4.4.2 Pressure converter




a. Process pressure i 1 mbar+ Single-stage pressure converter.








b. Process pressure p 1 mbar





4.4.4 Aggressive gas monitor (AGM)



Non-segregating gas inlet system

Stage B Stage A
p 10 4 mbar p = 1 ... 10 mbar p = 10 ... 1000 mbar

L2 L3

Mass Capillary
"
#
spectrometer QHV

"
#

L1
Seff QPumping
No
Molecular flow Laminar flow
segregation
L2 molecular " dL 2

1 QHV # QPumping
L2 ~ %$
M (Transition laminar/molecular)
1
L1 ~ %$
M
Seff " L1 Seff ~ 1
M
%$

Seff compensates for L2 No segregation


S

,ig. 4.7 Principle of the pressure converter (stage V onlO in the single-stage version and
stages A and V in t;o-stage units)


Mass spectrometry

Process: 10 -2 mbar Process: 10 -2 mbar

(Elastomer) Valve (Metal)


Inlet diaphragm

Impact chamber
10 -5
10 -5
10 -5
10 -3 Cathode chamber
Example of the sputter Exit diaphragm
process
To be detected is 1 ppm N2 as
contamination in argon,
the working gas
10 -5 10 -5 10 -5 10 -5

1 ppm N 2 at the inlet: 1 ppm N 2 at the inlet:

10 -6 10 -5 mbar = 10 -11 mbar 10 -6 10 -3 mbar = 10 -9 mbar


Exit diaphragm
Background: Background:
Residual gas (valve closed) 10 -6 mbar total Residual gas (valve closed) 10 -7 mbar total
total, including 1% by mass 28 : 10 -8 mbar Pump Pump total, including 1% by mass 28 : 10 -9 mbar

Background noise 1 ppm

Signal at 1 of background Background noise


cannot be detected Signal twice the background noise
amplitude; can just be clearly detected

,ig. 4.8 Zpen ion source (left) and closed ion source (right)

Impact chamber
Working gas for the process (Ar)
Cathode chamber
Exit diaphragms
AGM protective gas valve

10 -5

Process:
e. g. 50 mbar 10 -3 10 -5

Diaphragm Pump
10 -5

,ig. 4.9 Principle behind the aggressive gas monitor (A[M)

Mass spectrometry

4.5 Descriptive values in mass 4.5.4 Smallest detectable


spectrometry (specifications) partial pressure


iR+
Pmin = (mbar)
E
4.5.1 Line width (resolution)
[ i+
R

A
1 10 4
mbar

i+
R

4 10 14A
pmin(FC) = = 4 10 10 mbar
110 4A / mbar

4.5.5 Smallest detectable partial pressure


4.5.2 Mass range ratio (concentration)



4.5.3 Sensitivity

i+ A
E=
pG mbar

i+
R
E = 110 4
A
mbar

+2 A
E = 110
mbar

100%

i
+

15%
1 amu
7,5%

M M+1 Atomic number

,ig. 4.10 Line ;idth b 15 q valleO ,ig. 4.11 Detection of Argon36


Mass spectrometry

4.5.6 Linearity range 4.6 Evaluating spectra

4.6.1 Ionization and fundamental


problems in gas analysis



Mr
M=
ne




4.5.7 Information on surfaces and +
4 2
++
amenability to bake-out +
2

isotopes





+
log i

Regulation


Exact measurement
range


Automatic shut-down:

5 10 4


108
10 7
10 6 5
10 104
10 3 log P

,ig. 4.12 nualitative linearitO curve Fable 4.2 Relative frequencO of isotopes

Mass spectrometry


12

10
+
Ar

Ions formed per cm mbar


8

6

2


0 100 200 300 400 500

Electron energy (eV)





,ig. 4.13 Number of the various Ar ions producedA as a factor of electron energO level


<ragment 3istribution patterns
<ingerprint, %ra%Eing patternImportant:
















Fable 4.2 Relative frequencO of isotopes

Spe%i<i% ioniIation

relative ioniIation
probabilities SRIPT
,ig. 4.14 Specific ioni^ation S for various gases bO electrons exhibiting energO level E


Mass spectrometry

T9pe o< gas S9mbol RIP T9pe o< gas S9mbol RIP


























































Mass spectrometry


++
2 )


++ 2
2+


Mass spectrometry

CO+
O+

O+
H2+ Ar++ CO+
H 2 O+ O2 + Ar+ CO2+

H2+
O+
N+
H+ OH+ Ne+ N2+
C+ O+
13C+ H3O+ 22Ne +
13CO+

+
H+ Ne++ C 16O18O+ 36Ar+ 13C16O +
2
14N15N+

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Argon
Nitrogen Water Neon Carbon monoxide

,ig. 4.15 Model spectrum

4.6.2 Partial pressure measurement


+
igas , m2(produced)
+ pgas =
gas
BFgas , m2 Egas

+
igas , m (measured )
2
pgas =
BFgas , m E gas TF (m)
2


+
gas

+
pgas = igas , m 2 (measured )
1 1

E N2 BFgas , m2 RIPgas TF (m)




+
+ + +
igas ,m1
igas (produced )= igas + i
,m 1 gas ,m2 +.... =
+
BF gas ,m 1
igas,m2
= =.... = Egas pgas
BFgas,m2

4.6.3 Qualitative gas analysis


F,(m)



F,

Mass spectrometry

Parent spectrum

A A = Parent
range

Parent spectrum Assumption:


Groups
2 1
1 = Kr ypton +
2 = Krypton ++

Library spectrum:
Krypton

Parent spectrum without krypton Assumption:


3 Argon +
4
3 4 Argon ++

Library spectrum:
Argon

Parent spectrum without argon Assumption:


5 Neon +
5

Library spectrum:
4.6.4 Quantitative gas analysis Neon

Parent spectrum after detection


of krypton, argon and neon

,ig. 4.16 Subtracting spectra contained in libraries


Mass spectrometry



1
[FF T i] [FF T BF ]
I=
det[FF T BF ]

i j+ BF j, k BF j,o I k+




i + FFm, g I g+
m
=
4.7 Software


+ 4.7.1 Standard SQX software (DOS) for
iu BFu, k BFu,o I o+
stand-alone operation (1 MS plus 1
PC, RS 232)
m


0
im+ = BFm, g I g+
g=k


+
m


0
BFm, g

g=k

+g

Ff m, g
!""""#"""$ 4.7.2 Multiplex/DOS software MQX
im = pg E N2 RIPg FFm TFm
+ (1 to 8 MS plus 1 PC, RS 485)
Transmission factor
for the mass m

Fragment factor
for the gas to mass m
Relative ionization probability
for the gas
Nitrogen sensitivity (equipment constant)
Partial pressure of the gas 4.7.3 Process-oriented software
Ion current for atomic number m
Transpector-Ware for Windows


m c g m p g


+g


g+* m
+
*

+m


+ + 2
(im im*) = min

Mass spectrometry

4.7.4 Development software


TranspectorView

4.9 Maintenance
4.8 Partial pressure regulation

servi%e li<e o< the %atho3e









Sensor balan%ing





%lean the sensor





t4
t5
Mass spectrometer

Pressure stage

Regulation valve t1 "
!"
#
Sensor
t6 t2 t3
! Vacuum vessel !"
!

TMP50CF

,ig. 4.18 Improving the signal-to-noise ratio bO increasing the pressure or extending the
,ig. 4.17 Partial shares for overall time constants integration time


Leak detection

5. Leaks and their 5.2 Leak rate, leak size, mass flow
detection














(p V ) R T m
QL = =
t M t
5.1 Types of leaks
nature
o< the material or hoining <ault:







( p V ) . mbar ! 298K 1g
8314
QL = =
t mol K 121g mol 1 1year


. 2.98 102 1 mbar !
8314
=
1211 . 107s
315

. 2.98102 7 mbar !
8314
= 10
1.21102 315
. s

mbar !
= 65 107
s

Leak detection





QL
p =
end S
eff













p = 1013 mbar, Hole diameter d = 1 cm
m
Gas speed = Speed of sound = 330 s

3
12 +3 cm
330 m
!

2
Volume/second: s 4 cm = 25.95 10 s = 25.95 s

1013 mbar 25.95 ! +4 +4 mbar !


Quantity/second: s = 2.63 10 & 10 s

mbar !
Diameter cm Leak rate s
102 m= 1.0 cm 10+4

103 m= 1.0 mm 10+2
104 m= 0.1 mm 100 (= 1)
105 m= 0.01 mm 102
106 m= 1.0 m 104
107 m= 0.1 m 106
108 m= 0.01 m 108
109 m= 1.0 nm 1010
1010 m= 1.0 Angstrom 1012 (Detection limit, He leak detector)

,ig. 5.1 Correlation bet;een leaP rate and hole si^e Fable 5.1 Estimating borderline leaP rates


Leak detection

Leak <----> Hole Substance quantity trhough hole per unit of time Helium standard leak rate:
Q ... Leak rate, (p V) p1 = 1 bar, p2 < 1 mbar (p = 1 bar)
In short: Leak Definition: Q = Test gas = Helium
Helium leak detector ULTRATEST UL 200 dry/UL 500 t

Vacuum method


Contura Z
Familiar leaks: Quantity escaping: Standard He leak rate:

mg mbar ! mbar !
Helium leak detector ULTRATEST UL 200/UL 500 dry/Modul 200/LDS 1000
Dripping water faucet 34 s Water ! = 6.45 s Air " 0.17 s He Std
4 mm diam., 1 Hz, p = 4 bar
Pressure rise
mbar ! mbar !
Hair on a gasket 10 2 s Air 0.9 10 2 s He Std
103................100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 mbar l s-1
Bicycle tube in water
(bubble test)
3 Ncm mbar ! mbar !
3
Ecotec II / Protec 2 mm diam., 1 Hz, p = 0.1 bar 4.19 10 s ! = 4.24 10 3
s Air " 1.88 10 2 s He Std

Overpressure method
ULTRATEST with helium sniffer Car tire loses air mbar !
mbar ! 4.3 10 5 s He Std
25 l, 6 Mo: 1.8 --> 1.6 bar 3.18 10 4 s Air
Halogen sniffer HLD4000A
Small refrigerant cylinder
g mbar ! mbar !
Bubble test
empties in 1 year !
430 a Frigen = 2.8 10 3 s F12 " 4.33 10 5 s He Std
430 g refrigerant R12, 25C

Pressure drop test

,ig. 5.2 LeaP rate ranges for various leaP detection processes and devices ,ig. 5.3 Examples for conversion into helium standard leaP rates

5.2.1 The standard helium leak rate



5.3 Terms and definitions

va%uum metho3
5.2.2 Conversion equations

positive pressure metho3









QI p12 p22 II =
( ) Q II p12 p22 I
( ) QI (p1 p2)II = QII (p1 p2)I
lo%al measurement

Qgas A Mgas A = Qgas B Mgas B
integral measurement
Fable 5.2 Conversion formulae for changes of pressure and gas tOpe

Leak detection



Helium

5.4 Leak detection methods


without a leak detector unit






Helium






Helium




,ig. 5.4 LeaP test techniques and terminologO

rehe%tion rate







5.4.1 Pressure rise test


stan3ar3 helium %on3itions


spra9 te%hniHue

3ire%t-<low mo3e

partial-<low mo3e








bombing test
sni<<er te%hniHue


Leak detection



Q 6 10 5 mbar ! s 1
pend = L =
Seff 30 ! s 1

= 2 10 6 mbar











,ig. 5.5 Pressure rise ;ithin a vessel after the pump is s;itched off

5.4.2 Pressure drop test





p V
QL =
t

Example:




1 10 3 1 10 4 20

QL =
300

9 10 4 20 mbar ! 5.4.3 Leak test using vacuum gauges


= = 6 10 5
300 s which are sensitive to the type of
gas




m mbar ! g
QL = = 6 105 29
t s mol
mol K g
= 7 10 8
2
. mbar ! 293 10 K
8314 s

Leak detection

5.4.4 Bubble immersion test 5.4.7 Krypton 85 test








5.4.8 High-frequency vacuum test




















Fable 5.3 Comparison of bubble test method (immersion technique) ;it helium leaP



5.4.5 Foam-spray test





5.4.9 Test with chemical reactions and dye


penetration





5.4.6 Vacuum box check bubble


Leak detection

5.5.1 Halogen leak detectors


(HLD 4000, D-Tek)


Method Test gas Smallest detectable Pressure range Quantitative
leak rate measurement
mbar !/s g/a R 134 a

Foaming Air and others 10
4
7 10
1
Positive pressure No
liquids

2
Ultrasonic Air and others 10 70 Positive pressure No
microphone

3 5 1

Thermal conducti- Gases other 10 10 10 7 Positive pressure No
vity leak detector than air and vacuum

Halogen Substances 10
6
7 10
3
Positive pressure With
5 1
leak detection containing (10 ) (10 ) (vacuum) limitations
halogens

Universal Refrigerants, 10
5
7 10
3
Positive pressure Yes

sniffer helium and
leak detector other gases
12 9

Helium Helium 10 7 10 Vacuum, Yes
leak detection 10
7
7 10
4
positive pressure
Bubble test Air and other 10
3
7 Positive pressure No

gases
2
Water pressure Water 10 70 Positive pressure No
test
4 1
Pressure Air and other 10 7 10 Positive pressure Yes
drop test gases 5.5.2 Leak detectors with mass
Pressure Air 10
4
7 10
1
Vacuum Yes spectrometers (MSLD)
rise test

Fable 5.4 Comparison of leaP detection methods







5.5 Leak detectors and how they
work











Leak detection


leaE rate 3ispla9e3 3ire%t

5.5.2.2 Detection limit, background, gas storage in


oil (gas ballast), floating zero-point
5.5.2.1 The operating principle for a MSLD suppression




























Test gas

e.g. He


Test specimen

Test connection




Leak detector



QHe = pHe SeffHe


Exhaust

,ig. 5.6 Vasic operating principle for a leaP detector ,ig. 5.7 Correct set-up for a MSLD


Leak detection


<loating Iero-point

suppression

Test leaEs



5.5.2.3 Calibrating leak detectors; test leaks












a b c d e

a Reference leak without gas supply, TL4, TL6 d Permeation (diffusion) reference leak, TL8
b Reference leak for sniffer and vacuum e Refrigerant calibrated leak

applications, TL4-6
c (Internal) capillary test leak TL7

,ig. 5.8 Example of ^ero-point suppression ,ig. 5.9 Examples for the construction of test leaPs

Leak detection

5.5.2.4 Leak detectors with quadrupole mass 5.5.2.5 Helium leak detectors with 180 sector
spectrometer (ECOTEC II) mass spectrometer (UL 200, UL 500)





tuning

14 1

13
2
external flow internal
limiter 1 particle


12 3
particle

4
filter filter




11 5

QMA 200 flow divider 1 6
flow
limiter 2


10
flow divider 2
flow
limiter 3
flow meter
7
9 8
pv

1



2



,ig. 5.10 Iacuum schematic for the ECZFEC II ,ig. 5.11 Configuration of the 180E sector mass spectrometer


Leak detection

%ounter-
<low leaE 3ete%tor




5.5.2.6 Direct-flow and counter-flow leak
detectors



3ire%t-<low leaE 3ete%tor














Solution 1: Direct-flow leak Solution 2: Counter-flow

detector leak detector

Test specimen Test specimen

Test gas stream Test gas stream

p TOT < 104 mbar

LN 2 pHe pHe
MS MS
p TOT < 104 mbar High vacuum pump
High vacuum pump 5.5.2.7 Partial flow operation
Auxiliary pump Roughing pump Auxiliary pump Roughing pump

Cold trap:

2
S = 6.1 !/s cm
Fl 1000 cm
S = 6,100 !/s
2


,ig. 5.12 ,ull-flo; and counter-flo; leaP detector

Leak detection




















5.5.2.8 Connection to vacuum systems

5.5.2.9 Time constants


Partial flow principle (example)

QHe = 3 10 mbar ! (Leak rate)
V
5

V = 150 ! s =
Seff

Seff = SPFP + SLD SLD = 8 ! Leak detector (LD)


s
3
m !
SPFP = 60 s = 16.66 s Partial flow pump (PFP)
A) Signal amplitude:
Splitting of the gas flow (also of the test
gas!) in accordance with the effective pumping
speed at the partial flow branch point
Overal pumping speed: Seff = SLD + SPFP = 8 + 16.66 = 24.66 !
s

... Partial flow ratio ( Q ) Q ' Q


#

V V V
S/2
! S S S
mbar !
8s ! mbar !
5 6
Signal to Leak detector: 3 10 s = 9.73 10 s MS MS MS
(8 + 16.66) s
Q Throttle
!

Signal to partial flow pump: 3 10 5 mbar !


16,668s !
!
= 2.02 10 5 mbar ! Signal S
LD LD LD
s s
(8 + 16.66) s amplitude
Faster, less sensitive normal Slower, more sensitive

Check: Overall signal QHe = QLD + QPFP = 3.00 105 mbars ! Q = 2p 100%
S
2,0
/2
95%
Partial flow ratio = Fraction of the overall flow to the leak detector '
Q QLD 1
= LD =

or =
SLD
=
QHe QLD + QPFP 1 + nnn

= 1
Q
Q

S
PFP #
QLD = QHe
LD

Display Leak rate


Q =p
S
1,0
95%
100%

)
Signal rise

SLD + SPFP 1 + nnn PFP


Q = P/ Compensation period, e.g. t95% = 3 = 3 V
S 100%
LD 2 0,5
S + S 95% S
( ( = V ... Time constant)
B) Response time: t95% = 3 SV = 3 24.66
150 !
! = 18.25 s
m
S
Time
eff s 0
to 3 V = 1 (3 V) 3 V 3 SV = 2 (3 V )
Estimate: Value for S, V and are uncertain certain: calibrate with reference leak Dead time S + S 2 S S /2 S

,ig. 5.13 Partial flo; principle ,ig. 5.14 Signal responses and pumping speed


Leak detection

5.7 Leak detection techniques

using helium leak detectors

5.7.1 Spray technique (local leak test)


Q t

pHe = 1 e
Seff


response time

5.6 Limit values / Specifications for


the leak detector
smallest 3ete%table leaE rate

e<<e%tive pumping spee3 at the test %onne%tion

maximum permissible pressure insi3e the test spe%imen







maximum permissible throughput




,ig. 5.15 kelium spraO equipment

Leak detection











5.7.2 Sniffer technology
(local leak test using the positive
pressure method)
bT Dire%t measurement o< the leaE rate with the leaE 3ete%tor
Srigi3 envelopeT

5.7.3.2 Envelope test with test specimen


evacuated

aT Envelope q fplasti% tentg









5.7.3 Vacuum envelope test
(integral leak test)


bT Rigi3 envelope

5.7.3.1 Envelope test test specimen pressurized 5.7.4 Bombing test,


with helium Storage under pressure

aT Envelope test with %on%entration measurement an3 subseHuent
leaE rate %al%ulation




Leak detection

5.8 Industrial leak testing

Thin film controllers/control units

6 Thin film controllers



and control units

with quartz

oscillators

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Basic principles of coating


thickness measurement with
quartz oscillators






Mf F F
= or Mf = Mq with
Mq Fq Fq

Cr9stalSix

RateVat%her








Fq

F F
Df = Dq q =K
Fq Fq f f

Dq Fq q NAT q
K= =
2 2
Fq Fq

,ig. 6.1 Natural frequencO as a function of temperature in an AF cut quart^ crOstal


Thin film controllers/control units

E

Node

,ig. 6.2 FhicPness shear oscillations ,ig. 6.3 Shape of LEeVZLD-Inficon quart^ crOstals



F
Df = K
f









6.3 The shape of quartz oscillator
crystals




,ig. 6.4 ,requencO resonance spectrum

Thin film controllers/control units




6.4 Period measurement

6.5 The Z match technique






Mf (Tc Tq) F
= =
Mq Tq Fc

N d (Fq Fc)
Tf = AT q arctg Z tg
df Fc Z
Fq

dq Uq

Z=
df U f

n 6.6 The active oscillator


Fr m









Thin film controllers/control units

,ig. 6.5 Circuit of the active oscillator ,ig. 6.6 CrOstal frequencies near the series resonance point

6.7 The mode-lock oscillator


,ig. 6.7 Zscillations of a thicPlO coated crOstal

Thin film controllers/control units

(C55 / C66 )coated 1



(C55 / C66 )uncoated (1 + M Z )

6.8 Auto Z match technique








F F
tg M Z c + Z tg c = 0
Fq Fq

Fc
tg M Z
Fq
Z=
Fc
tg
Fq









mo3e-lo%E








Thin film controllers/control units

6.9 Coating thickness regulation



Output K p 10 s
P =
Input s +1
I D












S
M(s) = Kc 1 + + Td S E (s)
Ti


1.00 K p

0.0632 K p
point of
maximum
rise

setpoint deviation precipitation rate


L
R(s) + E(s) K p eaaa
s C(s)
0 s
L
t (0.632) Time t () Kc (1 + + Td * s) T1s + 1
Ti

[process] [controller]
T1 = t(0.632) L
Kp = (change in output signal)/(change in control signal)

,ig. 6.8 Process response to a step change ;ith t c 0 (open loopA control signal amplified) ,ig. 6.9 VlocP diagram of the PID controller

Thin film controllers/control units

0947
.
. L
136
Kc =
p T1
K

0.738
. L
119
Ti =
T1 T1

0995
.
L
Td = (0.381 T1)
T1
ISE = e2(t) dt


ISE




IAE


IAE = e(t) dt


ISE


IFAE

Auto Control
ITAE = t e(t) dt Tune

IFAE
IFAE

IFAE
6.10 INFICON instrument variants
Auto Control Tune








IFAE




IFAE


Thin film controllers/control units

Applications of vacuum technology

7. Application of

vacuum technology

for coating

techniques

7.1 Vacuum coating technique

7.2 Coating sources




7.2.1 Thermal evaporators

(boats, wires etc.)

Ultrahigh vacuum High vacuum Medium vacuum Rough vacuum

Annealing of metals

Degassing of melts

Electron beam melting

Electron beam welding

Evaporation

Sputtering of metals

Casting of resins and lacquers

Drying of plastics

Drying of insulating papers

Freeze-drying of bulk goods

Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical products

10 7 3 0 3
10 10 10 10 10

Pressure [mbar]

,ig. 7.1 Pressure ranges for various industrial processes


Applications of vacuum technology

6
5
7
4


3 8


1 9




,ig. 7.3 Schematic diagram of a high-performance cathode sputter arrangement

7.2.3 Cathode sputtering















,ig. 7.2 Iarious thermal evaporators


7.2.4 Chemical vapor deposition




7.2.2 Electron beam evaporators (electron
guns)




Coating methods

7.3 Vacuum coating technology/


coating systems


7.3.1 Coating of parts




7.3.2 Web coating

,ig. 7.4 Diagramm of a batch sOstem for coating parts ,ig. 7.5 Multi-chamber parts-coating unit (rotationallO sOmmetric in-line sOstem DOnaMet 4I)


Applications of vacuum technology

High-perfor-
mance
plasma
source
Electron
beam
evaporator

Monomer O2


Ar

,ig. 7.6 Schematic diagram of a vacuum ;eb coating sOstem ,ig. 7.7 Coating unit for optical coating sOstems




7.3.3 Optical coatings

Coating methods

7.3.4 Glass coating



7.3.5 Systems for producing data storage


disks
























Process chamber Intermediate chamber Process chamber


1 2
L1Z LZ2
Slits

S1 SZ S2
to backing pumps

Entrance chamber Transfer chamber 2 Exit chamber


Transfer chamber 1
Sputter chambers

,ig. 7.8 Plant for coating glass panes b 3-chamber in-line sOstemA throughput up to ,ig. 7.9 Principle of chamber separation through pressure stages
3A600A000 m2 / Oear


Applications of vacuum technology

,ig. 7.10 Plant for coating data storage disPs ;ith carrier transport sOstem

,ig. 7.11 Plant for individual coating of data storage disPs

Instructions for equipment operation

8. Instructions for

vacuum equipment

operation
Eliminating %ontamination <or glass eHuipment

8.1 Causes of faults where the
desired ultimate pressure is not
achieved or is achieved too
slowly


Eliminating %ontamination at metalli% eHuipment





















8.3 General operating information


8.2 Contamination of vacuum for vacuum pumps
vessels and eliminating
contamination








Instructions for equipment operation

8.3.1 Oil-sealed rotary vacuum pumps


(Rotary vane pumps and

rotary piston pumps)


8.3.1.1 Oil consumption, oil contamination, oil
change















Changing the oil






8.3.1.2 Selection of the pump oil when handling


aggressive vapors






















,ig. 8.1 Zil loss for oil-sealed pumps (referenced to an approximate maximum value of 2 cm3
oil loss per cubic meter of air dra;n in rSFPs)

Instructions for equipment operation

8.3.1.3 Measures when pumping various chemical


substances
Anh93ri3es



Explosion prote%tion

AlEaline solutions

Elementar9 gases
Prote%tion against %on3ensation

h93rogen






Ox9gen: Parti%ular %aution is reHuire3 when pumping pure ox9genc




AlEanes


Corrosion prote%tion

Al%ohols




gT Solvents
A%etone:

BenIene:



A%i3s
Carbon tetra%hlori3e an3 tri%hloreth9lene:


Instructions for equipment operation

Toluene:



8.3.1.4 Operating defects while pumping with gas
ballast Potential sources of error where
the required ultimate pressure is not
achieved






pmax
p = where
E k th 1

Theoretical pumping speed for the roots pump
k th =
Nominal pumping speed for the roughing pump











Potential sour%es o< error when the pump no longer turns




8.3.2.2 Oil change, maintenance work



Oil exits at the sha<t




8.3.2 Roots pumps

8.3.2.1 General operating instructions, installation
and commissioning


be avoi3e3

Instructions for equipment operation

8.3.3 Turbomolecular pumps

8.3.3.1 General operating instructions



Importantc







8.3.2.3 Actions in case of operational disturbances

Pump be%omes too warm:




Overloa3ing:


In%orre%t %learan%es:

Soile3 bearings:
Improper oil level:



In%orre%t oil t9pe:

Ex%essive power %onsumption:




Oiling at the pump %hamber:


Oil level too high:

Oil mixe3 with the pro3u%t: 8.3.3.2 Maintenance
Pump leaEing:

Abnormal running noises:


Grime at the impeller
Bearing or gearing 3amage
Impellers are tou%hing the housing


Instructions for equipment operation

8.3.4 Diffusion and vapor-jet vacuum


pumps


8.3.4.1 Changing the pump fluid and cleaning the
pump















Potential sour%es o< error where there is insu<<i%ient pumping spee3:










Changing the pump <lui3:

8.3.5 Adsorption pumps

8.3.5.1 Reduction of adsorption capacity

8.3.4.2 Operating errors with diffusion and vapor-


jet pumps
8.3.5.2 Changing the molecular sieve
Potential sour%es o< 3e<e%ts when the 3esire3 ultimate pressure is not

rea%he3


Instructions for equipment operation



8.3.6 Titanium sublimation pumps
















8.4 Information on working with


vacuum gauges

8.4.1 Information on installing vacuum


sensors


8.3.7 Sputter-ion pumps





I< at all

possible, install sensors verti%all9 an3 open to the bottom.


Instructions for equipment operation

8.4.2 Contamination at the measurement


system and its removal







8.4.4 Connectors, power pack,


measurement systems



8.4.3 The influence of magnetic and


electrical fields

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

9. Tables, formulas, nomograms and symbols

















Fable I+ Permissible pressure units including the torr 1) and its conversion





Fable III+ Mean free path l


Ialues of the product cB of the mean free path ( and pressure p for various gases at
20 EC (see also ,ig. 9.1)

Fable II+ Conversion of pressure units


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams



#****
cw =
2RT
M
cw = 1.29 104#*
M
T cm
s
cw = 410 [m/s]


of particles c #****
c = 8 R T
M
c = 1.46 10 #*
4

T
M
cm
s
c = 464 [m/s]

M s s
T cm 2 cm2
Mean square of velocity 2 3 R T 2 8 2
c = c = 2.49 10 2 c = 25.16 104 2
of particles c2 M
p=nkT p = 13.80 1020 n T [mbar] p = 4.04 1017 n [mbar] (applies to all gases)
1
p = n m T c2
3
1
p = $ c2
3
p
n = p/kT n = 7.25 1018 [cm3] p = 2.5 1016 p [cm3] (applies to all gases)
T
1 p ZA = 2.85 1020 p [cm2 s1] (see Fig. 78.2)
ZA = n c ZA = 2.63 1022 p [cm2 s1]
4 #**
M **
T
ZA = #****
N
p
2MkT
A

1 n c p2 ZV = 8.6 1022 p2 [cm3 s1] (see Fig. 78.2)


ZV = ZV = 5.27 1022 [cm3 s1]
2 c* #**
****
M T
ZA =
1
c* #****2 NA
MkT
p2
pV=RT p V = 83.14 T [mbar !] p V = 2.44 104 [mbar !] (for all gases)

qm, A = ZA mT = #****
M p
2 k T NA
Qm, A = 4.377 102 #*MT p [g cm 2 s1] qm, A = 1.38 102 p g [cm2 s1]

Fable II+ Compilation of important formulas pertaining to the Pinetic theorO of gases

Fable I+ Important values

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams






Fable II+ Conversion of pumping speed (volume flo; rate) units

Fable IIIa+ Conversion of throughput (npI) unitso (leaP rate) units

Table VII b: Conversion of throughput (QpV) units; (leak rate) units


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Fable IIII+ Composition of atmospheric air

Fable Im+ Pressure ranges used in vacuum technologO and their characteristics (numbers rounded off to ;hole po;er of ten)

Fable m+ Zutgassing rate of materials in mbar g l g sb1 g cmb2

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Fable mI+ Nominal internal diameters (DN) and internal diameters of tubesA pipes and apertures
;ith circular cross-section (according to PNEaRZP).

Fable mII+ Important data (characteristic figures) for common solvents


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

$ $ $ $


































































1 Sources+ Smithsonian Meteorological Fables 6th. ed. (1971) and IDI vapor tables 6th ed (1963).
Fable mIII+ Saturation pressure ps and vapor densitO $D of ;ater in a temperature range from b100EC to t140EC1

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Legen3



MESG
MIC






Fable mII+ ka^ard classification of fluids according to their MES[1 and/or MIC2 values.
(Extract from European Standard EN 50.014)


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Fable mI+ Chemical resistance of commonlO used elastomer gasPets and sealing materials

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Fable mI+ Chemical resistance of commonlO used elastomer gasPets and sealing materials


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Fable mI+ Chemical resistance of commonlO used elastomer gasPets and sealing materials

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Vacuum symbols

Vacuum pumps

Accessories

Fable mII+ SOmbols used in vacuum technologO (extract from DIN 28401)


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams


Modes of operation

Vacuum chambers

Shut-off devices

Connections and piping

Fable mII+ SOmbols used in vacuum technologO (extract from DIN 28401) (continuation)

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Measurement and
gauges

Measurement of throughput

Fable mII+ SOmbols used in vacuum technologO (extract from DIN 28401) (continuation)


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Fable mIII+ Femperature comparison and conversion table (rounded off to ;hole degrees)

~ 1
p

,ig. 9.1+ Iariation of mean free path (cm) ;ith pressure for various gases

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams


,ig. 9.3+ Decrease in air pressure (1) and change in temperature (2) as a function of altitude


,ig. 9.5+ Conductance values for piping of commonlO used nominal ;idth ;ith circular cross-
section for laminar flo; (p c 1 mbar) according to equation 53a. (FhicP lines refer to
preferred DN) ,lo; medium+ air (dA l in cmu)



,ig. 9.6+ Conductance values for piping of commonlO used nominal ;idth ;ith circular cross-section
for molecular flo; according to equation 53b. (FhicP lines refer to preferred DN) ,lo;
,ig. 9.4+ Change in gas composition of the atmosphere as a function of altitude medium+ air (dA l in cmu)


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams



pEND pend, p
mbar

Example 1 Example 2

































,ig. 9.7+ Nomogram for determination of pump-do;n time tp of a vessel in the rough vacuum pressure range

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Example:







,ig. 9.8+ Nomogram for determination of the conductance of tubes ;ith a circular cross-section for air at 20 EC in the region of molecular flo; (according to v. DELA,ZSSE and [. MZN[ZDIN+ Les
calculs de la Fechnique du IideA special issue QLe IideRA 1961).


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

Pro%e3ure: Example:







,ig. 9.9+ Nomogram for determination of conductance of tubes (airA 20 EC) in the entire pressure range.

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams






Example 1:




example 2

,ig. 9.10+ Determination of pump-do;n time in the medium vacuum range taPing into account the outgasing from the ;alls


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

1000
1,00E+03

Mercury
100
1,00E+02


10
1,00E+01

1,00E+00 1
Santovac 5
(similar to Ultralen)
10-1
1,00E-01
Aziepon 201

Vapor pressure (mbar)


10-2
1,00E-02


10-3
1,00E-03
DC 704 Diffelen ultr a

10-4
1,00E-04

10-5
1,00E-05

1,00E-06 -6
10 DC 705

1,00E-07-7
10
Diffelen
light
1,00E-08-8
10
Diffelen
normal
1,00E-09-9
10
,ig. 9.11+ Saturation vapor pressure of various substances
10 -10
1,00E-10

10-11
1,00E-11

10-12
1,00E-12

0 25 50 75 100 150 200 250


Temperature (C)

,ig. 9.12+ Saturation vapor pressure of pump fluids for oil and mercurO fluid entrainment pumps

,ig. 9.13+ Saturation vapor pressure of major metals used in vacuum technologO

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams


# critical point
$ melting point

,ig. 9.14+ Iapor pressure of nonmetallic sealing materials (the vapor pressure curve for fluoro ,ig. 9.15+ Saturation vapor pressure ps of various substances relevant for crOogenic technologO in
rubber lies bet;een the curves for silicone rubber and Feflon). a temperaturerange of F c 2 b 80 f.

,ig. 9.16+ Common ;orPing ranges of vacuum pumps


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

,ig. 9.16a+ Measurement ranges of common vacuum gauges

Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

,ig. 9.17+ Specific volume Isp of saturated ;ater vapor in m3/Pg ;ithin a range of 0.013 to 133 mbar.

,ig. 9.18+ VreaPdo;n voltage a bet;een parallel electrodes in a homogeneous electrical field as
a function of gas pressure p distance bet;een electrodes d (in mm) (Paschen curve)A
for air.


Tables, Formulas, Diagrams

,ig. 9.19+ Phase diagram of ;ater

Statutory units

10. The statutory units


used in vacuum
technology
10.1 Introduction

10.2 Alphabetical list1 of variables, symbols and units frequently used in


vacuum technology and its applications (see also DIN 28 402)


Statutory units



































^p






















Statutory units


Statutory units

Statutory units

10.3 Remarks on alphabetical list in 3/5: D9nami% vis%osit9


Section 10.2

3/1: A%tivit9

3/5a: Energ9 3ose


3/2: SnCT Celsius temperature



3/6: Veight

3/3: Pressure onl9



3ensit9

1 mbar q 102 Pa q 0.75 torr 3/7: Veight <or%e




1 Ep q 9.81 N
Spe%ial note

3/8: Ion 3ose


3/9: Kinemati% vis%osit9



3/10: For%e
Conversions
981 mbar

981 mbar

3/11: Length/wavelength


3/12: LeaE rate



Conversions: 3/13: Magneti% <iel3 strength





Statutory units

3/14: Magneti% <lux 3ensit9 3/24: Temperature 3i<<eren%e




3/25: :uantit9 o< heat


3/15: Magneti% <lux

3/26: Angle
3/16: Stan3ar3 volume



3/17: Partial pressure

3/18: Gas permeabilit9


permeation %oe<<i%ient 10.4 Tables

10.4.1 Basic SI units

3/19: pV throughput/pV value



3/20: Relative atomi% mass

3/21: Relative mole%ular mass

3/22: Spe%i<i% gas %onstant

3/23: Spe%i<i% heat %apa%it9

Statutory units

10.4.2 Derived coherent1 SI units with 10.4.4 Derived noncoherent SI units with
special names and symbols special names and symbols
(alphabetical)

10.4.3 Atomic units



Vacuum technology standards

11. National and 11.1 National and international


standards and
international recommendations of special
relevance to vacuum
standards and technology
recommendations
AT National agreements, Part 1: DIN
particularly relevant

to vacuum

technology

AT National agreements, Part 1: DIN S%ont.T


Vacuum technology standards


Vacuum technology standards


AT European/national agreements, EN, DIN/EN, CEN

































BT International agreements, ISO, EN/ISO













Vacuum technology standards

CT PNEUROP/C5 S6.93T


References

12.References


1. Overview, definitions and
history

References


2. Vacuum pumps

2.1 Positive displacement pumps,


condensers


References

References

2.2 Turbomolecular pumps



2.3 Fluid entrainment pumps


References

2.4 Sorption pumps

2.5 Cryopumps and cryoengineering

References

2.6 Oil backstreaming


References




3. Ultrahigh vacuum technology

4. Conductances, flanges,

valves, etc.

References



5. Measurement of low pressures


References

7. Mass spectrometer gas analysis


at low pressures


6. Pressure monitoring,
control and regulation

References

8. Leaks and leak detection



8.1 Mass spectrometer leak detection

8.2 Leak detection with halogen leak


detectors

9. Film thickness measurement


and control


References

References

10. Materials and material 11. Dictionaries


processing





Index

13. Index






















































Index


Index

Index


Index

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