e Pergamon Waf. Sci.

Wat. Sci. Tech. Vol. 39,

Tech. Vol. 39, No.5,
No. 5, pp.

Published by
Published
PP. 153-160,
153-160, 1999
Q 19991AWQ

1999
1999 IAWQ
Elsevier Science Ltd
by Elsevier Ltd
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SOURCE CONTROL IN
SOURCE CONTROL URBAN
IN URBAN
SANITATION
SANITATION AND
AND WASTE
WASTE
MANAGEMENT:
MANAGEMENT: TEN SYSTEMS WITH
TEN SYSTEMS WITH
REUSE OF RESOURCES
REUSE RESOURCES

Ralf Otterpohl,
Ralf Otterpohl, Andrea Albold and
Andrea Albold and Martin
Martin Oldenburg
Oldenburg
Otterpohl
Otterpohl Wasserkonzepte,
Wasserkonzepte, KanalstraJe 52, D
Kanalstraj3e 52, D 23552
23552 Liibeck, Germany
Lubeck, Germany

ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
This paper
This paper is
is aa follow
follow up up of
of one presented by
one presented by Otterpohl
Otterpohl et et al. (1997) in
al. (1997) Water Science
in Water Science & & Technology.
Technology. This This
extension emphasises
extension emphasises the the responsibility
responsibility of the professionals
of the professionals in in waste-
waste- and and wastewater
wastewater management
management for for future
future
development. ItIt shows
development. shows aa lists of 10
lists of 10 technological
technological options
options forfor sanitation
sanitation with source control.
with source control. TheThe political
political
discussion about
discussion about future sanitation systems
future sanitation seems to
systems seems to lack
lack input
input of those working
of those working on on further
Anther development.
development.
Even Agenda
Even Agenda 21 21 is is aa complete failure in
complete failure in this respect -- sadly,
this respect sadly, inin aa core
core subject
subject for
for survival
survival of of future
future
generations. The
generations. The main
main task
task of
of sanitation
sanitation besides highest hygienic
besides highest hygienic standards
standards is to keep
is to soil fertile.
keep soil fertile.
Sanitation with the
Sanitation with the mixing
mixing up up of food and
of food and water cycles washes
water cycles washes all all those
those substances
substances out out to
to the
the seasseas that are
that are
extremely harmtitl there (accumulation) and extremely necessary on the land (depletion
extremely harmful there (accumulation) and extremely necessary on the land (depletion offertility and fossil of fertility and fossil
resources). New
resources). New integrated
integrated sanitation and waste
sanitation and waste management
management systemssystems willwill mostly
mostly have
have toto respect
respect different
different
qualities of
qualities of matter
matter from
from human
human settlements: blackwater with
settlements: blackwater with biowaste,
biowaste, greywater, stormwater runoff
greywater, stonnwater and
runoff and
non-biodegradable
non-biodegradable waste. Based on
waste. Based on this
this distinction,
distinction, nine differentiating
nine differentiating and one mixing
and one mixing systems
systems withwith
resources management
resources management are are presented.
presented. Some
Some of of them require careful
them require careful examination
examination in in selected
selected pilot
pilot projects.
projects. Q
1999 IAWQ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
1999 IAWQ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

KEYWORDS
KEYWORDS
Sustainable
Sustainable sanitation;
sanitation; vacuum
vacuum toilets; wastewater treatment;
toilets; wastewater biogas plant;
treatment; biogas plant; renewable energy; constructed
renewable energy; constructed
wetlands;
wetlands; biowaste;
biowaste; nutrients;
nutrients; agriculture; sustainable city
agriculture; sustainable city planning.
planning.
DIFFERENTIATING SANITATION
DIFFERENTIATING SANITATION SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS -- THE
THE BASIC
BASIC STEP
STEP TO
TO
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The starting-point of the discussion about future development is the feasibility of sanitation systems, which
The starting-point of the discussion about future development is the feasibility of sanitation systems, which
finally has to
finally has to take
take responsibility
responsibility for
for the
the future
future of nature and
of nature and human
human beings. There is
beings. There is no
no reason to wait
reason to wait for
for
public or political pressure, because the publicity relies on the experts. Basic facts for sustainable systems
public or political pressure, because the publicity relies on the experts. Basic facts for sustainable systems
are obvious, nevertheless pilot-projects for new approaches are necessary. Serious planning might end the
are obvious, nevertheless pilot-projects for new approaches are necessary. Serious planning might end the
common practice, that the system water closet - sewerage - wastewater treatment plant (WC-S-WWTP) is
common practice, that the system water closet - sewerage - wastewater treatment plant (WC-S-WWTP) is
installed automatically without any serious discussion of alternatives.
installed automatically without any serious discussion of alternatives.
Agenda 21 of the United Nations includes no accounts of sustainable sanitation concepts (Agenda 21, 1992),
Agenda 21 of the United Nations includes no accounts of sustainable sanitation concepts (Agenda 21, 1992),
sadly in a core subject for survival of future generations. Sanitation is not further defined therefore
sadly in a core subject for survival of future generations. Sanitation is not further defined therefore
addressing the WC-S-WWTP without consideration of the consequences of its implementation world-wide.
addressing the WC-S-WWTP without consideration of the consequences of its implementation world-wide.
153
153
154
154 R.
R. OlTERFOHL
OITERPOHL etet a/.
al.

Many experts of
Many ~xperts of sanitation
sanitation agree
agree on
on the resulting disasters
the resulting disasters even
even in
in aa short
short time-span for economically
time-span for poorer
economically poorer
countries.
countnes.

Basic
Basic considerations
considerations and and the
the presentation
presentation ofof aa few
few possible sustainable solutions
possible sustainable solutions are given in
are given in Henze
Henze etet al.
~1.
(1997b). Sustainable sanitation concepts will mostly have to co-operate
(1997b). Sustainable sanitation concepts will mostly have to co-operate with agriculture. Sustainablewith agriculture. Sustainable
agriculture
agriculture has
has toto be
be water
water friendly and improve
friendly and improve or or at
at least maintain soil
least maintain soil quality.
quality. Industrial
Industrial agriculture
agriculture
results
results often
often in degradation offertile
in degradation of fertile top-soils
top-soils with
with alarming progress (Pimentel,
alarming progress 1997). Sanitation
(Pimentel, 1997). and waste
Sanitation and waste
management have
management have to to care for maintaining
care for maintaining and improving the
and improving the fertile
fertile topsoil.
topsoil. Inappropriate
Inappropriate or or missing
missing
sanitation
sanitation in
in difficult
difficult climates can result
climates can result in
in starvation
starvation and
and can turn the
can turn the land
land population
population into
into refugees.
refugees.

Future sanitation
Future sanitation concepts
concepts should produce aa rich
should produce organic fertiliser
rich organic for agriculture
fertiliser for rather than
agriculture rather than waste.
waste. One
One
person can
person can produce
produce as as much fertiliser as
much fertiliser as necessary
necessary for for the
the food
food needed
needed for one person
for one person (Niemczynowicz,
(Niemczynowicz,
1997). However
1997). However thethe cycles should not
cycles should not be too short
be too short (industrial/energy
(industrial/energy crops crops first)
first) and
and appropriate
appropriate treatment
treatment isis
necessary. First
necessary. First priority
priority ofof all
all possible concepts is
possible concepts is the consideration of
the consideration of hygienic aspects -- alternative
hygienic aspects altemative
concepts can
concepts can and
and should
should be be better
better solutions
solutions inin this respect, too.
this respect, too. Separation
Separation of of different
different qualities
qualities andand their
their
respective appropriate treatment for reuse is common in industry and is fundamental
respective appropriate treatment for reuse is common in industry and is fundamental for new concepts. for new concepts.

Quality
Quality I:1: Kitchen-waste
Kitchen-waste and
and low-dilutedfaeces with urine
low-dilutedfaeces with (blackwater orfurther
urine (blackwater separation ofurine)
orfurther separation of urine)

The blackwater
The blackwater and kitchen waste
and kitchen (quality 1)
waste (quality I) contains nearly all
contains nearly ail of
of the
the nutrients
nutrients nitrogen,
nitrogen, phosphorus
phosphorus andand
potassium. Blackwater should be protected from pollution at source by usage of biodegradable
potassium. Blackwater should be protected from pollution at source by usage of biodegradable toilet clean- toilet clean-
ing chemicals
ing chemicals and especially by
and especially by avoiding copper or
avoiding copper or zinc
zinc pipes
pipes for
for drinking
drinking water. Further precautions
water. Further will
precautions will
have
have toto be
be taken
taken with
with regard
regard to
to medical
medical remedies that have
remedies that to be
have to be designed
designed for for degradability
degradability in the usual
in the usual
treatment processes.
treatment processes. If If the
the blackwater
blackwater is is kept anaerobic with
kept anaerobic with aa following
following anaerobic treatment many
anaerobic treatment many
medicines
medicines areare better degraded than
better degraded than inin the conventional pathway
the conventional pathway (Dalhanuner,
(Dalhammer, 1995).
1995).

Quality 2: Greywaterfrom
Quality 2: Greywater from bathrooms, washing machines
bathrooms, washing machines and
and kitchen (little nutrients)
kitchen (little nutrients)

The
The greywater (quality 2)
greywater (quality 2) contains
contains few few nutrients
nutrients and
and supposed
supposed phosphorus
phosphorus free
free detergents
detergents are
are used.
used. This
This
fraction can
fraction can easily
easily be treated to
be treated to aa reusable quality as
reusable quality as it
it had
had no
no contact with toilet
contact with toilet wastewater. However, aa
wastewater. However,
small content
small content of faecal bacteria
of faecal bacteria has
has to to be
be taken into account
taken into account (washing
(washing ofof diapers,
diapers, showering).
showering). Contrary
Contrary toto
common belief, greywater often has a high COD concentration due to a smaller dilution
common belief, greywater often has a high COD concentration due to a smaller dilution when water is used when water is used
in
in smaller
smaller quantities.
quantities. Mechanical
Mechanical pre-treatment
pre-treatment is is necessary
necessary for most biological
for most biological treatment technologies.
treatment technologies.
Additional effort has to be made in the production of household
Additional effort has to be made in the production of household chemicals. chemicals.

Quality 3:
Quality 3: Stormwater
Stormwater runoff
runoff

Avoidance of central stormwater sewers is an important step towards economically feasible source control
Avoidance of central stormwater sewers is an important step towards economically feasible source control
sanitation. Stormwater infiltration has become increasingly popular in many countries in the last a couple of
sanitation. Stormwater infiltration has become increasingly popular in many countries in the last a couple of
years. The advantages are obvious, with a recharge of groundwater and with respect to the local water cycle.
years. The advantages are obvious, with a recharge of groundwater and with respect to the local water cycle.
Unfortunately stormwater runoff is often loaded with a wide variety of organic and inorganic chemicals
Unfortunately stormwater nmoff is often loaded with a wide variety of organic and inorganic chemicals
(Fiirster, 1996). Direct infiltration into the soil should be avoided. Infiltration through swales with
(Forster, 1996). Direct infiltration into the soil should be avoided. Infiltration through swales with
biologically active soil can be a fairly good treatment, but even here a fair amount of the initial
biologically active soil can be a fairly good treatment, but even here a fair amount of the initial
concentrations can reach the groundwater especially when the flow does not pass all of the area but mostly
concentrations can reach the groundwater especially when the flow does not pass all of the area but mostly
the rim near sealed surfaces (MeiRner, 1998). This indicates that great precaution has to be taken to protect
the rim near sealed surfaces (MeiBner, 1998). This indicates that great precaution has to be taken to protect
the groundwater. Surface runoff in ditches directed to receiving waters might be the safest choice depending
the groundwater. Surface nmoff in ditches directed to receiving waters might be the safest choice depending
on the situation. The stormwater has to be kept clean by means of source control in any case. Roofs and
on the situation. The stormwater has to be kept clean by means of source control in any case. Roofs and
gutters should not be made from zinc plated metal or by copper and also air- and road pollution have to be
gutters should not be made from zinc plated metal or by copper and also air- and road pollution have to be
minimised. Parking lots can be equipped with pans to collect dripping oil from the engines.
minimised. Parking lots can be equipped with pans to collect dripping oil from the engines.
Quality 4: Non-biodegradable solid waste
Quality 4: Non-biodegradable solid waste
The amount of non-biodegradable solid waste can be a small fraction if packages are reused. Another option
The amount of non-biodegradable solid waste can be a small fraction if packages are reused. Another option
is the reuse as raw material. This fraction will not be further discussed here, as there are only few
is the reuse as raw material. This fraction will not be further discussed here, as there are only few
implications for the sanitation system.
implications for the sanitation system.
 Source control
Source control in
in urban sanitation and
urban sanitation and waste
waste management
management 155
155
OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW OVER DIFFERENTIATING SANITATION
OVER DIFFERENTIATING SANITATION CONCEPTS
CONCEPTS

The
The most important tool
most important for source
tool for source control
control is the toilet
is the system. It
toilet system. It is
is in
in no
no way
way prestigious
prestigious or
or scientifically
scientifically
rewarding
rewarding to to deal
deal with
with toilets,
toilets, but
but itit is one of
is one of the
the most
most important questions for
important questions for the
the survival of man
survival of man on on earth
earth
in the
in the long
long run. The differentiating
run. The differentiating sanitation
sanitation concepts
concepts (Fig.
(Fig. 11 and 2) for
and 2) for semi-central
semi-central and decentral
and decentral
sanitation concepts
sanitation concepts areare not all in
not all practical use
in practical use or tested. The
or tested. The demonstration
demonstration of of the
the possibilities
possibilities is
is aa proposal,
proposal,
for aa few
for of these
few of these aa test
test in
in aa pilot
pilot project
project andand aa system optimisation are
system optimisation are necessary.
necessary.

Concept
Concept la (Vacuum-Biogas-System)
fa (Vacuum-Biogas-System)

Vacuum
Vacuum closets (VC) are
closets (VC) are well
well developed
developed from somedecades
from some decades of installation
of on ships.
installation on ships.They
They have
have aa water
water
consumption
consumption of of 0.5-l .O1
0.5-1.0 I per
per flush.
flush. This
This way
wayan ananaerobic
anaerobic treatmentwith
treatment with hygienisation
hygienisation and andco-treatment
co-treatment ofof
organic
organic household
household waste
waste (biogas
(biogas plant)
plant) is
is possible (Ia). Biowaste
possible (Ia). Biowastemight
mightbe betransported
transported by the
by the vacuum sewer
vacuum sewer
systemafter
system passinga
after passing a biowaste
biowaste grinder, but technology
grinder, but technology hashasto
to be furtherdeveloped
be further developedfor for little
little water
waterconsump-
consump-
tion.
tion. The
The more simplesolution
more simple solution would
would bebe biowaste collectionwith
biowaste collection with sufficient
sufficientfrequency
frequencyandandcentral
centralcheck-up
check-up
andgrinding
and grinding atat the
the biogas
biogasplant.
plant.The
The gas
gas produced
produced byby digestion
digestion will
will be usedin
be used in aa power
powerstation, whichpro-
station, which pro-
duces thermaland
duces thermal and electric
electricenergy
energy for
for the
the settlement. The product
settlement. The product ofof the
the treatment
treatmentin the biogas
in the biogas plant is aa
plant is
liquid fertiliser
liquid fertiliser with
with aa relatively
relatively high
high nutrient
nutrient level (P, N,
level (P, N, K)
K) including ako calcium,
including also calcium,magnesium
magnesium andmany
and many
importanttrace
important substances
trace substances andmay
and may bebe used
used byby the farmersin
the farmers in agriculture.
agriculture.The fertilisercould
The fertiliser alsobe
could also be used
used
for an agricultural energy production based on oilseeds (e.g. rape, flax,) which also feeds cattle
for an agricultural energy production based on oilseeds (e.g. rape, flax,) which also feeds cattle and cattle and cattle
manure
manure feeds
feeds the samedigestor
the same digestorin
in the settlement.
the settlement. Nativeoil
Native oil ofthese
of theseenergy
energyplants
plantscan
canalso
alsobe be used together
used together
with biogas for heat and energy production in special converted diesel
with biogas for heat and energy production in special converted diesel engines. engines.

As
As an alternativeto
an alternative to VC separation
VC separation toilets couldbe
toilets could beused aswell
used as well (lb).
(Ib). The
Thedifferent
differentflushing volumesfor
flushing volumes fae-
for fae-
ces and urine of e.g. 6 1and 0.2 1result in a similarly low dilution as with vacuum toilets making
ces and urine of e.g. 6 I and 0.2 I result in a similarly low dilution as with vacuum toilets making anaerobic anaerobic
digestionwith
digestion with biowaste
biowaste possible. The pipes
possible. The pipes could simply be
could simply be connected
connectedbehind the toilet.
behind the toilet. It
It is
is aa sort of
sort of
misuse
'misuse' ofof this
this type
type ofof toilet,
toilet, but
but itit also
alsoavoids
avoids thethe weak part in
weak part in urine separation:transport
urine separation: transport in in pipes
pipesandand
storage. Even aa first
storage. Even first step installationin
step installation orderto
in order to save
save water canmake
water can makevery
very much
muchsense
senseand and pays within aa
pays within
coupleof
couple of months
monthsor yearsdepending
or years depending on on the
the respective waterand
respective water andwastewater
wastewaterprices.
prices.The
Theusage
usageof of separating
separating
toiletsmakes
toilets makesthe the system
system described
described above
above much simpler.However
much simpler. Howeverseparate
separate transportof
transport of the blackwaterwill
the blackwater will
requirea
require a considerable
considerable gradient in the
gradient in the sewer.
sewer.IfIf urine
urineis
is collected
collectedseparately
separatelyitit could
couldbe addedto
be added to the
the liquid
liquid
fertiliser after the
fertiliser after the digestor. Thiscan
digestor. This reducereactor
can reduce sizesand
reactor sizes andavoids too high
avoids too high ammoniac
ammoniacconcentrations
concentrations thatthat
can inhibit the digestion. There are several installations in Sweden, where urine separating
can inhibit the digestion. There are several installations in Sweden, where urine separating and reusing and reusing
conceptsare
concepts gettingmore
are getting more andandmore
more attention (Hellstrom,1998).
attention (Hellstrom, 1998).Ironically
Ironically the
the usage
usage of toilet paper
of toilet after
paper after
urinating which is a habit for most women and many men is the greatest obstacle to
urinating which is a habit for most women and many men is the greatest obstacle to acceptance. There areacceptance. There are
even reports about higher water consumption by separating toilets than conventional
even reports about higher water consumption by separating toilets than conventional ones because of an ones because of an
extra flush for disposalof the paper.A paperbin canbe usedandin caseof non acceptance by userspaper
extra flush for disposal of the paper. A paper bin can be used and in case of non acceptance by users paper
disposalcould be organisedin a way that the following faecesflushwill transportthe paperwithout being
disposal could be organised in a way that the following faeces flush will transport the paper without being
visiblebefore.
visible before.
The subsequent installationof urineseparatingtoiletscanbe usedfor implementingthe ANS systemasde-
The subsequent installation of urine separating toilets can be used for implementing the ANS system as de-
scribedby LarsenandGujer (1997).Urine is collectedin decentraltankswhich are equippedwith remote
scribed by Larsen and Gujer (1997). Urine is collected in decentral tanks which are equipped with remote
control for startingthe emptying.Timing considers lowestflowsin thesewerage systemandflowtimesfrom
control for starting the emptying. Timing considers lowest flows in the sewerage system and flowtimes from
the respectivelocationin orderto get a concentrated urine-wave.Thiswave shallbe caughtat the influent
the respective location in order to get a concentrated 'urine-wave'. This wave shall be caught at the influent
of the treatmentplant directingit to furtherprocessing andusage.The mainadvantageof this systemis the
of the treatment plant directing it to further processing and usage. The main advantage of this system is the
applicabilityin existinginfrastructure,what can not be doneaseasilywith many of the other options. A
applicability in existing infrastructure, what can not be done as easily with many of the other options. A
restriction canbe foundin sewerage systems with a low gradient,wherethe flow nevercomesdownenough
restriction can be found in sewerage systems with a low gradient, where the flow never comes down enough
anddepositswill be erodedby the yellow wave. Planningwork of the authorsof this paperindicatesclear
and deposits will be eroded by the yellow wave. Planning work of the authors of this paper indicates clear
advantages of this systemon the level of a sub-catchment especiallyon the level of a new or renovated
advantages of this system on the level of a sub-catchment especially on the level of a new or renovated
settlement.
settlement.
 Sanitation
Sanitation Strategies
Strategies with
with Water
Water Consumption
Consumption V>
0\

I I
Toilet I Transport
nansport Treatment
Treatment Utilization
Utilization

la
la

Ib
lb

lIa
Ma

lib
lib
1 toilet

I Separation-
1 toilet
I-

IVacuum- !Faec.+Udne~l\kwr
1 toilet [ -

I-41
r
- AI
~rrn-I

n-...-m*
O~WW kaec!,
r-e I
1 v.dwaste Biogas
plant
(Fsrsliz
r ; ?"

1 ~
Agri-
lila
llla ctrlture
~

IIlb
lllb

IVa
IVa

IVb
IVb
*Sewer: flush
*Sewer: flush sewer,
sewer, pressure
pressure or
or vacuum
vacuum sewer
sewer
Figure 1.1. Options
Figure Options for
for sanitation
sanitation with
with resources
resources management
management -- Part
Part I.I.
 Sanitation Strategies
Sanitation Strategies without
without Water
Water Consumutlon
Consumption
Toilet
Toilet FM&llSpO?t Treatment
Treatment UtltlzaUOll

v
V . _ . . &fw%w . _ . . _ . . _ Agri-
culture

Agri-
VI I ulture Ul

option:
Wine
~
n
(')

VII ertilize
Agri-
culture I
6
option: Urine BiowasteA a.

Low-Tech-Low-Cost Strategies for warm Climates I
g'
mic
V111 1Desiccation1 . _ . ~f.fi~i~%!F. . - . . - . . +/ Desitxation
I
toilet I @owaste +I 8-
0ptton:
Urine
with dry anal hyg/enWs I
IX -1. . i @VP@? _ . , _ . . _ .,I Biogas L
witP wet anal nygfenws
Forest- and Uriculture
B&waste 4 plant

with whole-vear-growing
I
t
weI
x Separation-
toilet

"DN = Denitrification

Figure 2.2. Options

Figure Options for
for sanitation
sanitation with
with resources
resources management
management -- Part
Part ll.
II.
-
v.
.....
158
158 R.
R. OTTERPOHL
OTIERPOHL etet al.
al.
Concept
Concept IIII (Blackwater
(Blackwater Pre-treatment)
Pre-treatment)

Concept
Concept IIII (Braun,
(Braun, 1998)
1998) is
is additionally
additionally equipped
equipped with
with solids
solids separation
separation inin order
order to
to limit
limit the
the capacity neces-
capacity neces-
sary
sary for
for the digestor. An
the digestor. An aerobic
aerobic treatment
treatment with
with nitrification
nitrification (no
(no denitrification)
denitrification) ofof the
the liquid
liquid phase
phase of the
of the
blackwater produces a flow containing most of the nutrients. This flow can be mixed with
blackwater produces a flow containing most ofthe nutrients. This flow can be mixed with the effluent of the the effluent of the
digestor
digestor (biowaste
(biowaste and
and solids
solids from
from blackwater) or stored
blackwater) or stored separately
separately and
and be
be reused
reused as
as fertiliser.
fertiliser.
Concept
Concept III
III (Blackwater
(Blackwater Reuse
Reuse Circle)
Circle)

In
In addition
addition to concept IIII concept
to concept concept IIIIII (Braun,
(Braun, 1998)
1998) uses
uses the
the liquid
liquid phase
phase toto be
be circulated
circulated back
back toto toilet
toilet flush-
flush-
ing
ing after
after hygienisation
hygienisation (e.g.
(e.g. W-unit).
UV-unit). ThisThis way
way the
the concentrations
concentrations of nitrogen (but
of nitrogen (but also
also P, K) can
P, K) can bebe rising
rising
up
up to concentrations of
to concentrations of several
several thousand
thousand mg mg nitrate
nitrate per
per litre.
litre. AA compensation
compensation for for the
the loss
loss of
of alkalinity
alkalinity due
due toto
nitrificaton
nitrificaton maymay bebe necessary.
necessary. This
This concept
concept has
has to be further
to be further tested
tested in
in pilot
pilot installations,
installations, however
however fromfrom aa
theoretical point of
theoretical point of view
view itit should
should work.
work. Nitrate
Nitrate does
does not
not inhibit
inhibit the
the process
process andand will
will not
not evaporate.
evaporate. The fre-
The fre-
quency
quency of of water
water reuse
reuse has
has yet
yet to
to be
be found.
found.
Concept
Concept IV
IV (Composting
(Composting Blackwater
Blackwater Solids)
Solids)

Another option is
Another option is the
the use
use of
of aa cornposting
composting filterfilter for
for the solids contained
the solids contained in
in blackwater. There are
blackwater. There are two
two basic
basic
principles
principles forfor the composting filter:
the composting filter: itit has
has to
to be
be kept
kept in
in aerobic
aerobic conditions
conditions (water
(water level
level below
below filter
filter material)
material)
and
and the
the feeding
feeding has
has toto be switched between
be switched between two two or
or more
more compartments
compartments allowing
allowing composting
composting with
with less
less mois-
mois-
ture.
ture. The
The liquid
liquid phase
phase will contain most
will contain most of of the
the nutrients and can
nutrients and can be
be treated
treated aerobically
aerobically in any high-
in any high- or low-
or low-
tech process.
tech process.
Concepts V to
Concepts V VII (Waterless
to VII (Waterless Sanitation
Sanitation and
and Reuse
Reuse Concepts)
Concepts)

Dry
Dry toilets
toilets are
are usually
usually combined
combined with cornposting, often
with composting, often in
in combination
combination with with biowaste
biowaste (kitchen
(kitchen and
and garden
garden
waste).
waste). There are many systems with a complete decentral composter in the cellar of the house. In this
There are many systems with a complete decentral composter in the cellar of the house. In this case
case
the
the transport
transport works
works simply
simply by by gravity
gravity without
without contact
contact to
to the
the pipes
pipes (see
(see Figure
Figure 1).1). This
This requires installation
requires installation
vertically
vertically below
below the the toilets
toilets and limits the
and limits the height
height to
to about
about 33 storeys.
storeys. The
The composter
composter for for aa family
family ofof 44 needs
needs
room
room of a total space around 8 m Some maintenance is basic for good functioning (30 min per month) and
of a total space around 8 m.3 Some maintenance is basic for good functioning (30 min per month) and
rich
rich soil can be
soil can be produced.
produced. IfIf the
the process
process goes well the
goes well the hygienic
hygienic quality
quality can
can be
be excellent
excellent due
due to
to temporary
temporary
high temperatures and a mean residential time of two to four years. The production is only around 40 1 per
high temperatures and a mean residential time of two to four years. The production is only around 40 1 per
person
person per per year
year (Lorenz-Ladener,
(Lorenz-Ladener, 1992) 1992) and
and therefore
therefore easy
easy toto handle.
handle. AA special
special question
question isis the
the possible
possible
waste of energy in cold climates due to the airflow that is necessary to keep smells out of the house and the
waste of energy in cold climates due to the airflow that is necessary to keep smells out of the house and the
compost aerobic. This flow has to be taken into account especially in eco-houses with extremely good
compost aerobic. This flow has to be taken into account especially in eco-houses with extremely good
isolation.
isolation.
If space for a composter is not available the installation of a pre-composting dry toilet can be taken into ac-
If space for a composter is not available the installation of a pre-composting dry toilet can be taken into ac-
count. Models for colder climates that are heated with electricity should be avoided due to the large waste of
count. Models for colder climates that are heated with electricity should be avoided due to the large waste of
energy. However there are several models available that use not more than a small motor for ventilation. The
energy. However there are several models available that use not more than a small motor for ventilation. The
principle of these models is to keep the compost dry enough to prevent anaerobic conditions. A small con-
principle of these models is to keep the compost dry enough to prevent anaerobic conditions. A small con-
tainer collects excess compost that can be taken out without manual contact. This has to be done about once
tainer collects excess compost that can be taken out without manual contact. This has to be done about once
a month and disposal will usually be any kind of outdoors compost together with biowaste. Two adjacent
a month and disposal will usually be any kind of outdoors compost together with biowaste. Two adjacent
heaps with yearly change are recommended to assure composting times with a one year minimum. Altema-
heaps this
tively withcompost
yearly change arefed
could be recommended to assure
to a biogas plant (VII) composting
with a loss times
of gaswith a one year
production dueminimum. Alterna-
to pre-composting
tively this compost could be fed to a biogas plant (VII) with a loss of gas production due to pre-composting
(yet to be tested). Rogers (1998) from Harvard, USA has developed a small composter with complete con-
(yet to be tested). Rogers (1998) from Harvard, USA has developed a small composter with complete con-
trol of composting conditions by a micro-chip with a reasonable energy requirement.
trol of composting conditions by a micro-chip with a reasonable energy requirement.
The process of composting has some clear restrictions. The moisture has to be kept in a range between about
Theand
30 process
50%, of composting
above hasthe
this range some clear restrictions.
composting will turn The moisture with
to digestion has toproduction
be kept inofa range
smells.between about
This applies
30 households
to and 50%, above
withoutthisany
range the composting
kitchen- or garden will
wastetumandtoalso
digestion
for cultures using wateroffor
with production smells.
anal This applies
cleaning. In
to households
regions withoutclimates
with warmer any kitchen- or garden
the compost will waste
easilyand also for
become too cultures
dry for using water for anal cleaning.
the micro-organisms in the com-In
regions with warmer climates the compost will easily become too dry for the micro-organisms
post. The latter case gave rise to the development of desiccation toilets (VIII, Winblad, 1996) that are solar in the com-
post. The
heated for latter
examplecasewith
gavea rise
blackto sheet
the development
of metal. Twoof compartments
desiccation toilets (VIII,annually
changed Winblad, care1996) that are solar
for hygienisation
heated for example with a black sheet of metal. Two compartments changed annually care for hygienisation
 Source
Source control
control in
in urban
urban sanitation
sanitation and
and waste
waste management
management 159
159
with
with resident
resident times
times exceeding
exceeding aa year
year and
and frequently
frequently heated.
heated. There
There are
are very
very old
old traditional
traditional sanitation
sanitation concepts
concepts
based
based on
on desiccation
desiccation existing
existing in
in some
some hot
hot climate
climate countries
countries (Winblad
(Winblad and
and Kilama,
Kilama, 1985).
1985).

Concept
Concept IX
IX (Low-tech
(Low-tech Biogas
Biogas Sanitation)
Sanitation)

AA relatively
relatively simple
simple low-tech
low-tech sanitation
sanitation concept
concept is applied in
is applied in many countries around
many countries around the
the world,
world, especially
especially in in
India and China. This concept is also possible where wet anal hygiene is used. The most
India and China. This concept is also possible where wet anal hygiene is used. The most simple solution simple solution isis
toilets
toilets for
for aa neighbourhood
neighbourhood located
located directly
directly above
above or
or besides
besides aa biogas
biogas plant
plant (IX).
(IX). The
The limited
limited usage
usage ofof water
water
is
is necessary
necessary to to restrict
restrict reactor
reactor sizes.
sizes. The
The co-digestion
co-digestion ofof biowaste,
biowaste, manme
manure and and clean
clean organic
organic waste
waste from
from
food
food industry
industry is is advantageous
advantageous for for gas
gas production
production andand financial
financial feasibility.
feasibility. The
The operation
operation by by trained
trained
personnel
personnel is is of
of major
major importance,
importance, aa small
small usage
usage fee
fee may
may bebe necessary
necessary toto cover
cover costs.
costs. Gas
Gas usage
usage isis usually
usually
only
only accepted
accepted ifif there are not
there are not frequent shortages.
frequent shortages.
Concept
Concept X (End-ofpipe Treatment
X (End-ofpipe Treatment Plants
Plants or
or anaerobic
anaerobic treatment
treatment in
in UASB
VASB with
with Irrigation
Irrigation for
for Agriculture)
Agriculture)

In
In regions
regions without
without winter
winter climates
climates and
and with
with all
all year
year round
round growth
growth periods
periods concept
concept X X can
can be
be applied.
applied. In In
many
many cases
cases this
this can
can mean
mean thethe usage
usage of
of the
the effluent
effluent of
of an
an existing
existing treatment
treatment plant
plant without
without nutrient removal as
nutrient removal as
irrigation
irrigation water that carries
water that carries alsoalso fertiliser.
fertiliser. Hygienization
Hygienization of of the
the effluent
effluent oror crop
crop restrictions
restrictions will
will bebe
necessary.
necessary. Digested
Digested sludge
sludge cancan be
be used
used inin addition
addition provided
provided itit is
is not
not too
too polluted.
polluted. The
The sources for pollution
sources for pollution
are
are widespread in the mix-it-all concepts, as industrial wastewater can carry high loads of heavy metals
widespread in the mix-it-all concepts, as industrial wastewater can carry high loads of heavy metals andand
non-biodegradable
non-biodegradable organic organic chemicals.
chemicals. The The treatment
treatment according
according to to XX can
can also
also bebe done
done byby constructed
constructed
wetland
wetland as wastewater lagoons
as wastewater lagoons or or sandtilters
sandfilters with
with reed.
reed. The
The usage
usage of of lagoons
lagoons can
can provide
provide storage
storage in
in addition
addition
to treatment, too.
to treatment, too.
Usually
Usually the
the dilution
dilution of
of aa mixed
mixed wastewater
wastewater prohibits
prohibits the
the use
use of
of anaerobic
anaerobic treatment.
treatment. An exception is
An exception is the
the
UASB (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket) reactor, where solids have a much longer retention
UASB (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket) reactor, where solids have a much longer retention time than solu- time than solu-
ble substances (Zeeman and Lettinga, 1999). This technology can produce energy and can be much easier in
ble substances (Zeeman and Lettinga, 1999). This technology can produce energy and can be much easier in
operation
operation inin low
low income countries. This
income countries. This technology
technology can
can also
also play
play an
an important
important role
role in
in separating
separating sanitation
sanitation
systems.
systems.
The combination of treatment with agriculture has been applied with the system of energy forests
The combination of treatment with agriculture has been applied with the system of energy forests
(Hasselgren,
(Hasselgren, 1995). In cases
1995). In cases with
with winter
winter seasons
seasons there
there is
is aa lack
lack of
of treatment
treatment in
in Winter,
Winter, which
which might
might make
make
the combination with one of the above concepts advisable. Treatment combined with aquaculture is another
the combination with one of the above concepts advisable. Treatment combined with aquaculture is another
way (e.g Guterstam, 1991) that may be of advantage under special conditions - the large demand of space
way (e.g Guterstam, 1991) that may be of advantage under special conditions - the large demand of space
indicates usage rather in rural areas with warmer climates. For colder climates it can make a wonderful
indicates usage rather in rural areas with warmer climates. For colder climates it can make a wonderful
environment with aquariums in a greenhouse, however energy consumption can be rather high.
environment with aquariums in a greenhouse, however energy consumption can be rather high.
USAGE OF FERTILISER AND GREYWATER TREATMENT
USAGE OF FERTILISER AND GREYWATER TREATMENT
Fertiliser application has to make sure that hygienic aspects are respected. Furthermore the utilisation has to
Fertiliser application has to make sure that hygienic aspects are respected. Furthermore the utilisation has to
consider good agricultural practices in order to prevent an overload of nutrients. Area requirements may be
consider good agricultural practices in order to prevent an overload of nutrients. Area requirements may be
around 200 to 500 mz2 per person depending on the local soil quality and the respective crops. In order to
around 200 to 500 m per person depending on the local soil quality and the respective crops. In order to
take most care the reuse cycle for human nutrition should be prolonged for example by preference for indus-
take most care the reuse cycle for human nutrition should be prolonged for example by preference for indus-
trial crops. Composting provides with long-term fertiliser and soil improver while biogas-systems or aerobic
trial crops. Composting provides with long-term fertiliser and soil improver while biogas-systems or aerobic
wastewater treatment produces fertiliser that should be applied during the growth periods only. A seasonal
wastewater treatment produces fertiliser that should be applied during the growth periods only. A seasonal
storage will be necessary in climates with winter seasons. If a further dilution needs to be prevented a simple
storage will be necessary in climates with winter seasons. If a further dilution needs to be prevented a simple
cover should be built in humid regions. A higher concentration of the liquid fertilisers might be achieved by
cover should be built in humid regions. A higher concentration of the liquid fertilisers might be achieved by
floating reeds or other swamp plants put into the storage tank. The technical solution will be restricted
floating reeds or other swamp plants put into the storage tank. The technical solution will be restricted
mostly to reverse osmosis as usage of other membranes would result in losses of soluble substances.
mostly to reverse osmosis as usage of other membranes would result in losses of soluble substances.
The above concepts from I to IX are based on separate greywater treatment. Besides further usage of
The above concepts from I to IX are based on separate greywater treatment. Besides further usage of
existing treatment plants, activated sludge processes should be avoided. Due to the risk of a lack of nutrients
the sludgetreatment
existing plants, activated
may deteriorate and losesludge processesofshould
the capability be avoided.Sessile
floe-formation. Due tobiomass
the risksystems
of a lacklike
of nutrients
trickling
the sludge may deteriorate and lose the capability of floc-formation. Sessile biomass systems like trickling
filters, rotating disk or sandflilters (technical or as constructed wetland) can reuse nutrients released by lysis
filters,
of rotating
biomass anddisk or sandflilters
should (technical
be preferred. A veryor competitive
as constructed wetland)
option for can reuse nutrients
decentral greywater released by lysis
is constructed
of biomass
wetlands and form
in the should
of be preferred.
sandfilters A very
planted with competitive optionexperience
reeds. Extensive for decentral
with greywater is constructed
many different types of
wetlands in the form of sandfilters planted with reeds. Extensive experience with many different types of
160 R.
160 R. OTTERPOHL
OTIERPOHL etet al.
al.
construction
construction leaves
leaves mainly
mainly oneone principle:
principle: Vertical
Vertical filters
filters which
which areare fed
fed at
at intervals
intervals with
with aa water
water level
level at
at the
the
bottom.
bottom. These require less than 2m /person for greywater. Filter-material should not be too fine (e.g. sand 2-
These require less than 2mz/person
2 for greywater. Filter-material should not be too tine (e.g. sand 2-
88 mm)
mm) inin order
order to
to take
take up
up and
and mineralise
mineralise excess
excess sludge
sludge over
over 50 50 years.
years. After
After the
the filters
filters are
are filled
filled the
the sand
sand
they
they can
can be
be washed
washed andand refilled.
refilled. IfIf technical
technical plants
plants are
are chosen,
chosen, thethe warmth
warmth from
from greywater
greywater cancan bebe used
used with
with
heat pumps for warm water supply. Greywater can be treated relatively easily to a standard according to EC
heat pumps for warm water supply. Greywater can be treated relatively easily to a standard according to Ee
bathing water guidelines. This opens up many types of reuse, too.
bathing water guidelines. This opens up many types of reuse, too.
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